Fractal geometry allows describing theoretically structures of diverse nature. From this it obtain the fractal dimension of fragmentation (D), which is related to the partitioning and scaling presented by them, and which has been used in the characterization and study of the size distribution soil particle (DTP). It was proposed to apply the fractal model and investigate the process of micro-structuring in six agricultural soils of the Pampean meadow that have contrasting DTP. The DTP and D were obtained under two pretreatments, one without organic matter (SMO), maximum dispersion, and the other with organic matter (CMO), thus preserving the microstructure. The fractal model applied to the DTP with the SMO pretreatment, in silty loam soils, was able to describe on average 98% of the mass analyzed; in sandy loam soil it adjusted to 50 μm, describing 38% of the mass, while the sandy loam soil did not adjust to the fractal model. With the larger sizes of the sands, they obtained D close to 3, showing Euclidean characteristics, not fractals. The DTP for the CMO pretreatment had similar behavior among the evaluated soils, compared to the SMO pretreatment, the percentages of the fractions corresponding to the clay and silt sizes decreased; and the percentage of the size of the sands increased. These fractions, CMO, were called "apparent clay, silt and sand". The D from the SMO pretreatment were greater than those obtained under the CMO pretreatment. The decrease of the D of the pretreatment CMO, was interpreted as an apparent thickening of the soil product of the microstructure by organic matter (OM). The fit between the contents of apparent clays vs OM was not significant (p = 0.37). The apparent silt fraction vs OM, adjusted significantly to a negative exponential function while the contents of the apparent sands vs OM adjusted significantly with a positive exponential function. The variations of OM significantly modify the microstructure in the silt and sand sizes while the fraction of clay size would be independent of the OM content of the soil, in the analyzed range. In temperate Pampas soils, with a proportion of clay + silt close to 90%, the OM by microstructure reduces the contents of clay and silt size particles, increasing the sand size to values close to 55% and these modifications can be interpreted using the model fractal.

La geometría fractal permite describir teóricamente estructuras de diversa naturaleza. De esta se obtiene, la dimensión fractal de fragmentación (D), la cual, está relacionada con el particionamiento y escalamiento que presentan las mismas, y que ha sido empleada en la caracterización y estudio de distribución de tamaño de partículas del suelo (DTP). Se planteó aplicar el modelo fractal e investigar sobre el proceso de microestructuración en seis suelos agrícolas de la pradera pampeana con DTP contrastantes. Las DTP y las D se obtuvieron bajo dos pretratamientos, uno sin materia orgánica (SMO), máxima dispersión, y otro con materia orgánica (CMO) conservando así la microestructura. El modelo fractal aplicado a la DTP con el pretratamiento SMO, en los suelos franco limosos, alcanzó a describir en promedio el 98% de la masa analizada; en el suelo franco arenoso ajustó hasta los 50 μm, describiendo el 38% de la masa, mientas que el suelo areno franco no ajustó al modelo fractal. Con los tamaños mayores de de las arenas se obtuvieron D próximas a 3, mostrando características euclideanas, no fractales. Las DTP para el pretratamiento CMO tuvieron similar comportamiento entre los suelos evaluados, comparado con el pretratamiento SMO, disminuyeron los porcentajes de las fracciones correspondientes a los tamaños arcilla y limo; y aumentó el porcentaje del tamaño de las arenas. A estas fracciones, CMO, se las denominó "arcilla, limo y arena aparentes". Las D a partir del pretratamiento SMO fueron mayores que las obtenidas bajo el pretratamiento CMO. La disminución de la D del pretratamiento CMO, se interpretó como un engrosamiento aparente del suelo producto de la microestructuración por materia orgánica (MO). El ajuste entre los contenidos de arcillas aparentes vs MO no fue significativo (p=0,37). La fracción limo aparente vs MO, ajustó significativamente a una función exponencial negativa mientras que los contenidos de las arenas aparentes vs MO ajustaron significativamente con una función exponencial positiva. Las variaciones de MO modifican significativamente la microestructuración en los tamaños limo y arena mientras que la fracción de tamaño arcilla sería independiente del contenido de MO del suelo, en el rango analizado. En suelos templados pampeanos, con proporción de arcilla+limo próximas al 90%, la MO por microestructuración, reduce los contenidos de partículas de tamaños arcilla y limo incrementando las de tamaño arenas a valores próximos al 55% y estas modificaciones pueden interpretarse empleando el modelo fractal.

ABSTRACT: Determination of soil physical quality (SPQ) is very important because it is related to many important soil processes. However, it is not clear which indicators should be considered in this evaluation, and information about temporal variation of SPQ under different soil tillage systems is scarce. The aim of this study was to determine the effects of no tillage (NT) and conventional tillage (CT) on temporal variation of capacity SPQ indicators [bulk density (BD), macroporosity (Pmac), air capacity (AC), plant available water capacity (PAWC), relative field capacity (RFC), Dexter's (S), and structural stability index (SSI)], and dynamic SPQ indicators [field saturated hydraulic conductivity (K0), water-conducting macroporosity (εma), and mesoporosity (εme); and pore continuity indexes based on water flux of total porosity (CWTP), of macroporosity (CWmac), and of mesoporosity (Cwmes)]. Additionally, the effect of the soil management system on corn yield was evaluated. Measurements and determinations were made at four different moments/cropping stages in the corn growing season (BS: before seeding; V6: six leaf stage; R5: physiological maturity; and AH: after harvest). Capacity SPQ indicators were derived from the soil water retention curve determined using sand box and pressure chambers, and dynamic SPQ indicators were derived from field infiltration data measured using a tension disc infiltrometer. Most capacity SPQ indicators were affected by the moment/cropping stage in which samples were taken, but followed similar trends and had similar values under both treatments, particularly in the AH stage. Dynamic SPQ indicators varied differently during the growing season depending on the management system. Under NT, most dynamic indicators increase from BS to V6 and decrease again at AH, whereas under CT, they follow a different trend, decreasing from BS to V6, remaining constant until R5, and increasing at AH. Corn yield was lower under CT (NT: 10,939 kg ha−1; CT: 8,265 kg ha−1). These results emphasize the need to include dynamic SPQ indicators, and their temporal variation when evaluating cropping systems with the aim of modeling crop yields. The capacity SPQ indicators were not able to distinguish between treatments.

Soil water diffusivity (D) determination is important as this hydraulic property is fundamental in order to characterize unsaturated water and solute transport in soils. Determination of this property is complex, time consuming, and requires quite expensive instruments. The objectives of this work were: i) to propose a simpler and more robust method based on an improvement of Whisler et al. (1968) to determine the soil water diffusivity function and ii) to determine D and sorptivity (S) in a soil under different management systems. Soil A-horizon was sampled under three management systems (T1: Natural grassland, T2: Polyphitic Pasture, and T3: no tillage). The samples were sieved through a 2 mm mesh, and afterwards packed into 70 cm long and 10 cm diameter columns. The columns were analyzed under horizontal infiltration and D was determined as a function of soil water content that varied in function of time for fixed positions along the column, these latter were obtained from low cost soil moisture capacitance sensors. The results showed that the proposed methodology was valid for the studied soils. The soil management system significantly affected D and S values. D values corresponding to T3 were greater compared to T1 and T2 (D values ranged between 0.00033 and 0.0321 cm² s-1) implying that these soils had the ability to transmit water easier under non-saturated conditions than under grazing. In conclusion, the proposed methodology in this work allowed to determine D in a simple and low cost way, and to analyze the influence of soil management systems on this property.

La determinación de la Difusividad (D) del agua en el suelo es importante ya que caracteriza el flujo de agua en condiciones no saturadas. Estimarla es complejo, ya que consume tiempo y generalmente se necesita equipo costoso para hacerlo. Los objetivos de este trabajo fueron: 1- proponer una mejora en el método de Whisler et al. (1968) haciéndolo más simple y robusto, aportando herramientas para probar la validez de la ecuación de Richards en su forma de difusividad y el cumplimiento de los supuestos del modelo y 2- Determinar la D en función del contenido de humedad (θ) y S en un suelo bajo distintas situaciones productivas. Para esto, se tomaron muestras del horizonte superficial de tres lotes contiguos bajo distintos sistemas de manejo (T1: Pastizal natural, T2: Pastura polifítica y T3: Siembra Directa). Las muestras se secaron, tamizaron por 2 mm y se empaquetaron en columnas de PVC de 70 cm de largo y 10 cm de diámetro interno. Las columnas de suelo se sometieron a infiltración horizontal y se determinó la D a distintos valores de θ y la S. Se utilizaron sensores de humedad de capacitancia de bajo costo en puntos fijos de la columna. Los resultados encontrados muestran la validez de la metodología para los suelos estudiados. En cuanto a la influencia del manejo, se encontraron diferencias significativas en los valores de D entre los tratamientos. El T3 presentó mayores valores de D a todas las humedades, y de S, que T1 y T2 (los valores de D estuvieron entre 0,00033 y 0,0321 cm² s-1), lo que indica mayor facilidad para transmitir agua en condiciones no saturadas en el manejo agrícola, lo cual se atribuyó a la influencia negativa del pisoteo animal. La metodología propuesta permitió estimar de manera consistente, simple y de bajo costo la D y estudiar su relación con el manejo del suelo.

The specific surface area of soil samples was estimated by the method of nitrogen adsorption at 78 K, and it was related to the water retention capacity, clay content, cation exchange capacity, and the amount of water retained on the exposed soil surface, in an approximation of superimposed layers. Twenty seven Oxisols were investigated. Soil moisture retention was studied at water potentials -33, -500, -1000 and -1500 kPa. The specific surface area was positively correlated to soil moisture and with clay content. No relationship was found between specific surface area and cation exchange capacity. Between specific surface area and soil organic content only a weak correlation was found. The specific surface area was related with soil moisture content by linear equations obtained by the regression method of data, for each water potential applied. The results showed that the specific surface area of these Oxisols can be reasonable estimated by water retention in a wide range of matrix potentials. Finally, from the obtained data on specific surface area and water retention it was possible to estimate the thickness of the water film covering the entire surface of the soil pores exposed to the air.

Se estimó la superficie específica (SE) de muestras de suelos mediante el método de adsorción de nitrógeno a 78 K, y se la relacionó con la capacidad de retención hídrica (RH), el contenido de arcilla, la capacidad de intercambio catiónico efectiva (CIC), y la cantidad de agua retenida sobre la superficie expuesta del suelo, en una aproximación de capas superpuestas. Se trabajó con veintisiete Oxisoles a potenciales hídricos equivalentes de -33, -500, -1000 y -1500 kPa. Se encontró una correlación positiva significativa entre la SE y RH, así como con el contenido de arcilla. No hubo una relación significativa de la dependencia entre la SE y la CIC. Entre la SE y el contenido de materia orgánica la correlación fue débil. La SE se relacionó con la RH por medio de ecuaciones de regresión lineal para cada potencial aplicado. Los resultados mostraron que la SE de estos Oxisoles puede ser estimada adecuadamente por la retención de agua en el suelo en una amplia gama de potenciales matriciales. Finalmente, de la información de SE y RH para cada suelo se pudo estimar la cantidad de capas de agua que cubren toda la superficie de los poros expuesta al aire.

Dois cultivares argentinos de trigo (Triticum aestivium L), Buck Cencerro (BC), com germoplasma tradicional e Buck Pucará (BP), com germoplasma mexicano, foram pesquisados para comparar as características anatômicas e fisiológicas da folha bandeira medida no espigamento (estádio E59), na antese (estádio E69) e na fase de grão aquoso completo (estádio E71). Nos dois cultivares, a taxa fotossintética foi semelhante no mesmo estágio fenológico, exceto no E71. As médias no estádio E59 foram superiores às dos estágios E69 e E71 nos dois cultivares (22,70; 18,40 e 10,40 µmol m-2 s-1 para o BP e 23,82; 18,41 e 8,28 µmol m-2 s-1 para o BC, respectivamente). Nos três estádios, as taxas de transpiração foram maiores no BP (5,0; 5,6 e 4,89 mmol m-2 s-1) comparado ao BC (3,3; 4,4 e 2,57 mmol m-2 s-1). Consequentemente, a eficiência de uso instantâneo de água foi maior no BC, quando comparado com o BP. Não foram observadas diferenças de área foliar específica para cultivares e estádios fenológicos (área do mesófilo por unidade de massa), determinada por adsorção física de nitrogênio a baixa temperatura (78° K), registrando-se média geral de 8,9 m² g-1. Esse valor foi semelhante a outros reportados em trabalhos prévios com T. aestivum L. e maiores que os determinados para Ligustrum lucidum Aiton, pela mesma técnica. As diferenças podem ser atribuídas à rugosidade da parede celular e as próprias dimensões da célula. Não houve correlação positiva entre área específica e taxa fotossintética para cultivares ou estádios fenológicos.

Two Argentine field grown wheat cultivars (Triticum aestivum L.), Buck Cencerro (BC) with traditional germoplasm, and Buck Pucará (BP) with Mexican germoplasm, have been investigated in order to compare anatomical and physiological characteristics of the flag leaf measured in heading (stage E59), anthesis (stage E69) and kernel water ripe (stage 71). In both cultivars, photosynthetic rate was not different for the same phenological stage, except for E71. Averages in stage E59 were higher than stages E69 and E71 for both cultivars (22.70, 18.40 and 10.40 µmol m-2 s-1 for BP and 23.82, 18.41 and 8.28 µmol m-2 s-1 for BC, respectively). Transpiration rates were higher in BP (5.0, 5.6 and 4.89 mmol m-2 s-1) than BC (3.3, 4.4 and 2.57 mmol m-2 s-1) for stages E59, E69 and E71, respectively. Consequently, instantaneous water use efficiencies were higher in BC than in BP. No difference between cultivars and phenological stages was observed in specific surface area (mesophyll area per unit mass) determined by physical adsorption of nitrogen at low temperature (78° K); the mean was 8.9 m² g-1. It was similar as values found in previous works, in others T. aestivum L. and greater than the values found for Ligustrum lucidum Aiton, by the same technique. Differences could be attributed to the roughness of the cell wall and the dimensions of the cell itself. No positive correlation between specific surface and photosynthetic rate was observed neither for cultivars nor for phenological stages.