Abstract Galicia, an autonomous community and historic nationality of Spain, has linguistic and cultural, as well as social and economic links with Portugal and Brazil. But what is its legal relationship with the Portuguese-speaking states as a whole? This question arises because of the maturity of the international Portuguese-speaking organisation, the Community of Portuguese Language Countries, or CPLP, and its international attractiveness. What opportunities does Galicia have to join this organisation? Can the CPLP, as a structure, integrate in its organisation a sub-national entity, as is the case for Galicia? What are the points of contact between the law of the Portuguese-speaking countries and Galicia? Finally, what is Galicia's interest in joining the 'Lusophony'? While Galicia has indeed developed political, cultural and legal relations with the CPLP, it is doubtful whether a genuine common legal culture is emerging, either within the CPLP, or between Galicia and the Portuguese-speaking states.

Résumé La Galice, communauté autonome et nationalité historique de l’Espagne, entretient des liens linguistiques et culturels, mais aussi sociaux et économiques, avec le Portugal et avec le Brésil. Mais quelle est sa relation juridique avec les États de langue portugaise dans leur ensemble ? La question se pose du fait de la maturité que l’organisation internationale lusophone, la Communauté des Pays de Langue Portugaise, ou CPLP, a acquis, et de son attractivité internationale. Quelles sont les possibilités, pour la Galice, de s’associer à cette organisation? La CPLP, en tant que structure, peut-elle intégrer dans son organisation une entité infranational comme c’est le cas de la Galice ? Par ailleurs, quels sont les points de contacts entre les droits de ces pays lusophones et la Galice? Enfin, quel intérêt a la Galice à s’associer à la « lusophonie »? Si la Galice a effectivement développé des relations politiques, culturelles et juridiques avec la CPLP, on peut cependant douter qu’une véritable culture juridique commune soit en train d’émerger, aussi bien au sein de la CPLP qu’entre la Galice et les États de langue portugaise.

Résumé La pandémie de COVID-19, qui a montré la vulnérabilité de tous les peuples face à la maladie, a également contribué à mettre en évidence des inégalités entre divers groupes sociétaux au sein des populations nationales. La situation des minorités ethniques est à cet égard paradigmatique. Les groupes minoritaires déjà marginalisés ont été confrontés à un isolement encore plus radical que d'habitude face aux sombres réalités des soins de santé et de la protection sociale. C'est le cas des situations étudiées: celle des Guarani, au Brésil, celle des Mapuches, au Chili, et celle des Tsáchilas de l’Équateur. À l’aide de la méthode de la comparaison structurée et ciblée, cette contribution met en évidence les liens entre les problèmes sociaux et sanitaires rencontrés par ces groupes minoritaires, d’une part, et d’autre part l'existence de facteurs de discrimination passés ou actuels. Par ailleurs, elle souligne les possibilités de mettre en pratique des mesures d'équité en termes de droits, et plus particulièrement en ce qui concerne le droit quant à l’accès aux soins et à la santé.

Abstract The COVID-19 pandemic, having revealed the vulnerability of all peoples to the disease, has also contributed to highlighting inequalities of various societal groups within national populations. The situation of ethnic minorities is, in this respect, paradigmatic. Already marginalized minority groups have been faced with even more extreme isolation than usual when faced with the gloomy realities of healthcare and social protection. This is the case in the situations studied here: the Guarani in Brazil, the Mapuche in Chile, and the Tsáchila in Ecuador. Using the method of structured and focused comparison, this article highlights the links between the social and health problems experienced by the minority groups in question, on the one hand, and the existence of past or current factors of discrimination, on the other hand. It also underlines the possibilities of putting into practice measures of equity in terms of rights, and more specifically, with regard to the right to access to healthcare and social services.

Abstract The SARS-CoV-2 pandemic has profoundly disrupted the way university teachers work, and the way students study. Distance learning has brought pedagogical solutions, but the experience of a year and a half has shown that e-learning has its own characteristics, and that its contribution should be questioned. This questioning is posed in relation to law teaching at university level, through the analysis and reflections of two teachers and two students, in two European universities (in Porto and in Budapest). The article addresses the theoretical and practical questions raised: what are the ways to ensure a practical preparation of students by distance? Are hybrid regimes better than full e-learning regimes? Finally, can this type of teaching cause the loss of the intrinsic qualities of law studies, even though legal education is one of the pillars of democracy?

Résumé La pandémie de SARS-CoV-2 a perturbé profondément la façon dont les enseignants universitaires travaillent, et la façon dont les étudiants étudient. L’enseignement en distanciel a apporté avec lui des solutions pédagogiques, mais l’expérience d’une année et demie a démontré que le e-learning a des caractéristiques propres, et il faut s’interroger sur ses apports. Cette interrogation est posée à propos de l’enseignement universitaire du droit, à travers l’analyse et les réflexions de deux enseignants et de deux étudiants, au sein de deux universités européennes (à Porto et à Budapest). L’article aborde les questions théoriques et pratiques posées : quelles sont les façons d’assurer une préparation pratique des étudiants à distance ? Les régimes hybrides sont-ils meilleurs que les régimes entièrement à distance ? Enfin, ce type d’enseignement peut-il faire perdre à l’enseignement juridique ses qualités intrinsèques, alors même qu’elle constitue l’un des piliers de la démocratie ?

Abstract Populism is by no means a legal term, and its conceptual matrix is unclear. Nevertheless, it remains a challenge for Public law, as populist trends challenge the notion of the rule of law and the formal mechanisms for the protection of fundamental rights. The European context illustrates this challenge. In this context, this contribution addresses three points: first, in general terms, the concept of populism is considered in its potential contacts with Public law issues; second, the cases of Poland and Hungary over the last decade are developed, highlighting their contexts and the way in which political and legal institutions, and more specifically constitutional courts, have been able to respond to populist trends. Finally, a concluding point discusses the lessons that can be drawn from these European cases, not only with regard to Poland and Hungary, but more broadly at the European and international levels. The article permits to identify the shortcomings of the instruments for the protection of fundamental rights, which are also the shortcomings of a still incomplete European Public law.

Résumé Le populisme n’est nullement un terme juridique, et sa matrice conceptuelle est floue. Il n’en demeure pas moins un défi pour le droit public, dans la mesure où les tendances populistes mettent en cause la notion d’État de droit et les mécanismes formels de protection des droits fondamentaux. Le contexte européen illustre ce défi. Dans ce contexte, cette contribution aborde trois points: d’abord, de façon générale, le concept de populisme est envisagé dans ses contacts potentiels avec les thèmes du droit public; ensuite, le cas de la Pologne et celui de la Hongrie, depuis la dernière décennie, sont développés, en soulignant leurs contextes et la façon dont les institutions politiques et juridiques, et plus spécifiquement les cours constitutionnelles, ont pu répondre aux tendances populistes. Enfin, un point de conclusion aborde les leçons qui peuvent être extraites de ces cas européens, non seulement en ce qui concerne la Pologne et la Hongrie, mais plus largement au plan européen et international. L’article permet de relever les lacunes des instruments de protection des droits fondamentaux, qui sont aussi les lacunes d’un droit public européen encore inachevé.

Resumo O funcionamento de um sistema educacional e sua imagem são influenciados por vários fatores, como a regulação legal, o sistema institucional, as formas de financiamento ou a execução de direitos e obrigações. Este estudo tenta dar ao leitor uma visão geral de alguns elementos das relações educacionais na Hungria, e da forma como moldou seu sistema educacional no meio das suas tradições e das expectativas internacionais. Devido às limitações do seu escopo, o artigo não irá concentrar-se sobre todos os fatores e contextos dos direitos educacionais, e o quadro que descreve está longe de ser completo. A primeira parte do artigo apresenta uma visão geral da formação educacional na Hungria. A segunda parte analisa uma série de direitos e obrigações educativas, para examinar aqueles que são mais característicos e refletem mais de perto as condições educacionais na Hungria. A última parte do artigo centra-se num mecanismo específico de proteção jurídica educativa, o Comissário pelos Direitos Educativos.

Abstract The operation of an educational system and its image are influenced by several factors, such as legal regulation, institutional system, forms of financing or enforcement of rights and obligations. The study attempts to give the reader an overview of some elements of educational relations in Hungary, and on the way it has shaped its Education system in the midst of its traditions and of the international expectations. Because of the scope limitations, the paper shall not focus on all the factors and contexts of Education rights, so the picture that it describes is far from complete. The first part of the article presents an overview of the educational background in Hungary. The second part looks at a range of educational rights and obligations, in order to examine those that are most characteristic and most closely reflect the educational conditions in Hungary. The last part of the article focuses on a specific educational legal protection mechanism, the Commissioner for Educational Rights.

Resumen El funcionamiento de un sistema educativo y su imagen están influenciados por varios factores, como la regulación legal, el sistema institucional, las formas de financiación o la ejecución de derechos y obligaciones. Este estudio trata de dar al lector una visión general de algunos elementos de las relaciones educativas en Hungría, y cómo el país dio forma a su sistema educativo en medio de sus tradiciones y expectativas internacionales. Debido a las limitaciones de su alcance, el artículo no se centrará en todos los factores y contextos de los derechos educativos, y la imagen que describe está lejos de estar completa. La primera parte del artículo presenta una visión general de la formación educativa en Hungría. La segunda parte examina una serie de derechos y obligaciones educativas, con el fin de examinar los más característicos y reflejar más estrechamente las condiciones educativas en Hungría. La última parte del artículo se centra en un mecanismo específico de protección jurídica educativa, el Comisionado para los Derechos Educativos.

Resumo O estudo problematiza a configuração da pobreza infantil nos contextos contemporâneos, colocando a infância em situação humanitária, dos quais advêm múltiplas demandas educativas. A análise se inscreve na abordagem qualitativa, integrando elementos bibliográficos e documentais ao estudo empírico realizado em quatro países da América Latina, nos quais os sujeitos foram ouvidos em entrevistas individuais. Na discussão, a argumentação situa a configuração da pobreza infantil nos âmbitos econômico e político, considerando as faces da desigualdade e da exclusão social em cotidianos infantis eivados pelos riscos e violências característicos das novíssimas guerras. Tal contexto insere as crianças em situação de necessidades humanitárias. Assim, esforços educativos intersetoriais são demandados para superação da pobreza infantil que se produz e reproduz em discursos e práticas que se valem da distorção de argumentos culturais para justificar interesses políticos e econômicos excludentes.

Abstract This study problematizes the configuration of child poverty in contemporary contexts, placing childhood in a humanitarian situation, implying multiple educational demands. The analysis, based on the qualitative approach, integrates bibliographical and documental sources to empirical data from four Latin American countries, where subjects were heard in individual interviews. In the discussion, the argument places the configuration of child poverty in the economic and political spheres, in the face of inequality and social exclusion, in children’s daily lives, permeated by the risks and violence characteristic of the newest wars. This context put children in situations of humanitarian needs. Thus, intersectoral educational efforts are demanded to overcome child poverty, which is produced and reproduced in distorted discourses on the basis of cultural arguments to justify political and economic interests.

Resumen El estudio problematiza la configuración de la pobreza infantil en los contextos contemporáneos, situando a la infancia en situación humanitaria, de la cual vienen múltiples demandas educativas. El análisis es parte del enfoque cualitativo, integrando elementos bibliográficos y documentales al estudio empírico realizado en cuatro países de América Latina, en el cual los sujetos fueron escuchados en entrevistas individuales. En la discusión, el argumento coloca la configuración de la pobreza infantil en los dominios económico y político, considerando los rostros de la desigual y de la exclusión social, en la vida cotidiana de los niños rodeados por los riesgos y las violencias característicos de las nuevísimas guerras. Este contexto coloca a los niños en situaciones de necesidades humanitarias. Por lo tanto, se requieren esfuerzos educativos intersectoriales para superar la pobreza infantil que se produce y reproduce en discursos y prácticas que utilizan la distorsión de los argumentos culturales para justificar la exclusión de intereses políticos y económicos.

Abstract The Community of Portuguese Speaking Countries, an international organization currently composed of nine Member States, is a relatively unknown player outside diplomatic circles. However, it is supposed to have a role as regards social issues, such as children's rights. The position of this organization on this issue, and on the legal framework of child rights in its Member States and at international level, is approached from three perspectives: institutional, constitutional and international. The analysis of the organization’s internal institutional documents is completed by a comparative study of the different Constitutions of its Member States and of their provisions on children's rights. The study of international standards completes the research, highlighting, State by State, the actual level of ratifications. This leads to a conclusion that underlines the fragility, if not the lack of will, of the Community of Portuguese Speaking Countries and of its Member States to move towards a strong and effective legal protection of the rights of the child.

Résumé La Communauté des Pays de Langue Portugaise, organisation internationale composée actuellement de neuf États membres, est un acteur relativement méconnu hors des cercles diplomatiques. Elle a pourtant vocation à jouer un rôle dans les questions sociales, comme celle des droits de l’enfant. La position de cette organisation sur cette question, et sur l’encadrement juridique de l’enfance dans ses États membres et au plan international, est abordée à travers une triple perspective : institutionnelle, constitutionnelle, et internationale. L’analyse des documents institutionnels internes de l’organisation est complétée par une étude comparée des différentes Constitutions de ses États membres, et de leurs dispositions se rapportant aux droits de l’enfant. L’examen des normes internationales parachève l’étude, en soulignant, État par État, le niveau effectif de ratifications. On arrive ainsi à une conclusion qui fait ressortir les fragilités, voire le peu d’enclin, de la Communauté des Pays de Langue Portugaise et de ses États membres à avancer vers une protection juridique forte et efficace des droits de l’enfant.

Resumo Este artigo propõe uma visão crítica das estratégias educacionais não formais levadas a efeito sobretudo em Dar es Salaam, Tanzânia, por quatro organizações não governamentais, a fim de prover a educação em sexualidade junto de meninas de 12–16 anos e sublinhando o papel da sociedade civil em mudar o conservadorismo das escolas. O estudo revelou tendências de que tais comportamentos e fatos estão estreitamente relacionados à reprodução intencional ou não a relações de poder, significados sociais, códigos morais, estigmas e silêncio sobre a sexualidade e a saúde sexual das meninas adolescentes por parte de instituições-chave. Assim, os comportamentos sexuais delas são ocultados e ignorados. Como as escolas se recusam a desenvolver currículos para a vida, as ONGs ocupam seu lugar com a educação não formal.

Abstract This article proposes a critical look at the non-formal education strategies, which have been conducted mainly in Dar es Salaam, Tanzania, by four non-governmental organizations, in order to provide sexual education to girls between the ages of 12 and 16, showing the role played by the civil society in contradicting the school conservatism. Clear trends emerged from this study to indicate that sexual risky behaviours, unintended pregnancies, and HIV transmission among adolescent girls are closely related to intentional as well as unintentional reproduction of the power relations, social meanings, moral codes, stigma and silence attached to adolescents, their sexuality and sexual health within key institutions. As a result, their sexual behaviours are hidden and ignored. As schools do not develop curricula for life, NGOs play their role by means of non-formal education.

Resumen Este artículo propone uma visión crítica de las estrategias educativas no formales usadas por cuatro organizaciones no gubernamentales en Dar es Salaam, Tanzania, con niñas de 12 a 16 años, mostrando el papel desarrollado por la sociedad civil para cambiar el conservadurismo de la escuela. El estudio reveló que tales comportamientos, embarazos y transmisión de HIVVIH están estrechamente relacionados a la reproducción intencional, o no, por instituciones clave, de relaciones de poder, significaciones sociales, códigos morales, estigmas y al silencio que cubre la sexualidad así como la salud sexual de las niñas. Como consecuencia, sus conductas sexuales son ocultadas y ignorados. Como las escuelas no desarrollan planes de estudios para la vida, as ONGs actúan pora través de la educación no formal.

A amplitude internacional das violências nas escolas tem levado à presença cada vez maior dos policiais nos estabelecimentos de ensino. Este trabalho analisa as pontes entre escola e polícia no Brasil, Portugal e França, em tempos de crise institucional da chamada pós-modernidade. Neste cotejo verifica-se que tais relações correspondem ao quadro constitucional e administrativo de cada país, sendo as normas reinterpretadas na realidade social, afastando-se com frequência do tipo ideal burocrático. Nesta dinâmica, se verificam arriscados desvios e superposições de papéis de educadores e agentes. Diversos projetos têm buscado, com maior ou menor sucesso, superar a distância entre policiais e jovens, cujos papéis sociais e aparências os opõem sob a lente de estereótipos, em parte fundamentados em fatos. Propõem-se rumos para novas pesquisas.

School and police in three countries: new wine into old wineskins or the crisis of the institutions. The international spread of school violence has led to the increasing participation of police agents in its premises. This paper analyses the bridges built between school and police in Brazil, Portugal and France, in the so called institutional crisis of post-modernity. The comparison among these countries reveals that these relations develop in the constitutional and public managerial framework of each one. However, laws and regulations are reinterpreted in the social reality, often generating differences in relation to the bureaucracy's ideal type. In this dynamic, we found significant deviations and role overlapping of educators and agents. Several projects have aimed to overcome the gap between police agents and youths, since their roles and appearances oppose themselves reciprocally, according to stereotypes not seldom founded on facts. We propose issues for further research.

La expansión internacional de la violencia escolar ha llevado la presencia policial a los establecimientos educativos y está aumentando cada vez más. Este trabajo analiza puentes construidos entre escuela y policía en Brasil, Portugal y Francia en tiempos de la llamada crisis institucional postmoderna. Se verifica que tales relaciones se desarrollan según cuadros constitucionales y de acuerdo con la administración pública de cada país, y las normas se reinterpretan en la realidad social, lo que lleva a un alejamiento del tipo ideal burocrático. En esta dinámica se detectan significativos desvíos y superposiciones de los roles de agentes y educadores. Varios proyectos han buscado superar el hiato entre policiales y jóvenes, ya que sus roles y apariencias se oponen, de acuerdo con estereotipos, a menudo, fundamentados en hechos. Se proponen cuestiones para ulterior investigación.