ABSTRACT: Results of nutrient requirements as determined in dose-response trials are valid only for fish within the same size range of that of experimental model fish. This study used the factorial approach to estimate digestible energy (DE) and digestible protein (DP) requirements for maintenance and growth of pacu ( Piaractus mesopotamicus ). Juvenile pacu (63.5 ± 1.27 g) were stocked in a recirculation system (26.89 ± 0.36 °C) for 58 days, and fed two daily meals. One diet contained 6.96 % lipids (LF) and another 9.98 % lipids (HF), both diets formulated to contain 32 % crude protein, theoretical dietary energy level for maintenance (52.23 kJ DE kg−0.80 d−1), in a completely randomized, 2 × 5 factorial experimental design. The apparent digestibility coefficients of energy and protein were 84.66 ± 0.27 % and 89.20 ± 0.61 %, respectively, determined in specific assays for the HF diet, while for the LF diet, the values were 84.52 ± 0.37 % and 89.19 ± 0.16 %, respectively. The analysis of growth and carcass composition data revealed that dietary requirements of digestible energy and protein for maintenance were not influenced by dietary lipid levels; however, requirements of growth digestible energy were higher for fish fed the LF diet (1.39) than for fish fed the HF diet (1.29). The requirement of DP for growth, expressed as g of DP per g of deposited protein, were higher for fish fed the LF diet than for fish fed the HF diet (1.70 vs 1.58).

ABSTRACT Cost and environmental restrictions limit the use of fishmeal (FM) in aquafeeds and plant protein (PP) sources. Soybean by-products are important alternative; however, their antinutritional factors may reduce fish growth. This study evaluates the effect of FM substitution for PP (soybean meal and soy protein concentrate) in diets of dourado (Salminus brasiliensis), a promising species for fish farming and empirically considered highly tolerant to PP-based diets. A control diet was formulated to contain 20 % of fishmeal and 61 % of plant protein (SBM) and other five diets with decreasing FM graded levels (16 %, 12 %, 8 %, 4 %, 0 %), which were replaced by soybean protein concentrate (SPC), comprising six treatments and four replicates. Fifteen dourados (6.73 ± 0.2 g) were stocked into 200 L tanks in a recirculating system, fed with experimental diets three times a day to apparent satiation for 90 days. Growth performance, food conversion ratio, protein efficiency ratio and protein retention efficiency of fish were impaired when FM substitution exceeded 13.05 % (the broken line analysis method). Histological analysis of intestinal mucosa showed a decrease in villus height when fishmeal was totally replaced by PP, which probably impaired digestive functions of fish and reflected in a severe loss on growth performance.

ABSTRACT: The dourado, Salminus brasiliensis, a large, carnivorous, Neotropical, Characin, is highly regarded for fish farming and sport fishing alike. However, studies on the farming and husbandry of dourado are still scarce. This study evaluated the performance of dourado fed diets formulated so as to contain increasing levels of poultry by-product meal as a replacement for fish meal and aimed to identify the maximum level of replacement to maximize profit. The trial was set up in a closed recirculation system with controlled water quality (temperature 27 °C, dissolved oxygen 6.5 mg L−1, pH 7.4, and ammonia 0.25 mg L−1). Juvenile fish were stocked in tanks in a completely randomized design, acclimatized to system conditions and experimental diets, and then fed twice a day for 66 days with extruded, nutritionally complete diets (40 % digestible protein and 4020 kcal kg−1 digestible energy), formulated to contain 0, 20, 40, 60, 80 or 100 % poultry meal as a surrogate protein source for fish meal. Performance parameters – average weight gain, specific growth rate, feed consumption, feed conversion rate, protein efficiency rate, productive value of protein, energy retention rate, survival rate – did not differ (p > 0.05). To minimize the effects of influential data, the robust regression method was used and profit maximization analysis revealed that replacing 33.3 % of dietary fishmeal by poultry by-product meal maximizes profit in the farming of dourado.

Abstract Stress in intensive fish farming hamper immune function of fish and cause losses by disease outbreaks, a situation that can be minimized, but cannot be completely circumvented, by the use of immunomodulators. Addition of immunomodulators to aquafeeds has thus become a common practice. β-glucan (BG) is one of most studied and effective immunomodulators, aquaculture purposes included. Extracted from cell walls of bacteria, fungi and selected cereals, BG activity depends on the source and extraction methods. This study evaluated effects of two BG products (BG1 and BG2), extracted from Saccharomyces cerevisiae under varying extraction methods and with different immune activity, on the feeding of pacu Piaractus mesopotamicus juveniles. BG1 provided higher leukocytes respiratory activity when fed at 0.5% inclusion for 10 days and 0.1% inclusion for 15 days. Both products seems to cause negative effect on lysozyme concentration and monocytes profile when fed to pacu for 15 days at 0.5% inclusion. Although the results for BG2 did not differ from control (diet devoid of BG), the proximity with the BG1 behavior is a indicative that a commercial product with smaller BG concentration can be effective when more refined technology is used in extraction process.

ABSTRACT: Several microalgae contain in excess of 50 % crude protein with amino acid profile comparable to that of fish meal. In addition, high polyunsaturated fatty acid contents encourage their use in animal feeding and nutrition, particularly in the formulation and processing of aquafeeds. This study aims at estimating the feasibility of Chlorella meal as feed ingredient for the feeding and nutrition of farmed tilapia based upon digestibility data. Juvenile tilapia were stocked in conical-bottomed tanks (200 L) with superficial, continuous water flow, and fed to apparent satiation in three daily meals with a reference diet and a test diet containing 30 % lyophilized Chlorella sorokiniana added of an inert marker. Feces were collected overnight by sedimentation in refrigerated, plastic containers coupled to the tanks and analyzed for determination of chemical composition and inert marker contents to estimate apparent digestibility coefficients (ADCs) of protein and energy of Chlorella meal; registered ADCs of Chlorella meal were 90.5 and 84.22, respectively. A pricing model considering the quantity of digestible nutrient was proposed based on ADCs of Chlorella and compared with the price of fishmeal (FM) and soybean meal (SBM). The indicative prices to elicit the use of Chlorella as a protein source rather than FM or SBM for the feed and nutrition of tilapia were 2.65 USD kg−1 and 0.66 USD kg−1, respectively.

ABSTRACT: Along the last ten years fish and fishery product trade in Brazil has been on a downward trajectory turning a profit of US$ 98.6 million in 2005 into a loss of US$ 1.25 billion by 2014. On the other hand, the country is a leading producer of grains and has the third largest animal feed industry in the world, which has added 5.5 million hectares of freshwater reservoirs and 3.5 million km2 of an exclusive marine economic zone in the same period, a sizable potential for development of the aquaculture industry. This study aims at unveiling strategies for the reduction of the deficit in the Brazilian seafood trade balance, based on critical analysis of the quantitative and qualitative characteristics of imported fishery products. The fish and fishery product trade in Brazil, from 2005 to 2015, was studied considering import and export data mined from the Brazilian Ministry of Development, Industry and Commerce databases through the Aliceweb system, and clustered as follows: processing; product species; origin; conservation; and group. The main imported products were gutted fresh fish, highest price (salmon); salted dried fish, higher price (cod); frozen fish fillets, lowest price (fish and hake). The replacement of fish imports by domestic production is not enough to enable consumers to identify the equivalence between products (technical, qualitative or organoleptic). Developing strategies for the production of fish and fishery products at competitive prices and quantities that meet consumer demand is an immediate need, and the development of the aquaculture industry a rational strategy.

ABSTRACT Prolonged stress hampers immune function and lessens disease resistance of fish, causing economic losses. Attention is thus been centered in the study of fish immunology. The main ‘in vivoʼ models used in immunological studies are: stimulation of immune response (by immunostimulant molecules); induction of inflammation; induction of immunosuppression by chronic stress; or administration of drugs. This trial aimed at evaluating existing protocols for immunosuppression by drugs in fish, adapted to slow release implants model, using hydrogenated vegetable fat (HVF), with the intention of set a controlled immunodeficiency state model for advanced studies. The implant model was not efficient in reducing the immune response in a controlled manner. Evidence of self, down-regulation in fish immune system was found in implanted fish, what should be further investigated using molecular tools.

Intensification of aquaculture production systems exposes fish to numerous stressors, which may negatively affect their health. This study determined the effects of increasing levels of dietary mannan oligosaccharides (ActiveMOS®-Biorigin) on biochemical and hematological parameters of juvenile pacu, Piaractus mesopotamicus. Fish (44.04 ± 5.27 g) were randomly distributed into 24 tanks (500 L; 10 fishes per tank) and fed during 63 days with a commercial diet supplemented with 0.0, 0.2, 0.4, 0.6, 0.8, 1.0, 1.5 and 2.0% MOS. Blood samples were collected at 42 and 63 trial. Red blood cell count (RBC) and total plasmatic protein were affected by dietary MOS levels (P < 0.05). Fish fed 1.0% dietary MOS presented higher neutrophils numbers when compared to fish fed control diet and fish fed 1.5% MOS for 42 days presented significant higher granulocytic cell numbers. During trial fish presented increased (P < 0.05) hematocrit, mean corpuscular volume, mean corpuscular hemoglobin and plasmatic glucose concentrations and decreased (P < 0.05) RBC, hemoglobin concentration, mean corpuscular hemoglobin concentration, white blood cell and differential leukocyte count. Dietary MOS levels did not present prebiotic effects for pacu and did not minimize stress effects on hematological and biochemical parameters for the species.

La intensificación de los sistemas de producción acuícola expone a los peces a numerosos factores estresantes que pueden afectar negativamente su salud. Este estudio determinó el efecto de niveles crecientes de manan oligosacáridos (ActiveMOS®-Biorigin) en la dieta respecto a parámetros bioquímicos y hematológicos de juveniles de pacu, Piaractus mesopotamicus. Los peces (44,04 ± 5,27 g) fueron distribuidos al azar en 24 tanques (500 L; 10 peces por tanque) y alimentados durante 63 días con una dieta comercial suplementada con 0,0; 0,2; 0,4; 0,6; 0,8; 1,0; 1,5 y 2,0% de MOS. Las muestras de sangre fueron colectadas los días 42 y 63 del experimento. El recuento de glóbulos rojo (RBC) y la concentración de proteínas plasmáticas totales fueron afectados por los niveles de MOS en la dieta (P < 0,05). Peces alimentados con dieta suplementada con 1,0% MOS presentaron mayor número de neutrófilos en comparación a peces alimentados con la dieta control y peces suplementados con 1,5% de MOS presentaron alto número de células granulocíticas (SGC) a los 42 días del experimento. Durante el ensayo, los valores de hematocrito, volumen corpuscular promedio y hemoglobina corpuscular media incrementaron (P < 0,05) y las concentraciones de glucosa plasmática, hemoglobina, concentración promedio de hemoglobina, glóbulos blancos, RBC y el recuento diferencial de los leucocitos disminuyeron (P < 0,05). Los niveles dietéticos de MOS no presentaron efectos prebióticos en pacus y no minimizaron los efectos del estrés sobre los parámetros hematológicos y bioquímicos de la especie.

Many methods to estimate amino acid requirement based on amino acid profile of fish have been proposed. This study evaluates the methodology proposed by Meyer & Fracalossi (2005) and by Tacon (1989) to estimate amino acids requirement of fish, which do exempt knowledge on previous nutritional requirement of reference amino acid. Data on amino acid requirement of pacu, Piaractus mesopotamicus, were used to validate de accuracy of those methods. Meyer & Fracalossi's and Tacon's methodology estimated the lysine requirement of pacu, respectively, at 13 and 23% above requirement determined using dose-response method. The values estimated by both methods lie within the range of requirements determined for other omnivorous fish species, the Meyer & Fracalossi (2005) method showing better accuracy.

Se han propuesto muchos métodos para estimar requerimientos de aminoácidos basados en el perfil de aminoácidos de peces. Este estudio valida la metodología propuesta por Meyer & Fracalossi (2005) y por Tacon (1989) para estimar los requerimientos de aminoácidos en peces, que exime del conocimiento previo sobre el requerimiento nutricional de aminoácidos de referencia. Se utilizaron datos sobre los requerimientos de aminoácidos de pacú, Piaractus mesopotamicus, para validar la precisión de los métodos analizados. Las metodologías de Meyer & Fracalossi (2005) y de Tacon (1989) estimaron el requerimiento de lisina de pacú, respectivamente, en 13 y 23% por sobre el requerimiento determinado utilizando el método dosis-respuesta. Los valores estimados, en ambos casos, se encuentran dentro del rango de valores de los requerimientos determinados para otras especies de peces omnívoros, presentando el método de Meyer & Fracalossi (2005) una mejor precisión.

O objetivo deste trabalho foi determinar as exigências do dourado (Salminus brasiliensis) em lisina dietética (LD) e arginina dietética (AD), por meio de ensaios dose-resposta, com uso do perfil de aminoácidos de carcaças inteiras como referência. Dois experimentos foram feitos em delineamento interamente casualizado (n=4). No primeiro experimento, grupos de 12 juvenis de dourado (11,4±0,2 g), condicionados a aceitar ração, foram estocados em gaiolas de 60 L, colocadas em tanques de plástico de 300 L protegidos em um sistema fechado de circulação de água. Os peixes foram alimentados por 60 dias com rações que continham 1,0, 1,5, 2,0, 2,5, 3,0 ou 3,5% de lisina dietética. No segundo experimento, juvenis de dourado (27,0±0,8 g) foram alimentados por 60 dias com rações semipurificadas que continham 1,0 1,5, 2,0, 2,5 ou 3,0% de arginina, em condições semelhantes às do primeiro experimento. A exigência ótima de LD, determinada pelo método da regressão "broken-line", quanto ao peso final, ganho de peso e quanto à taxa de crescimento específico, foi de 2,15% de LD ou 5% de lisina, na proteína dietética, e de 1,48% de AD ou 3,43% de arginina na proteína dietética. A melhor taxa de conversão alimentar é obtida com 2,5% de LD ou 5,8% de lisina, na proteína dietética, e com 1,4% de AD ou 3,25% de arginina na proteína dietética.

The objective of this work was to determine the dietary lysine (DL) and dietary arginine (DA) requirements of dourado (Salminus brasiliensis), through dose-response trials using the amino acid profiles of whole carcasses as a reference. Two experiments were carried out in a completely randomized design (n=4). In the first experiment, groups of 12 feed-conditioned dourado juveniles (11.4±0.2 g) were stocked in 60 L cages placed in 300 L plastic indoor tanks in a closed circulation system. Fish were fed for 60 days on diets containing 1.0, 1.5, 2.0, 2.5, 3.0, or 3.5 % dietary lysine. In the second experiment, dourado juveniles (27.0±0.8 g) were fed for 60 days on semipurified diets containing arginine at 1.0, 1.5, 2.0, 2.5 or 3.0%, in similar conditions to those of the first experiment. Optimal DL requirements, as determined by broken-line analysis method for final weight, weight gain and specific growth rate, were 2.15% DL or 5% lysine in dietary protein, and 1.48% DA or 3.43% arginine in dietary protein. The best feed conversion ratio is attained with 2.5% DL or 5.8% lysine in dietary protein and 1.4% DA or 3.25% arginine in dietary protein.

Fish consumption per capita in Brazil is relatively modest when compared to other animal proteins. This study analyses the influence of protein prices, other food prices and population income on the fish demand in Brazil. First, the problem of fish supply in Brazil is characterized. It is followed by reviews of the relevant economic theory and methods of Almost Ideal Demand System - AIDS and their elasticity calculations. A descriptive analysis of fish demand in Brazil using the microdata called "Pesquisa de Orçamento Familiar" (Familiar Budget Research) - POF 2002-2003 is presented. Finally, demand functions and their elasticities are calculated for two different cases: one considering five groups of animal proteins (Chicken; Milk and Eggs; Fish; Processed Proteins and Red Meat) and other with seven groups of food categories (Cereals; Vegetables and Fruits; Milky and Eggs; Oils and Condiments; Fish; Other processed foods; and Meats). The main results are: per capita consumption of fish (4.6 kg per inhabitant per year) is low in Brazil because few households consume fish. When only households with fish consumption are considered, the per capita consumption would be higher: 27.2 kg per inhabitant per year. The fish consumption in the North-East Region is concentrated in the low-income class. In the Center-South Region, the fish consumption is lower and concentrated in the intermediate income classes. The main substitutes for fish are the processed proteins and not the traditional types of meat, such as chicken and red meat.

O objetivo deste trabalho foi avaliar o farelo de glúten de milho (FGM) como substituto à farinha de peixe, em dietas para juvenis de cachara (Pseudoplatystoma fasciatum). Oito dietas isonitrogenadas (46% de proteína bruta) e isoenergéticas (3.450 kcal kg-1 de energia digestível), com níveis crescentes de FGM - 0, 6, 12, 18, 24, 30, 36 e 42% -, foram fornecidas a juvenis de cachara (113,56±5,10 g) durante sete semanas. Valores máximos de ganho de peso, taxa de crescimento específico, taxa de eficiência proteica e índice de conversão alimentar, avaliados por regressão polinomial quadrática, foram observados com inclusão de 10,4, 11,4, 15,4 e 15% de FGM, respectivamente. A ingestão de alimento diminuiu significativamente a partir de 0,8% de FGM. O índice de gordura visceral e a energia bruta corporal diminuíram linearmente com aumento nos níveis de FGM; o teor mínimo de proteína bruta corporal foi observado com 34,1% de FGM. A pigmentação amarelada dos filés aumentou significativamente até 26,5% de FGM, e diminuiu a partir daí. Tanto a glicose quanto a proteína plasmática diminuíram com o aumento em FGM. A inclusão de 10-15% FGM proporciona ótimo desempenho produtivo de juvenis de cachara, dependendo do parâmetro avaliado. A coloração amarelada nos filés, produzida pela inclusão de FGM nas dietas, pode ter implicações comerciais.

The objective of this work was to evaluate corn gluten meal (CGM) as a substitute for fish meal in diets for striped catfish (Pseudoplatystoma fasciatum) juveniles. Eight isonitrogenous (46% crude protein) and isoenergetic (3,450 kcal kg-1 digestible energy) diets, with increasing levels of CGM - 0, 6, 12, 18, 24, 30, 36, and 42% -, were fed to juvenile striped catfish (113.56±5.10 g) for seven weeks. Maximum values for weight gain, specific growth rate, protein efficiency ratio and feed conversion ratio, evaluated by polynomial quadratic regression, were observed with 10.4, 11.4, 15.4 and 15% of CGM inclusion, respectively. Feed intake decreased significantly from 0.8% CGM. Mesenteric fat index and body gross energy decreased linearly with increasing levels of CGM; minimum body protein contents were observed with 34.1% CGM. Yellow pigmentation of fillets significantly increased until 26.5% CGM, and decreased from this point forth. Both plasma glucose and protein concentrations decreased with increased CGM levels. The inclusion of 10-15% CGM promotes optimum of striped catfish juveniles depending on the parameter evaluated. Yellow coloration in fillets produced by CGM diets can have marketing implications.

Respostas histológicas do intestino são fundamentais para avaliar o valor nutritivo de ingredientes alimentares, uma vez que o órgão não é só o principal local de digestão e absorção dos nutrientes, mas também exerce uma importante função imunológica. Alterações histomorfológicas foram avaliadas no intestino de juvenis de cachara, Pseudoplatystoma fasciatum, alimentado com dietas contendo 0 (controle), 10 e 20% de inclusão de colostro bovino liofilizado (CBL) como fonte de proteína e peptídeos bioativos, aos 30 e 60 dias. Aos 60 dias, peixes alimentados com 20CBL apresentaram macrófagos de aspecto distinto e alguns, uma grande concentração de vacúolos na mucosa retal. A espessura da camada muscular (ECM) em peixes alimentados com CBL foi maior na primeira porção do intestino médio em relação àqueles alimentados com 0CBL. Ao longo do período experimental, todos os peixes mostraram aumento significativo na ECM na segunda porção do intestino médio, entretanto peixes do grupo 20CBL tiveram menores valores para a ECM do que os demais, o que pode estar relacionado com o maior coeficiente intestinal encontrado para este grupo. A ECM no reto foi maior apenas para os peixes alimentados com 10CBL. A inclusão de CBL na dieta do cachara alterou características morfométricas do intestino e, possivelmente, induziu uma reação inflamatória na mucosa retal em função do nível de inclusão, período de alimentação e porção do intestino analisada.

Histological responses of the intestine are key for evaluating nutritional value of feed ingredients, since the organ is not only the chief site of feed digestion and nutrient absorption but also plays an important immunological function. Histomorphological alterations were evaluated in the intestine of juvenile striped catfish, Pseudoplatystoma fasciatum, fed diets containing 0 (control), 10 or 20% inclusion of lyophilized bovine colostrum (LBC), as source of protein or bioactive peptides, for either 30 or 60 days. Fish fed 20LBC presented at 60d a distinct pattern of macrophages and, some of them, higher number of vacuoles in rectum mucosa. The thickness of the muscle layer (TML) in fish fed diets with LBC was higher in the first portion of medium intestine than fish fed 0LBC. All fish presented significant increase of TML in the second portion of medium intestine along feeding period, but fish fed 20LBC had smaller values of TML than those of fish fed 0 and 10LBC which might be related to the higher intestinal coefficient found for this group. The TML of rectum was higher just for fish fed 10LBC. Dietary LBC altered morphometrical features of juvenile striped catfish intestine and possibly induced inflammatory reaction in the rectal mucosa, as a function of level of inclusion, feeding period and segment of intestine analyzed.

A busca de uma ração balanceada, que proporcione maior crescimento aos peixes, passa pela escolha adequada das fontes protéicas disponíveis. Este estudo teve por objetivo agrupar alimentos de acordo com o perfil de aminoácidos essenciais, determinando quais mostram perfis mais próximos do requerimento da tilápia do Nilo (Oreochromis niloticus), e estudar a relação entre os aminoácidos dentro dos agrupamentos obtidos. Foram utilizadas composições de aminoácidos em relação ao conteúdo de lisina, de 40 alimentos comumente utilizados como ingredientes na formulação de dietas para peixes. Os ingredientes foram agrupados de acordo com o perfil de aminoácidos utilizando a análise de agrupamento por meio da distância Euclidiana, enquanto a análise de componentes principais foi utilizada para determinar a relação entre os aminoácidos em cada grupo obtido. Três grupos de ingredientes foram formados e apenas dois ingredientes, sorgo baixo tanino e farelo de glúten de milho 60%, não entraram em nenhum dos três grupos. A exigência de aminoácidos da tilápia do Nilo foi semelhante ao perfil de aminoácidos encontrado em 22 alimentos. A análise de componentes principais conseguiu resumir e explicar 75% da variância total com apenas três componentes principais. Até que maiores informações sobre a disponibilidade de aminoácidos de diferentes ingredientes sejam obtidas, o perfil total de aminoácidos continuará a ser uma informação valiosa na escolha dos ingredientes a serem utilizados na formulação e processamento de alimentos para tilápia do Nilo.

The search for balanced diets, which may elicit improved growth of fish, requires appropriate selection of available protein sources. This study aims at clustering feedstuffs according to amino acid profile, determining which ones show essential amino acids (EAA) profiles closer to the ideal dietary amino acids requirements of Nile tilapia (Oreochromis niloticus), and studying the relationship among amino acids feedstuffs groups. Tabled data on EAA more cystine and tyrosine, in relation to lysine contents, of 40 feedstuffs ordinarily used to formulate fish diets were studied. Feedstuffs were grouped according to amino acids profile by cluster analysis of Euclidean distances. The principal components analysis was used to determine the relationship among amino acids in each feedstuff group. Three groups of ingredients were parted and two ingredients, low tannin sorghum and corn gluten meal 60%, did not go with any group. Dietary amino acids requirements of Nile tilapia were similar to the amino acid profile of 22 feedstuffs. The principal component analysis explained with three principal components more than 75% of total variance of amino acids in three feedstuff groups. Therefore, until additional, detailed information on amino acids availability of different ingredients is consolidated, total amino acids profiles will continue to be important information to select and use conventional or surrogate ingredients for formulating and processing feeds for tilapia.

Embora a ciência da nutrição de peixes esteja longe de estabelecer um padrão geral de exigências nutricionais, a necessidade de desenvolvimento de alimentos de baixo impacto poluente há muito faz parte da agenda das comunidades científica e empresarial internacional da aqüicultura. Não só é absolutamente possível formular alimentos ambientalmente corretos, como é necessário modelar a formulação destes alimentos. Porém, é necessária absoluta acurácia para atender formulações espécie-específicas, considerando-se as interações da biologia e fisiologia nutricional das espécies com os alimentos e com as variações abióticas do meio. O conhecimento disponível sobre as mais de 200 espécies de peixe produzidas comercialmente no mundo é ainda incipiente e os sistemas de produção de peixe, nos diferentes regimes de exploração, estão implantados em todas as condições ecológicas possíveis. Neste cenário, produzir rações ambientalmente corretas é, senão impossível, pelo menos muito difícil e depende da ação coordenada e positiva de produtores, indústria da alimentação, agências regulatórias, e instituições de ensino e pesquisa para definir os parâmetros necessários à consecução deste objetivo.

Although fish nutrition science is far from establishing general standards of nutritional requirements, the need for developing low impact feeds has long been included in the agenda of aquaculture's international scientific and business communities of. Not only is absolutely possible to formulate environmental friendly feeds, as it is necessary modeling the formulation of these feeds. However, it is necessary higher accuracy to develop species-specific formulations, considering interactions of the biology and nutritional physiology of the species with the feedstuffs and variations of abiotic environment. The knowledge on more than 200 species of commercially farmed fish is still incipient and fish production systems, in their most varied farming conditions, are set up in every possible ecological conditions. In this scenario, producing environmental friendly feeds is if not impossible, at least very, very difficult, depending on coordinated and positive action of producers, industry, regulatory agencies, and institutions of higher education and research to define the parameters needed to achieve this goal.