ABSTRACT Objective: The objective of the study was to determine how physicians in Brazil manage Graves’ disease in different scenarios including extrathyroidal manifestations. Materials and methods: This study was conducted via a digital survey. The respondents (n = 573) answered multiple-choice questions based on a clinical case and variations of the case regarding laboratory and imaging evaluation, treatment choice, and follow-up. Results: The preferred initial treatment chosen by 95% of the respondents was ATD with a preferred treatment duration of 18-24 months. For 5% of the respondents, RAI was the initial treatment of choice. None of the respondents chose thyroidectomy. When presented with a patient with a desire for pregnancy in the near future, most respondents (69%) opted for ATD as the initial treatment. For a patient with signs of mild to moderate Graves’ orbitopathy, ATD remained the initial therapy for 93.9% of the respondents. For patients initially treated with ATD with disease recurrence after ATD interruption, most respondents (60%) chose definitive treatment with RAI. A similar survey published in 2011 by Burch and cols. had results comparable to those of the present survey but with a higher proportion of respondents choosing RAI (45% in the 2011 survey versus 5% in the present survey). Conclusion: Brazilian endocrinologists choose ATD as the initial management of Graves’ disease, and most choose RAI as a definitive treatment for a patient with relapse after ATD therapy.

Key points Pregnancy places a metabolic overload on the maternal thyroid, especially in the first trimester, mainly because of the demand imposed by the conceptus. The fetal thyroid becomes functionally mature only around pregnancy week 20. Until then, the fetus depends on the transfer of maternal thyroid hormones (THs). Thyroid hormones are essential for the adequate fetal neurofunctional and cognitive development. Hypothyroidism brings higher risks of obstetric and fetal complications, namely, first-trimester miscarriage, preeclampsia and gestational hypertension, placental abruption, prematurity, low birth weight, and higher perinatal morbidity and mortality. Primary hypothyroidism (involvement of the gland with difficulty in producing and/or releasing TH) is the most common form of disease presentation, with the main etiology of Hashimoto's thyroiditis of autoimmune origin. In about 85%-90% of cases of Hashimoto's thyroiditis, antithyroid antibodies are present; the antithyroperoxidase (ATPO) is the most frequent. Positivity for ATPO is determined when circulating values exceed the upper limit of the laboratory reference. It implies greater risks of adverse maternal-fetal outcomes. Such a correlation occurs even in ranges of maternal euthyroidism. The critical point for the diagnosis of hypothyroidism during pregnancy is an elevation of thyroid-stimulating hormone (TSH). The measurement of free thyroxine (FT4) differentiates between subclinical and overt hypothyroidism. In subclinical hypothyroidism, FT4 is within the normal range, whereas in overt hypothyroidism, FT4 values are below the lower limit of the laboratory reference. Treatment of hypothyroidism is performed with levothyroxine (LT4) replacement with the aim of achieving adequate TSH levels for pregnancy. Some women have a previous diagnosis of hypothyroidism, and may or may not be compensated at the beginning of pregnancy. Even in compensated cases, the increase in LT4 dose is necessary as soon as possible. In the postpartum period, adjustment of the LT4 dose depends on the condition of previous disease, on the positivity for ATPO, and also on the value of LT4 in use at the end of pregnancy. Recommendations In places with full technical and financial conditions, TSH testing should be performed for all pregnant women (universal screening) as early as possible, ideally at the beginning of the first trimester or even in preconception planning. In places with less access to laboratory tests, screening is reserved for cases with greater risk factors for decompensation, namely: previous thyroidectomy or radioiodine therapy, type 1 diabetes mellitus or other autoimmune diseases, presence of goiter, previous history of hypo or hyperthyroidism or previous ATPO positivity. The TSH dosage should be repeated throughout pregnancy only in these cases. The diagnosis of hypothyroidism is made from the TSH value > 4.0 mIU/L. Pregnant women with previous hypothyroidism, overt hypothyroidism diagnosed during pregnancy or those with the above-mentioned higher risk factors for decompensation should be referred for risk antenatal care, preferably in conjunction with the endocrinologist. Overt hypothyroidism in pregnancy is identified when TSH > 10 mIU/L, and treatment with LT4 is readily recommended at an initial dose of 2 mcg/kg/day. TSH values > 4.0 mUI/L and ≤ 10.0 mUI/L require FT4 measurement with two diagnostic possibilities: overt hypothyroidism when FT4 levels are below the lower limit of the laboratory reference, or subclinical hypothyroidism when FT4 levels are normal. The treatment for subclinical hypothyroidism is LT4 at an initial dose of 1 mcg/kg/day, and the dose should be doubled upon diagnosis of overt hypothyroidism. In cases of TSH > 2.5 and ≤ 4.0 mIU/L, if there are complete conditions, ATPO should be measured. If positive (above the upper limit of normal), treatment with LT4 at a dose of 50 mcg/day is indicated. If conditions are not complete, the repetition of the TSH dosage should be done only for cases at higher risk. In these cases, treatment with LT4 will be established when TSH > 4.0 mIU/L at a dose of 1 mcg/kg/day; if needed, the dose can be adjusted after FT4 evaluation. Women with previous hypothyroidism should have their LT4 dose adjusted to achieve TSH < 2.5 mIU/L at preconception. As soon as they become pregnant, they need a 30% increase in LT4 as early as possible. In practice, they should double the usual dose on two days a week. Levothyroxine should be given 30-60 minutes before breakfast or three hours or more after the last meal. Concomitant intake with ferrous sulfate, calcium carbonate, aluminum hydroxide and sucralfate should be avoided. The target of LT4 therapy during pregnancy is to achieve a TSH value < 2.5 mIU/L. Once the therapy is started, monthly control must be performed until the mentioned goal is reached. In the postpartum period, women with previous disease should resume the preconception dose. Cases diagnosed during pregnancy in use of LT4 ≤ 50 mcg/day may have the medication suspended. The others should reduce the current dose by 25% to 50% and repeat the TSH measurement in six weeks. Cases of ATPO positivity are at higher risk of developing postpartum thyroiditis and de-escalation of LT4 should be performed as explained.

ABSTRACT In recent years the immunomodulatory actions of vitamin D, a steroid hormone, have been extensively studied. In 2020, due to the COVID-19 pandemic, the question arose as to 25(OH)D status would be related to susceptibility to SARS-CoV-2 infection, since several studies pointed out a higher prevalence and severity of the disease in populations with low levels of 25(OH)D. Thus, we investigated the 25(OH)D levels in adults “Detected” positive for SARS CoV-2 by RT-PCR (reverse transcriptase polymerase chain reaction) test, and in negative controls, “not Detected”, using the Fleury Group's examination database, in Sao Paulo, Brazil. Of a total of 14.692 people with recent assessments of 25(OH)D and RT-PCR tests for COVID-19, 2.345 were positive and 11.585 were negative for the infection. The groups did not differ in the percentage of men and women, or in the age distribution. There were no differences in the distribution of 25(OH)D between the two groups (p = 0.08); mean 25(OH)D of 28.8 ± 21.4 ng/mL and 29.6 ± 18.1 ng/mL, respectively. In the specific population studied, clinical, environmental, socioeconomic and cultural factors should have greater relevance than 25(OH)D in determining the susceptibility to COVID-19.

ABSTRACT Measuring thyroid hormones is an important aspect for the study of metabolism and for monitoring diseases in both human and animal models. The traditional method for hormone measurement in rats is the radioimmunoassay (RIA). However, the RIA is associated with some practical disadvantages, including the use of radioactive material, the need for specialized equipment and expert staff, the short shelf-life of kits according to the half-life of the radioisotope and high costs. The objective of this study was to develop a new cost-effective method for measuring TSH levels in rats that avoids the use of radioactive material. We developed an in-house competitive immunoassay using a reference standard, polyclonal antibody produced in rabbits and biotinylated antigen. This method was tested in 64 Wistar rats that were divided into a control group (n = 41) and a group with hypothyroidism (n = 23). Our assay demonstrated an analytical sensitivity of 0.24 ng/mL (n = 12) and an intra-assay coefficient of variation (CV) of 8.9% for sera with TSH levels of 1.5 ng/mL and 13.2% for sera with TSH levels of 17.5 ng/mL (n = 14). The inter-assay CV was 13.5% for sera with TSH levels of 1.4 ng/mL and 14.5% for TSH levels of 18.2 ng/mL (n = 5). The analysis of mean TSH levels in control rats (5.06 ± 0.5701) and hypothyroid rats (51.09 ± 5.136) revealed a statistically significant difference (p < 0.001) between the groups. This method showed good sensitivity, can be automated and is low-cost compared with RIA. Our method offers a viable alternative for TSH measurement in rats.

Canais iônicos auxiliam diferentes funções celulares, principalmente na transdução de sinal. Nas células endócrinas, esses canais têm funções importantes na secreção hormonal, sinalização do Ca2+, transporte transepitelial, regulação da motilidade, volume e conteúdo iônico celular e da acidificação do compartimento lisossomal (pH). Como esperado, as alterações nos canais iônicos podem causar distúrbios endocrinológicos, como pseudo-hipoaldosteronismo tipo 1, síndrome de Liddle, síndrome de Bartter, hipoglicemia hiperinsulinêmica da infância, diabetes melito neonatal, fibrose cística, doença de Dent, hipomagnesemia com hipocalcemia secundária, diabetes insípido nefrogênico e paralisia periódica tirotóxica hipocalêmica. Este artigo propõe uma breve revisão das canalopatias endócrinas conhecidas, com foco particular nos recentes progressos no conhecimento dos mecanismos fisiopatológicos adquirido a partir das alterações funcionais encontradas.

Ion channels serve diverse cellular functions, mainly in cell signal transduction. In endocrine cells, these channels play a major role in hormonal secretion, Ca2+-mediated cell signaling, transepithelial transport, cell motility and growth, volume regulation and cellular ionic content and acidification of lysosomal compartments. Ion channel dysfunction can cause endocrine disorders or endocrine-related manifestations, such as pseudohypoaldosteronism type 1, Liddle syndrome, Bartter syndrome, persistent hyperinsulinemic hypoglycemia of infancy, neonatal diabetes mellitus, cystic fibrosis, Dent's disease, hypomagnesemia with secondary hipocalcemia, nephrogenic diabetes insipidus and, the most recently genetically identified channelopathy, thyrotoxic hypokalemic periodic paralysis. This review briefly recapitulates the membrane action potential in endocrine cells and offers a short overview of known endocrine channelopathies with focus on recent progress regarding the pathophysiological mechanisms and functional genetic defects.

Com a introdução da ultra-sonografia cervical (USC) no seguimento dos pacientes com carcinoma papilífero de tiróide (CPT), tornou-se freqüente o encontro de pequenos linfonodos (LNs) cervicais. Porém, apesar de a USC apresentar alta sensibilidade, o estudo citológico obtido por punção aspirativa (PAAF) e, nos últimos anos, a dosagem da tiroglobulina (Tg) no lavado da agulha da PAAF (Tg-PAAF) vêm assumindo papel importante no diagnóstico de LNs cervicais. O objetivo deste estudo é verificar a acurácia da combinação da USC, citologia e Tg-PAAF em LNs suspeitos. Estudamos 32 pacientes que apresentavam 44 LNs à USC, classificados como "inflamatórios" (19) ou "suspeitos" (25). Dos 25 LNs suspeitos, 15 apresentavam Tg-PAAF elevada (13 com citologia compatível com metástases e 2 com citologia não-diagnóstica). Esses 15 LNs (11 pacientes) foram confirmados como metástase de CP pelo exame histopatológico. Os 19 LNs "inflamatórios" e os 10/25 LNs "suspeitos" apresentaram citologia negativa e Tg-PAAF indetectável. Concluímos que a USC apresenta alta sensibilidade na detecção de linfonodos cervicais, porém citologia e dosagem de Tg-PAAF são fundamentais para o diagnóstico. A associação USC, citologia e Tg-PAAF pode ser considerada a abordagem mais sensível e específica na detecção de LNs metastáticos em pacientes com CPT.

The widespread use of neck ultrasonography (US) during the follow-up of patients with papillary thyroid carcinoma (PTC) has led to the discovery of small cervical lymph nodes (LN). Although US has a high sensitivity for diagnosing LN, fine needle aspiration biopsy (FNA) and measurement of thyroglobulin in fine needle aspirates (FNA-Tg) have proven to be invaluable tools. The aim of this study is to determine the sensitivity of the combined use of neck US, FNA biopsy and FNA-Tg for diagnosis of cervical lymph nodes. We have studied 32 patients with 44 LN detected by US, 19 classified as inflammatory and 25 as suspicious. 15 of those 25 suspicious LN had high FNA-Tg (13 of the 15 had positive cytology and 2 indeterminate). All of these 15 LN (11 patients) were proven to be PTC metastasis by histopathology. All 19 inflammatory LN and those 10/25 suspicious LN, had cytology negative for malignancy and undetectable FNA-Tg. We conclude that fine needle aspiration biopsy and FNA-Tg combined with neck US are essential for detecting positive cervical lymph nodes due to its high sensitivity and specificity and it should be considered the standard for investigating locally recurrent disease in patients with PTC.

A paralisia periódica hipocalêmica tirotóxica (PPHT) é uma emergência médica caracterizada por ataques agudos de fraqueza muscular, hipocalemia e tirotoxicose, que desaparece com o tratamento do hipertiroidismo. As crises de paralisia são transitórias, auto-limitadas, associadas com hipocalemia e similares àquelas da paralisia periódica hipocalêmica familiar (PPHF), doença neurológica autossômica dominante. Este estudo descreve o quadro clínico e achados genéticos de 25 pacientes brasileiros com PPHT. A maioria dos pacientes apresentava perda de peso, taquicardia, bócio, tremores e oftalmopatia. Os ataques ocorreram, em sua maioria, durante a noite e tiveram recuperação espontânea, apesar de alguns pacientes evoluírem para quadriplegia e arritmias cardíacas. Todos apresentaram TSH suprimido e T4 elevado, e a maioria anticorpos positivos, indicando etiologia auto-imune. O potássio estava baixo em todos durante a crise. A terapêutica profilática com potássio não preveniu os ataques, mas foi útil para diminuir a força da paralisia durante as crises. Identificamos a mutação R83H no gene KCNE3 num caso esporádico e a mutação M58V no gene KCNE4 numa família com PPHT. Além disso, identificamos polimorfismos nos genes CACNA1S, SCN4A, KCNE1, KCNE2, KCNE1L, KCNJ2, KCNJ8 e KCNJ11. Concluímos que a PPHT é a causa mais comum tratável de paralisia periódica adquirida e deve ser lembrada em casos de fraqueza muscular em pacientes jovens.

Thyrotoxic hypokalemic periodic paralysis (THPP) is a medical emergency characterized by acute attacks of weakness, hypokalemia, and thyrotoxicosis that resolve with the treatment of hyperthyroidism. Attacks are transient, self-limited, associated with hypokalemia and resemble those of familial hypokalemic periodic paralysis (FHPP), an autossomal dominant neurological channelopathy. This study reviews the clinical features and genetic findings of THPP in 25 Brazilian patients. Most patients had weight loss, taquicardia, goiter, tremor, and ophthalmopathy. Most often attacks arose during the night and recovered spontaneously but some patients evolved to total quadriplegia, and few experienced cardiac arrhythmias. All patients had suppressed TSH and elevated T4 and most had positive anti-thyroid antibodies, indicating autoimmunity thyrotoxic etiology. Potassium was low in all patients during the crisis. Prophylactic potassium therapy has not been shown to prevent attacks; however it was useful for curbing the paralysis during the crisis. We identified the mutation R83H in the KCNE3 gene in one sporadic case, and M58V in the KCNE4 gene in one case with family history. Furthermore, we identified other genetic polymorphisms in the CACNA1S, SCN4A, KCNE1, KCNE2, KCNE1L, KCNJ2, KCNJ8 e KCNJ11 genes. We conclude that THPP is the most common treatable cause of acquired periodic paralysis; therefore, it must be included in the differential diagnosis of acute muscle weakness.