Objectives: To re-evaluate a sample of older adults enrolled in a randomized controlled trial of lithium for amnestic mild cognitive impairment (MCI) after 11 to 15 years, re-assessing their current (or last available) global cognitive and functional state. Methods: We recalled all former participants of the Lithium-MCI trial conducted by our group between 2009 and 2012 to perform a single-blinded, cross-sectional evaluation of their global clinical state to compare the long-term outcome of those who received lithium vs. those who received placebo. Results: Of the original sample (n=61), we were able to reach 36 participants (59% of retention), of whom 22 had previously received lithium (61% of the recall sample) and 14 (39%) had received placebo. Since 30.5% of the recalled sample was deceased, psychometric data were collected only for 69.5% of the participants. We found statistically significant differences in current mean Mini Mental State Examination score according to previous treatment group (25.5 [SD, 5.3] vs. 18.3 [SD, 10.9], p = 0.04). The lithium group also had better performance in the phonemic Verbal Fluency Test than the control group (34.4 [SD, 14.4] vs. 11.6 [SD, 10.10], p < 0.001). Differences in these measures also had large effect sizes, as shown by Cohen’s d values of 0.92 and 1.78, respectively. Conclusion: This data set suggests that older adults with amnestic MCI who had been treated with lithium during a previous randomized controlled trial had a better long-term global cognitive outcome than those from a matched sample who did not receive the intervention.

ABSTRACT Cognitive impairment has been well described in euthymic patients with bipolar disorder (BD), as well as in elderly patients. Language disturbances are less studied, and several inconsistencies are reported in the literature. Most language studies focus on verbal fluency and semantic alterations, with a lack of studies addressing discursive abilities in BD. Objective: The aim of this study was to evaluate discourse abilities in euthymic elderly individuals with BD. Methods: We studied 19 euthymic elderly patients with BD and a control group of non-BD, which performed a cognitive assessment of attention, memory, executive functions, and visual abilities. All participants produced a description from the Cookie Theft Picture in oral and written modalities that was analyzed according to micro- and macrolinguistic aspects. Generalized linear models were performed to compare intergroup linguistic performance and to determine whether any cognitive domain was associated with linguistic outcomes. Results: The BD group produced more cohesion errors in the oral and written modalities (p=0.016 and p=0.011, respectively) and fewer thematic units in the oral modality (p=0.027) than the control group. Conclusions: BD patients presented minimal changes in the descriptive discourse task. The BD group produced more cohesion errors than the control group in the oral (p=0.016) and written discourse (p=0.011); also, the BD group produced fewer thematic units than controls in the oral discourse (p=0.027).

RESUMO Déficits cognitivos têm sido descritos em pacientes com transtorno bipolar (TB) em fase eutímica, bem como em idosos. Alterações linguísticas são menos estudadas, e os achados de literatura são inconsistentes. A maioria dos estudos em linguagem baseia-se em avaliações de fluência verbal e alterações semânticas, havendo escassez de trabalhos que abordem as habilidades discursivas no TB. Objetivo: Avaliar as habilidades discursivas em indivíduos idosos eutímicos com TB. Métodos: Estudamos 19 pacientes idosos eutímicos com TB e um grupo de idosos sem TB e cognitivamente saudáveis, que realizaram avaliação cognitiva da atenção, memória, funções executivas e habilidades visuoespaciais. Todos os participantes produziram uma descrição da Prancha do Roubo dos Biscoitos nas modalidades oral e escrita, que foram analisadas de acordo com aspectos micro e macrolinguísticos. Análises por meio de modelos lineares generalizados foram realizados para comparar o desempenho linguístico entre os grupos e para determinar se algum domínio cognitivo estava associado a esse desempenho. Resultados: O grupo TB produziu mais erros de coesão nas modalidades oral e escrita (p=0,016 e p=0,011, respectivamente) e menos unidades temáticas na modalidade oral (p=0,027) do que o grupo controle. Conclusão: Os pacientes com TB apresentaram alterações leves na tarefa discursiva. O grupo TB produziu maior número de erros de coesão do que o grupo controle no discurso oral (p=0,016) e escrito (p=0,011). Além disso, o grupo TB produziu menor número de unidades temáticas do que os controles na tarefa de discurso oral (p=0,027).

ABSTRACT Behavioral disturbances are clinically relevant in patients with dementia, and pharmacological regimens to mitigate these symptoms have provided limited results. Proven to be effective in several psychiatric conditions, electroconvulsive therapy is a potentially beneficial strategy for treating severe agitation due to dementia. Objective: This review aimed to examine the publications on the efficacy, safety and tolerability of electroconvulsive therapy in treating patients with agitation due to dementia. Methods: We performed a systematic analysis on the electroconvulsive therapy to treat patients with dementia and coexisting severe agitation. Articles were classified according to the level of evidence based on methodological design. Patients received an acute course of electroconvulsive therapy, often followed by maintenance intervention. Results: We selected 19 studies (156 patients; 64.1% women; 51–98 years old), which met the inclusion criteria: one case-control study by chart analysis (level of evidence 2); one open-label study (level of evidence 3); three historical/retrospective chart analyses (level of evidence 4); and 14 case series/reports (level of evidence 5). No randomized, sham-controlled clinical trials (level of evidence 1) were identified, which represents the main methodological weakness. Some patients had postictal delirium, cardiovascular decompensation and cognitive changes, lasting for a short time. Conclusions: Overall, patients achieved significant improvement in agitation. However, the main finding of the present review was the absence of methodological design based on randomized and sham-controlled clinical trials. Despite methodological limitations and side effects requiring attention, electroconvulsive therapy was considered a safe and effective treatment of patients with severe agitation and related behavioral disorders due to dementia.

RESUMO Distúrbios comportamentais são clinicamente relevantes em pacientes com demência, e regimes farmacológicos para mitigar esses sintomas têm proporcionado resultados limitados. Comprovadamente eficaz em diversas condições psiquiátricas, a eletroconvulsoterapia é uma estratégia potencialmente benéfica para o tratamento de pacientes com agitação grave na demência. Objetivos: Esta revisão examina as publicações sobre eficácia, segurança e tolerabilidade da eletroconvulsoterapia no tratamento de pacientes com agitação na demência. Métodos: Realizamos uma análise sistemática da eletroconvulsoterapia no tratamento de pacientes com demência e agitação grave. Os artigos foram classificados quanto ao nível de evidência com base no delineamento metodológico. Os pacientes receberam um curso agudo de eletroconvulsoterapia, frequentemente seguido de manutenção. Resultados: Foram selecionados 19 estudos (156 pacientes; 64,1% mulheres; 51–98 anos): um estudo caso-controle desenvolvido com base na análise de prontuários (nível de evidência 2); um estudo aberto (nível de evidência 3); três estudos de análise retrospectiva de prontuários (nível de evidência 4); e 14 séries/relatos de casos (nível de evidência 5). Não foram identificados ensaios clínicos randomizados e controlados com placebo (nível de evidência 1), fator que representa a principal fragilidade metodológica. No entanto, o principal achado da presente revisão consistiu na ausência de desenho metodológico baseado em ensaios clínicos randomizados e controlados com placebo. Em geral, os efeitos colaterais foram transitórios e bem tolerados. Alguns pacientes apresentaram delirium pós-ictal, descompensação cardiovascular e alterações cognitivas por períodos breves. Conclusões: No geral, os pacientes obtiveram melhora significativa na agitação. No entanto, o principal achado da presente revisão foi a ausência de delineamento metodológico baseado em ensaios clínicos randomizados e controlados com placebo. Apesar das limitações metodológicas e dos efeitos adversos, a eletroconvulsoterapia foi considerada um tratamento seguro e eficaz em pacientes com agitação grave e com outros distúrbios comportamentais clinicamente relevantes na demência.

Objective: Positron emission tomography (PET) allows in vivo evaluation of molecular targets in neurodegenerative diseases, such as Alzheimer’s disease. Mild cognitive impairment is an intermediate stage between normal cognition and Alzheimer-type dementia. In vivo fibrillar amyloid-beta can be detected in PET using [11C]-labeled Pittsburgh compound B (11C-PiB). In contrast, [18F]fluoro-2-deoxy-d-glucose (18F-FDG) is a neurodegeneration biomarker used to evaluate cerebral glucose metabolism, indicating neuronal injury and synaptic dysfunction. In addition, early cerebral uptake of amyloid-PET tracers can determine regional cerebral blood flow. The present study compared early-phase 11C-PiB and 18F-FDG in older adults without cognitive impairment, amnestic mild cognitive impairment, and clinical diagnosis of probable Alzheimer’s disease. Methods: We selected 90 older adults, clinically classified as healthy controls, with amnestic mild cognitive impairment, or with probable Alzheimer’s disease, who underwent an 18F-FDG PET, early-phase 11C-PiB PET and magnetic resonance imaging. All participants were also classified as amyloid-positive or -negative in late-phase 11C-PiB. The data were analyzed using statistical parametric mapping. Results: We found that the probable Alzheimer’s disease and amnestic mild cognitive impairment group had lower early-phase 11C-PiB uptake in limbic structures than 18F-FDG uptake. The images showed significant interactions between amyloid-beta status (negative or positive). However, early-phase 11C-PiB appears to provide different information from 18F-FDG about neurodegeneration. Conclusions: Our study suggests that early-phase 11C-PiB uptake correlates with 18F-FDG, irrespective of the particular amyloid-beta status. In addition, we observed distinct regional distribution patterns between both biomarkers, reinforcing the need for more robust studies to investigate the real clinical value of early-phase amyloid-PET imaging.

RESUMO Este artigo apresenta o consenso realizado pelo Departamento Científico de Neurologia Cognitiva e do Envelhecimento da Academia Brasileira de Neurologia sobre os critérios diagnósticos da Doença de Alzheimer (DA) no Brasil. Foi realizada uma revisão da literatura e dos critérios clínicos e de pesquisa para DA, sendo propostos protocolos para o diagnóstico de DA em níveis de atenção primária, secundária e terciária. Dentro deste cenário clínico, são apresentados os critérios diagnósticos para DA típica e atípica, além de instrumentos de avaliação clínica, cognitiva e funcional; bem como propedêutica complementar com exames laboratoriais e de neuroimagem. A utilização de biomarcadores é também apresentada, tanto para o diagnóstico clínico em situações específicas quanto para pesquisa. (DA Brasil primária terciária atípica clínica funcional neuroimagem apresentada

ABSTRACT This paper presents the consensus of the Scientific Department of Cognitive Neurology and Aging from the Brazilian Academy of Neurology on the diagnostic criteria for Alzheimer’s disease (AD) in Brazil. The authors conducted a literature review regarding clinical and research criteria for AD diagnosis and proposed protocols for use at primary, secondary, and tertiary care levels. Within this clinical scenario, the diagnostic criteria for typical and atypical AD are presented as well as clinical, cognitive, and functional assessment tools and complementary propaedeutics with laboratory and neuroimaging tests. The use of biomarkers is also discussed for both clinical diagnosis (in specific conditions) and research. Alzheimers Alzheimer s (AD Brazil primary secondary levels scenario cognitive tests conditions

Abstract Background: Caring for a demented relative is frequently associated with burden; yet, a subset of family caregivers may experience it as rewarding. Certain characteristics, including personality factors, may render caregivers more resilient to stress and therefore attenuate the perception of burden and its impact on quality of life. Objective: To determine the association between social skills and well being among family caregivers to patients with dementia. Methods: Forty-one family caregivers to patients with dementia due to Alzheimer's disease (AD) were assessed with Social Skills Inventory (SSI-Del-Prette) and the Zarit Burden Interview; quality of life was estimated with WHO-QoL-bref questionnaire. Results: We found positive correlations between total SSI scores and the psychological (r = 0.450; p = 0.003) and environmental (r = 0.408; p = 0.008) domains of WHO-QoL-bref. The SSI factor ‘self-control of aggressiveness’ (SSI-F5) was negatively correlated with the magnitude of caregiver burden (r = -0.483; p = 0.001) and positively associated with the psychological domain of WHO-QoL-bref (r = 0.446; p = 0.003). Caregivers with better ‘self-assertion in the expression of positive affect’ (SSI-F2) also had better ‘social relationships’ according to WHO-QoL-bref (r = 0.402; p = 0.009). Discussion: The availability of more sophisticated repertoires of social skills may render family caregivers more resilient to burden, preserving their quality of life while enduring this task.

RESUMO A presença de dificuldades leves no desempenho de atividades da vida diária (AVD) pode estar presente no comprometimento cognitivo leve (CCL), mas sua natureza e extensão devem ser melhor exploradas. A medida canadense de desempenho ocupacional (COPM) é uma das poucas escalas individualizadas de autorrelato destinadas a identificar dificuldades no desempenho de AVDs. Este estudo investigou as dificuldades em AVDs através da COPM em idosos com CCL. 58 idosos com CCL foram submetidos à validação da COPM. A COPM se mostrou um instrumento válido e consistente para avaliar desempenho de AVDs em idosos com CCL. 74,6% dos idosos relatou alguma dificuldade no desempenho de AVDs, sendo 41,2% em auto-cuidado, 31,4% na produtividade e de 27,4% no lazer. Estes dados acrescentam evidências à recente literatura em que afirma que há comprometimento nas AVDs em CCL.

ABSTRACT Mild impairment in activities of daily living (ADL) can occur in Mild Cognitive Impairment (MCI), but the nature and extent of these difficulties need to be further explored. The Canadian occupational performance measure (COPM) is one of the few individualized scales designed to identify self-perceived difficulties in ADL. The present study investigated impairments in ADL using the COPM in elderly with MCI. A total of 58 MCI patients were submitted to the COPM for studies of its validity and reliability. The COPM proved a valid and consistent instrument for evaluating ADL in elderly MCI patients. A total of 74.6% of the MCI patients reported difficulties in ADL. Of these problems, 41.2% involved self-care, 31.4% productivity and 27.4% leisure. This data further corroborates recent reports of possible functional impairment in complex ADL in MCI.

Abstract Background Family members providing continuous care to demented patients suffer from severe burden that impairs quality of life and often evolves to depression. Objective This study aims to evaluate the effect of psychodynamic group psychotherapy (PGT) compared to body awareness therapy (BAT) on caregiver burden, depressive symptoms, and quality of life among family caregivers to Alzheimer disease (AD) patients. Methods Thirty-seven healthy family caregivers were randomly allocated to receive PGT (n = 20) or BAT (n = 17). Interventions were administered in the format of 14 weekly group sessions. Outcome measures were: modification of scores on Zarit Burden Scale, Beck Depression Inventory and WHO-QoL Scale. Results Participants in the PGT group displayed significant reduction on burden (p = 0.01) and depression scores (p = 0.005), and improved quality of life (p = 0.002), whereas those in the BAT group showed improvements in burden of care (p = 0.001) and quality of life (p = 0.01), but not on depressive symptoms (p = 0.13). Discussion Psychodynamic psychotherapy was associated with amelioration of depressive symptoms, but overall benefits on burden of care and quality of life were similar irrespective of the type of intervention, i.e., psychologically-oriented or not. We hypothesize that these interventions can be complementary to improve depression and burden of care among family caregivers of AD patients.

Abstract Background Non-pharmalogical interventions represent an important complement to standard pharmalogical treatment in dementia. Objective This study aims to evaluate the effects of a multidisciplinary rehabilitation program on cognitive ability, quality of life and depression symptoms in patients with Alzheimer’s disease (AD) and cognitive impairment without dementia (CIND). Methods Ninety-seven older adults were recruited to the present study. Of these, 70 patients had mild AD and were allocated into experimental (n = 54) or control (n = 16) groups. Two additional active comparison groups were constituted with patients with moderate AD (n = 13) or with CIND (n = 14) who also received the intervention. The multidisciplinary rehabilitation program lasted for 12 weeks and was composed by sessions of memory training, recreational activities, verbal expression and writing, physical therapy and physical training, delivered in two weekly 6-hour sessions. Results As compared to controls, mild AD patients who received the intervention had improvements in cognition (p = 0.021) and quality of life (p = 0.003), along with a reduction in depressive symptoms (p < 0.001). As compared to baseline, CIND patients displayed at the end of the intervention improvements in cognition (p = 0.005) and depressive symptoms (p = 0.011). No such benefits were found among patients with moderate AD.Discussion: This multidisciplinary rehabilitation program was beneficial for patients with mild AD and CIND. However, patients with moderate dementia did not benefit from the intervention.

Background There is evidence from animal and in vitro models of the protective effects of caffeine in Alzheimer’s disease. The suggested mechanisms through which caffeine may protect neurons against Alzheimer’s disease pathology include the facilitation of beta-amyloid clearance, upregulation of cholinergic transmission, and increased neuronal plasticity and survival. Epidemiological studies support that Alzheimer’s disease patients consume smaller amounts of coffee beverages throughout their lives as compared to age-matched cognitively healthy individuals. Objective The aim of the present study was to determine whether the negative association between Alzheimer’s disease and coffee consumption may be influenced by a common genetic predisposition, given the fact that the pattern of coffee consumption is determined by both environmental and genetic factors. Method We conducted an in silico search addressing the association between genetic polymorphisms related to coffee consumption and the diagnosis of Alzheimer’s disease. We further investigated the interactions between genes located in regions bearing these polymorphisms. Results Our analysis revealed no evidence for a genetic association (nor interaction between related proteins) involving coffee consumption and Alzheimer’s disease. Discussion The negative association between Alzheimer’s disease and coffee consumption suggested by epidemiological studies is most likely due to environmental factors that are not necessarily regulated by genetic background.

Há dados limitados sobre o perfil cognitivo de idosos com transtorno bipolar (TAB) e demência. Previamente, testes de rastreio cognitivo comuns foram pouco estudados. Objetivo Investigar o Teste do Desenho do Relógio (CDT) entre idosos com TAB com e sem doença de Alzheimer (DA). Método Foram incluídos 209 idosos (79 pacientes com TAB sem demência e 70 controles; 60 indivíduos com DA leve, sendo 27 com TAB) para avaliar três escalas de pontuação do TDR, além do Mini-Mental State Examination (MMSE) e fluência verbal (FV). Resultados Pacientes com TAB sem demência apresentaram menores escores no MMSE, FV e uma escala de TDR que controles. Pacientes com TAB e DA apresentaram escores mais baixos na FV e em todos os TDR comparados aos apenas com DA. As escalas de CDT apresentaram sensibilidade e especificidade semelhantes para os grupos com e sem TAB. Conclusão Idosos com TAB apresentaram maior comprometimento no TDR em ambos grupos com cognição normal e DA.

There is limited data regarding the cognitive profile from screening tests of older adults with bipolar disorder (BD) with dementia. Objective To investigate the Clock Drawing Test (CDT) among older adults with BD with and without Alzheimer’s disease (AD). Method 209 older adults (79 with BD without dementia and 70 controls; 60 with AD, being 27 with BD) were included to evaluate the performance of three CDT scoring scales, beyond the Mini-Mental State Examination (MMSE) and verbal fluency (VFT). Results Patients with BD without dementia presented with lower scores in MMSE, VF and one CDT scoring scale than controls. Patients with BD and AD presented with lower scores in VF and CDT scoring scales than patients with only AD. All CDT scales presented similar sensitivity and specificity for BD and non-BD groups. Conclusion Elderly subjects with BD showed greater impairment in CDT in both groups of normal cognition and AD.

Os efeitos da galantamina (GAL) sobre qualidade de vida (QdV) e velocidade de processamento cognitivo, bem como da combinação com nimodipina (NIM) no tratamento da doença de Alzheimer (DA) com doença cerebrovascular (demência mista) ainda não foram investigados. Método : Estudo multicêntrico brasileiro, duplo-cego, controlado com placebo, avaliando os efeitos de GAL/NIM x GAL/placebo (PLA) na demência mista leve a moderada. Pacientes receberam tratamento com GAL/NIM ou GAL/PLA por 24 semanas. Medidas de eficácia primária foram as variações no desempenho em bateria de testes neuropsicológicos computadorizados e na escala QdV-DA ao final do estudo. Resultados : Vinte um pacientes receberam pelo menos uma dose da droga (9 GAL/NIM e 12 GAL/PLA). Os grupos foram emparelhados por idade, sexo, escolaridade, escores cognitivos e de QdV na linha de base. Não foram observadas diferenças significativas entre os dois grupos nas medidas de eficácia primária e secundária. Na avaliação de todos os pacientes que receberam GAL, houve melhora significativa (p<0,05) em QdV-DA e desempenho cognitivo. Os eventos adversos foram predominantemente leves a moderados. Conclusão : O tratamento com GAL proporcionou melhora da QdV na demência mista, além dos benefícios cognitivos previamente conhecidos. A combinação GAL/NIM não foi vantajosa. O reduzido tamanho amostral impede conclusões definitivas.

The effects of galantamine (GAL) on quality of life (QoL) and cognitive speed, as well its effects combined with nimodipine (NIM) in Alzheimer disease (AD) with cerebrovascular disease (mixed dementia), have not been explored. Method : Double-blind, placebo-controlled, multicenter Brazilian trial, studying the effects of GAL/NIM vs. GAL/placebo (PLA) in mild to moderate mixed dementia. Patients were randomized to receive GAL/NIM or GAL/PLA for 24 weeks. Primary efficacy measures were changes on a computerized neuropsychological battery (CNTB) and QoL Scale in Alzheimer's Disease (QoL-AD) from baseline to week 24. Results : Twenty-one patients received at least one drug dose (9 GAL/NIM and 12 GAL/PLA). Groups were matched for age, sex, education, cognitive and QoL scores at baseline. No significant differences were observed between groups on primary or secondary measures. QoL and cognitive performance showed significant improvement (p<0.05) from baseline when all GAL-treated patients were analyzed. Adverse events were predominantly mild to moderate. Conclusion : GAL treatment improved QoL in mixed dementia, in addition to its previously known cognitive benefits. The combination GAL/NIM was not advantageous. However, the small sample size precludes any definitive conclusions. Trial registered at ClinicalTrials.gov: NCT00814658

Contexto : O lítio é um tratamento de primeira linha para o transtorno bipolar, em todas as fases, e também é indicado como terapia adjunta para a depressão unipolar e prevenção do suicídio. Este estudo abrange uma ampla revisão crítica sobre a segurança e a tolerabilidade do lítio para transtornos do humor. Métodos : Uma busca informatizada para estudos com humanos escritos em inglês foi feita no MEDLINE, usando as palavras-chave “lítio” e “transtornos de humor”, a partir de julho de 1993 a julho de 2013 (n = 416). Esta pesquisa inicial teve como objetivo selecionar ensaios clínicos, estudos prospectivos e estudos controlados com tratamento com lítio para transtornos de humor, relatando efeitos adversos (n = 36). A seleção final identificou 91 estudos. Resultados : Os efeitos colaterais mais comuns nos pacientes em tratamento com lítio foram sede, micção frequente, boca seca, ganho de peso, fadiga e queixas cognitivas. Usuários de lítio mostraram uma alta prevalência de hipotireoidismo, hiperparatireoidismo e diminuição da capacidade de concentração urinária. Também foi observada redução da taxa de filtração glomerular em pacientes utilizando lítio, mas em menor grau. A evidência de teratogenicidade associada com o uso de lítio não está bem estabelecida. Os medicamentos anti-inflamatórios não esteroides, diuréticos, inibidores da enzima de conversão da angiotensina e alprazolam podem aumentar o lítio sérico e o consequente risco de intoxicação. Conclusões : O tratamento de curto prazo com lítio está associado com efeitos colaterais leves. No entanto, tratamentos de médio a longo prazo com lítio podem ter efeitos sobre órgãos-alvo que podem ser prevenidos por acompanhamento periódico. Em geral, o lítio é ainda uma alternativa segura para o tratamento dos transtornos de humor.

Background : Lithium is a first-line treatment for bipolar disorder in all phases, also indicated as add-on drug for unipolar depression and suicide prevention. This study encompasses a broad critical review on the safety and tolerability of lithium for mood disorders. Methods : A computerized search for English written human studies was made in MEDLINE, using the keywords “lithium” and “mood disorders”, starting from July 1993 through July 2013 (n = 416). This initial search aimed to select clinical trials, prospective data, and controlled design studies of lithium treatment for mood disorders reporting adverse effects (n = 36). The final selection yielded 91 studies. Results : The most common general side effects in patients on lithium treatment were thirst, frequent urination, dry mouth, weight gain, fatigue and cognitive complaints. Lithium users showed a high prevalence of hypothyroidism, hyperparathyroidism, and decrease in urinary concentration ability. Reduction of glomerular filtration rate in patients using lithium was also observed, but in a lesser extent. The evidence of teratogenicity associated with lithium use is not well established. Anti-inflammatory non-steroidal drugs, thiazide diuretics, angiotensin-converting enzyme inhibitors, and alprazolam may increase serum lithium and the consequent risk for intoxication. Discussion : Short-term lithium treatment is associated with mild side effects. Medium and long-term lithium treatment, however, might have effects on target organs which may be prevented by periodical monitoring. Overall, lithium is still a safe option for the treatment of mood disorders.

Objective: It has been postulated that mood stabilizers inhibit glycogen synthase kinase 3-beta (Gsk3β) activity, mainly through its phosphorylation on serine-9 (Ser9). However, in vivo studies addressing Gsk3β activity in patients with bipolar disorder are scarce. Here, we compare Gsk3β inactivation (as indicated by Ser9-phosphorylation) in platelets of elderly patients with bipolar disorder undergoing clinical treatment and healthy elderly adults not taking medication. Methods: Platelet samples were obtained from 37 elderly adults (bipolar disorder = 19, controls = 18). Relative changes in Gsk3β inactivation was estimated by comparing the ratios of phosphorylated Gsk3β to total Gsk3β (p-Gsk3β Ser9/Gsk3β) between the disease and control groups. Results: Phosphorylated-Gsk3β (p < 0.001) and the p-Gsk3β Ser9/Gsk3β ratio (p = 0.006) were elevated in bipolar patients. In the bipolar disorder group, p-Gsk3β Ser9/Gsk3β was positively correlated with serum lithium levels (r = 0.478, p = 0.039). Conclusions: Gsk3β inactivation is higher in this group of elderly adults undergoing treatment for bipolar disorder. However, whether the treatment or the disease causes Gsk3β inactivation was confounded by the lack of an unmedicated, bipolar control group and the non-uniform treatment regimens of the bipolar disorder group. Thus, further studies should help distinguish whether Gsk3β inactivation is an effect of drug treatment or an intrinsic characteristic of bipolar disorder.

Limited information is available about subjective memory and strategy use in seniors with mild cognitive impairment (MCI). We investigated whether differences exist in the perception of changes in memory, perceived frequency of forgetting, overall memory evaluation, and strategy use between seniors with MCI and unimpaired older adults. The study included 56 participants, aged 60 years and older, including 28 normal controls (NC) and 28 MCI patients. The participants completed the Short Cognitive Performance Test, the Story and Grocery list recall tasks, the 15-item Geriatric Depression Scale, the Memory Complaint Questionnaire for the perception of changes in episodic memory, the McNair Frequency of Forgetting Questionnaire, and a single question that evaluated overall memory. The Bousfield semantic clustering measure was calculated to assess semantic clustering for list recall. The number of underlined words during story encoding was calculated to assess strategy use. Participants with MCI had significantly worse scores on Story and Grocery list recall, semantic clustering, and overall memory evaluation. No differences were found in the number of underlined words. List recall was significantly correlated with semantic clustering in both groups (NC: r = .58, p = .001; MCI: r = .57, p = .002). Participants with MCI appeared to be less efficacious when using memory strategies, which may be associated with poor memory performance.