A doença coronária e o acidente vascular cerebral isquêmico são condições frequentemente associadas, que compartilham fatores de risco e representam grande sobrecarga à saúde mundial. Embora seja claramente reconhecida a relação entre a doença coronária sintomática ou assintomática e a aterosclerose da artéria carótida interna em sua porção extracraniana, há uma lacuna no conhecimento sobre a associação entre doença coronária e aterosclerose intracraniana, que por sua vez é associada a alto risco de recorrência de acidente vascular cerebral isquêmico e de morte por causas vasculares. é necessário avaliar se o diagnóstico precoce da doença coronária assintomática e seu tratamento agressivo podem diminuir o risco de morte por causas vasculares em pacientes com acidente vascular cerebral isquêmico ocasionado por aterosclerose intracraniana.

Coronary heart disease and ischemic stroke are frequent coexistent conditions that share risk factors and pose major burdens to global health. Even though a clear relation has been established between extracranial internal carotid artery atherosclerosis and symptomatic or asymptomatic coronary heart disease, there is a gap in knowledge about the association between intracranial atherosclerosis and coronary heart disease. Intracranial atherosclerosis is associated with high risks of stroke recurrence and vascular death. More research and clinical trials are needed to answer whether early diagnosis of asymptomatic coronary heart disease and aggressive treatment can decrease the risk of vascular death in patients with ischemic stroke caused by intracranial atherosclerosis.

RESUMO A depressão e o déficit cognitivo são frequentes após o acidente vascular cerebral. A relação entre as duas condições é complexa e não tem sido suficientemente elucidada. Objetivo: Fazer uma revisão da relação entre a depressão pós-AVC e prejuízo cognitivo. Métodos: Foi realizada uma pesquisa no banco de dados PubMed nos últimos dez anos. Nosso foco foi estudos quantitativos originais que investigaram a relação entre depressão e comprometimento cognitivo em pacientes com AVC. Os termos depressão, disfunção cognitiva, comprometimento cognitivo e testes neuropsicológicos foram usados para pesquisa. Foram considerados artigos publicados em Inglês, Espanhol, Italiano e Português. Os critérios de seleção foram o uso de testes neuropsicológicos para avaliar a função cognitiva com também o uso de instrumentos para diagnosticar a depressão maior ou escalas para avaliar sintomas depressivos nos primeiros três meses após o AVC. Resultados: Seis estudos quantitativos originais preencheram os critérios de seleção. A prevalência de depressão pós-AVC nos primeiros três meses após o AVC variou de 22% a 31%. A incidência de depressão pós-AVC variou de 25% a 27% e foi avaliada apenas em dois estudos. A depressão pós-AVC esteve associada com comprometimento cognitivo mais acentuado. Disfunção cognitiva pós-AVC foi relatada em 35,2% a 87% dos pacientes. Déficits cognitivos pós-AVC foram encontrados principalmente em função executiva, memória, linguagem e velocidade de processamento. Conclusão: A disfunção executiva e a depressão ocorrem em pacientes de AVC, sendo frequentemente concomitantes e associadas a um pior prognóstico. Os profissionais de saúde devem diagnosticar e fornecer um tratamento adequado para a depressão e disfunção executiva nos primeiros três meses após o AVC. Mais estudos devem avaliar a efetividade de programas de detecção precoce e tratamento da depressão e disfunção executiva pós-AVC.

ABSTRACT The relationship between depression and cognitive impairment, frequent after stroke, is complex and has not been sufficiently elucidated. Objective: To review the relationship between post-stroke depression and cognitive impairment. Methods: We performed a PubMed database search spanning the last ten years, using the terms post-stroke depression, cognitive dysfunction, cognitive impairment and neuropsychological tests. Our target studies were original quantitative studies that investigated the relationship between post-stroke depression (PSD) and cognitive impairment in stroke patients. Articles published in English, Spanish, Italian and Portuguese were considered. Selection criteria were the use of neuropsychological tests to assess cognitive function, and of either instruments to diagnose major depression, or scales to assess depressive symptoms, within the first three months after stroke. Results: Six original quantitative studies fulfilled the criteria. The prevalence of PSD within the first three months after stroke ranged from 22% to 31%. Incidence ranged from 25% to 27% and was evaluated in only two studies. PSD was associated with increased cognitive impairment. Cognitive impairment was reported in 35.2% to 87% of the patients. Post-stroke cognitive deficits were reported mostly in executive function, memory, language, and speed of processing. Conclusion: Executive dysfunction and depression occur in stroke survivors, are frequently coexistent, and also associated with worse stroke prognosis. Healthcare professionals need to address and provide adequate treatment for depression and executive dysfunctions in stroke patients early in the first three months after stroke. Future studies should evaluate the efficacy of programs evaluating the early detection and treatment of PSD and executive dysfunction in stroke survivors.

OBJECTIVE: Impairments in balance can be a consequence of changes in the motor, sensory, and integrative aspects of motor control. Abnormal sensory reweighting, i.e., the ability to select the most appropriate sensory information to achieve postural stability, may contribute to balance impairment. The Sensory Organization Test is a component of Computerized Dynamic Posturography that evaluates the impact of visual, vestibular, and somatosensory inputs, as well as sensory reweighting, under conditions of sensory conflict. The aim of this study is to compare balance control in hemiparetic patients during the first year post-stroke and in age-matched neurologically normal subjects using the Berg Balance Scale and Computerized Dynamic Posturography. METHODS: We compared the Berg Balance Scale and Sensory Organization Test scores in 21 patients with hemiparesis after first-ever ischemic stroke and in 21 age-matched, neurologically normal subjects. An equilibrium score was defined for each Sensory Organization Test condition. RESULTS: Berg Balance Scale scores were significantly lower in the patients than in the neurologically normal subjects. Equilibrium scores were significantly lower in the patients than in the neurologically normal subjects for those Sensory Organization Test conditions that did not provide appropriate somatosensory information and under conditions of sensory conflict. A history of falls was more frequent in patients with lower equilibrium scores. CONCLUSION: During the first year after a stroke, defective sensory reweighting significantly impacts balance control in hemiparetic patients. These results are important for the planning of effective rehabilitation interventions.

OBJETIVOS: Avaliar as propriedades psicométricas da versão em Português do teste de Jebsen-Taylor (TJT) em pacientes com acidente vascular encefálico (AVE). MÉTODOS: Quarenta pacientes com AVEs em hemisférios cerebrais foram filmados enquanto realizaram o TJT. A pontuação no teste é definida pelo tempo de execução de tarefas motoras. Duas fisioterapeutas avaliaram o desempenho dos pacientes. Por meio das análises dos vídeos, foram determinadas as confiabilidades intra e interexaminador, pelos coeficientes de correlação intraclasse (CCI). O alfa de Crobach e o coeficiente de correlação de Pearson (r) foram utilizados para medir a consistência interna da escala. Foram avaliados os efeitos de dominância manual e escolaridade sobre a pontuação no TJT. RESULTADOS: Houve excelentes correlações interexaminador (CCI=1,0; intervalo de confiança, 1,0-1,0) e intraexaminador (CCI=0,997; intervalo de confiança, 0,995-0,998). Na avaliação da consistência interna, o alfa de Cronbach total foi 0,924. O item "escrever uma frase" teve consistência menor que os demais itens (Cronbach's alpha=0,884). O coeficiente de correlação de Pearson (item - total da escala) foi mais baixo para o item "objetos pequenos" (r=0,657). Não houve efeitos significativos de dominância manual ou escolaridade, sobre a pontuação no TJT. CONCLUSÕES: As confiabilidades interexaminador e intraexaminador foram excelentes, assim como a consistência interna da versão em Português do TJT em pacientes com AVE, avaliada por meio de vídeos. Essas são informações importantes para o planejamento de protocolos de reabilitação voltados para a melhora da função do membro superior em pacientes com AVE.

OBJECTIVES: To evaluate the psychometric properties of the Portuguese version of the Jebsen-Taylor Test (JTT) in patients with stroke. METHODS: Forty participants who suffered a stroke in the cerebral hemisphere were videotaped while performing the JTT. Scores were defined by the time taken to perform the tasks, and two physical therapists evaluated the performance of the participants. Intra- and inter-rater reliability was defined by intraclass correlation coefficients (ICC) through videotape analysis. Cronbach's alpha and Pearson's correlation coefficient (r) were used to measure the internal consistency of the scale. Confidence intervals (CI) were calculated, and the influence of handedness and educational level on the JTT scores was evaluated. RESULTS: Inter-rater (ICC = 1.0; CI, 1.0-1.0) and intra-rater reliabilities (ICC=0.997; CI, 0.995-0.998) were excellent. Regarding internal consistency, Cronbach's α was 0.924. The item "writing a sentence" was less consistent than the other items (Cronbach's alpha=0.884). Pearson's r (item score - total score) was lower for the item "small objects" (r=0.657). There was no significant influence of handedness or educational level on the JTT scores. CONCLUSIONS: Videotaping test performances can be a useful tool in multicenter studies if inter-rater reliability is appropriate. The inter- and intra-rater reliabilities of the Portuguese version of the JTT were excellent in patients with stroke. The JTT can be a valuable tool for evaluating dexterity in research protocols aiming at efficacy of rehabilitation interventions.

INTRODUCTION: Somatosensory stimulation of the paretic upper limb enhances motor performance and excitability in the affected hemisphere, and increases activity in the unaffected hemisphere, in chronic stroke patients. We tested the hypothesis that somatosensory stimulation of the paretic hand would lead to changes in excitability of the unaffected hemisphere in these patients, and we investigated the relation between motor function of the paretic hand and excitability of the unaffected hemisphere. METHODS: Transcranial magnetic stimulation was administered to the unaffected hemisphere of nine chronic stroke patients. Patients were submitted to 2-h somatosensory stimulation in the form of median nerve stimulation and control stimulation using a cross-over design. Baseline Jebsen-Taylor test scores were evaluated. Resting motor threshold, intracortical facilitation, short-interval intracortical inhibition, and visual analog scores for attention, fatigue and drowsiness were measured across conditions. RESULTS: Better pre-stimulation baseline motor function was correlated with deeper SICI in the unaffected hemisphere. We found no overt changes in any physiological marker after somatosensory stimulation. There was increased drowsiness in the control session, which may have led to changes in intracortical facilitation. CONCLUSIONS: Our results do not support an overt effect of a single session of somatosensory stimulation of the paretic hand on motor cortical excitability of the unaffected hemisphere as measured by motor threshold, short-interval intracortical inhibition or intracortical facilitation. It remains to be determined if other markers of cortical excitability are modulated by somatosensory stimulation, and whether repeated sessions or lesion location may lead to different effects.

A estimulação magnética trancraniana (EMT) é técnica não invasiva de investigação e modulação da excitabilidade cortical em humanos. Alterações de excitabilidade cortical em circunstâncias fisiológicas e patológicas podem ser avaliadas através de medidas como limiar motor, potencial evocado motor, curvas de recrutamento, inibição e facilitação intracorticais. O tempo de condução motora central pode estimar a transmissão de impulsos neurais em vias motoras. Mudanças em áreas de representação do córtex sensorimotor podem ser estudadas por mapeamento cortical. A modulação do processamento de diferentes áreas corticais, através da EMT, possibilita o estudo de diferentes funções cerebrais. Aplicações terapêuticas da EMT em depressão, doença de Parkinson e epilepsia têm atraído grande interesse na última década. A integração de EMT a técnicas neurofisiológicas e de neuroimagem oferece possibilidades promissoras de mapeamento cortical não invasivo. A EMT apresenta grande potencial como instrumento de investigação e tratamento em neurologia e em psiquiatria.

Transcranial magnetic stimulation (TMS) allows non-invasive study and modulation of cortical excitability in humans. Changes in cortical excitability in physiological and pathological conditions can be tracked by measurements such as motor threshold, motor evoked potentials, recruitment curves, intracortical facilitation and inhibition. The central motor conduction time can estimate neural transmission in central motor pathways. Changes in areas of representation in sensorimotor cortex can be studied with cortical mapping. Modulation of cortical processing can be used to evaluate different brain functions. Therapeutic use in depression, Parkinson's disease and epilepsy has raised great interest over the past decade. Non-invasive cortical mapping may be achieved by combining TMS to other neurophysiological/ neuroimaging techniques. TMS has great potential both as an investigational and as a therapeutical tool in Neurology and Psychiatry.