ABSTRACT The cow somatic cell count (CSCC) is an indicator of intramammary infection (IMI), and it has been used to make decisions at dry-off about selective dry cow therapy (SDCT). This study assessed ex-ante the economic impact of implementing SDCT under milk production conditions in Argentina, using CSCC to identify cows with IMI at dry-off. Eighty six cows were sampled at dry-off and considered being infected if at least one quarter was infected with major mastitis pathogens. The CSCC sensitivity and specificity were estimated using the CSCC recorded from the test-day prior to dry-off. A simulation model was then developed to look into the economic benefits of applying SDCT under two herd level IMI prevalence (low: 5-15%, and high: 16-25%) at dry-off. The input variables were obtained from the field study, scientific literature, and real-world prices. The output was the net economic difference (NED) between SDCT and blanket dry cow therapy at the herd level. The sensitivity and specificity estimated for identifying cows infected with major pathogens for a CSCC threshold of 200,000 cells/mL were 31.4 (95% CI, 14.6-48.2) and 64.7 (95% CI, 50.6-78.8), respectively; the value for NED was maximized to -634 US$ and -455 US$ in the low and high IMI prevalence, respectively. In general, CSCC specificity was the variable with the most impact on NED and, in high IMI prevalence, milk price had a similar relevance. Thus, SDCT based on CSCC is a cost-effective option, under the milk production conditions in Argentina.

RESUMO A contagem das células somáticas por vaca (CCSV) é um indicador da infecção intramamária (IIM). A CCSV tem sido usada para decidir o tratamento com antibiótico no esquema de terapia seletiva de vacas secas (TSVS). O estudo avaliou ex-ante o impacto econômico da implementação do TSVS nas condições de produção da Argentina, usando a CCSV para identificar IIM na secagem. Foram coletadas amostras do leite de 86 vacas no momento da secagem para determinar IIM com os principais patógenos associados à mastite. A sensibilidade e especificidade da CCSV foram estimadas através dos dados obtidos no controle do leite antes da secagem. Foi desenvolvido um modelo de simulação para determinar os benefícios econômicos da aplicação do TSVS em dois cenários de prevalência de IIM (baixo: 5-15%; alto: 16-25%). O resultado do modelo foi a diferença econômica liquida (DEL) entre TSVS e a terapia em massa no nível do rebanho. A sensibilidade e especificidade estimadas para identificar vacas infectadas com os principais patógenos para um valor limite de 200.000 células/mL na CCSV foram de 31,4 (95% IC, 14,6-48,2) y 64,7 (95% IC, 50,6-78,8), respectivamente. O DEL máximo foi de US$ -635 e US$ 455 nos cenários de prevalência baixa e alta, respectivamente. Em forma geral, a especificidade da CSCC foi a variável de maior impacto sobre o DEL e no cenário de alta prevalência de IIM o preço do leite teve relevância semelhante. Portanto, o TSVS baseado em CCSV é uma opção econômica nas condições de produção na Argentina.

The objective of this observational study was to evaluate the relationship between cow- and herd-level factors and cow udder health status, measured by composite milk sample somatic cell count (CSCC) in dairy herds from Córdoba, Argentina. The study population was dairy farms of a size of 100 to 250 cows; 48 randomly selected dairy herds were visited during 2007. Each visit involved a milking routine inspection, an interview to the dairyman and the collection of 45 milk composite samples from cows selected by a random systematic procedure. Parity and days in milk were recorded for each cow sampled. The somatic cell count was determined with a Somacount 300, and then a natural logarithmic transformation of SCC values was used. A general linear mixed regression model looking at herd as a random effect was fitted. The mean of somatic cell count in 2,140 cows was 5.38 (SD=1.56). Dry cow therapy, milk strip and dairymen age as herd factors, lactation days and parity as cow factors, were associated with somatic cell count. The incremental effect on somatic cell count for cow attributes was greater than herd factors. This information will help to device herd programs to improve udder health in Argentina.

El objetivo del presente estudio fue evaluar la relación entre la salud mamaria, utilizando recuento celular somático de leche compuesta, y factores a nivel de vaca y rodeo en tambos de Córdoba, Argentina. La población de estudio fueron rodeos con 100 a 250 vacas en ordeñe. En 48 tambos seleccionados aleatoriamente y visitados durante el año 2007, se inspeccionó la rutina de ordeñe, se entrevistó al tambero y se colectaron en promedio 45 muestras compuestas de leche de vacas seleccionadas aleatoriamente, de estas se registró fecha y número de parto. El recuento celular somático fue determinado con equipo Somacount 300 y su valor transformado a logaritmo natural. Se ajustó un modelo de regresión lineal generalizado mixto con el rodeo como efecto aleatorio. La media de recuento celular somático en las 2.140 vacas seleccionadas fue 5,38 (Desvío estándar =1,56). Terapia al secado, despunte y edad del tambero, como factores de rodeo, días en lactancia y número de partos, como factores a nivel de vaca, fueron asociados al recuento celular somático. El efecto incremental para los factores a nivel de vaca fue mayor que para los factores de rodeo. La información provista podría contribuir a diseñar programas para mejorar la salud mamaria en Argentina.

Coagulase-negative staphylococci (CNS) are a common cause of bovine subclinical mastitis (SCM). The prevalence of CNS species causing SCM identified by genotyping varies among countries. Overall, the antimicrobial resistance in this group of organisms is increasing worldwide; however, little information exists about a CNS species resistant to antibiotics. The aim of the present study was to genotypically characterize CNS at species level and to determine the prevalence and antibiotic resistance profiles of CNS species isolated from bovine SCM in 51 dairy herds located in the central region of the province of Cordoba, Argentina. In this study, we identified 219 CNS isolates at species level by PCR-restriction fragment length polymorphism of the groEL gene. Staphylococcus chromogenes (46.6%) and Staphylococcus haemolyticus (32%) were the most prevalent species. A minimum of three different CNS species were present in 41.2% of the herds. S. chromogenes was isolated from most of the herds (86.3%), whereas S. haemolyticus was isolated from 66.7% of them. The broth microdilution method was used to test in vitro antimicrobial susceptibility. Resistance to a single compound or two related compounds was expressed in 43.8% of the isolates. S. chromogenes and S. haemolyticus showed a very high proportion of isolates resistant to penicillin. Resistance to two or more non-related antimicrobials was found in 30.6% of all CNS. S. haemolyticus exhibited a higher frequency of resistance to two or more non-related antimicrobials than S. chromogenes.

Los estafilococos coagulasa negativos (ECN) son una causa frecuente de mastitis subclínica (MSC) en bovinos. La prevalencia de especies de ECN causantes de MSC identificadas por métodos genotípicos varía entre países. La resistencia antimicrobiana en este grupo de organismos se está incrementando en el mundo; sin embargo, existe poca información acerca de las especies de ECN resistentes a antibióticos. Los objetivos del presente estudio fueron caracterizar genotípicamente los ECN a nivel de especie y determinar la prevalencia y los perfiles de resistencia a antibióticos de las especies de ECN aisladas de MSC en bovinos de 51 rodeos situados en la provincia de Córdoba, Argentina. Mediante polimorfismos de los fragmentos de restricción del gen groEL identificamos 219 aislamientos de ECN a nivel de especie. Staphylococcus chromogenes (46,6%) y Staphylococcus haemolyticus (32%) fueron las especies más prevalentes. Un mínimo de 3 especies diferentes de ECN estuvieron presentes en el 41,2% de los tambos. S. chromogenes fue aislado en la mayoría de los tambos (86,3%), mientras que S. haemolyticus fue aislado en el 66,7% de aquellos. Para el análisis de sensibilidad a los antimicrobianos in vitro se usó el método de microdilución en caldo. La resistencia a un único compuesto o a 2 compuestos relacionados fue expresada en el 43,8% de los aislamientos. S. chromogenes y S. haemolyticus mostraron una muy elevada proporción de aislamientos resistentes a penicilina. La resistencia a 2 o más antimicrobianos no relacionados fue hallada en el 30,6% de los ECN. S. haemolyticus exhibió una frecuencia de resistencia a 2 o más antimicrobianos no relacionados más elevada que S. chromogenes.

The aim of this study was to perform a current molecular characterization of bovine pathogenic Escherichia coli strains isolated from random samplings in Argentinean dairy farms. Rectal swabs were obtained from 395 (63.7 %) healthy and 225 (36.3 %) diarrheic calves, belonging to 45 dairy farms in Cordoba Province, Argentina. E. coli isolates were examined for virulence genes (f5, f41, f17, sta, stb, lt, eae, vt) using PCR and the prevalence of E. coli virulence profiles was spatially described in terms of spatial distribution. A total of 30.1 % isolates were found to be positive for at least one of the virulence genes. Depending on the different gene combinations present, 11 virulence profiles were found. Most of the isolates analyzed had a single gene, and no combination of fimbrial and enterotoxin gene was predominant. There was no association between the frequency and distribution of E. coli virulence genes and calf health status. Most of the virulence profiles were compatible with ETEC strains and showed a homogeneous distribution over the sampled area. A clustering pattern for E. coli virulence profiles could not be recognized. This work provides updated information on the molecular characterization of pathogenic E. coli strains from dairy herds in Cordoba, Argentina. These findings would be important to formulate prevention programs and effective therapies for diarrhea in calves caused by E. coli.

El objetivo de este trabajo fue realizar una caracterización molecular actualizada de cepas patógenas bovinas de Escherichia coli aisladas de un muestreo aleatorio en tambos de una de las principales zonas lecheras de Argentina. Se obtuvieron hisopados rectales de 395 terneros neonatos sanos (63,7 %) y 225 diarreicos (36,3 %) pertenecientes a 45 tambos de la provincia de Córdoba, Argentina. Los genes de virulencia f5, f41, f17, sta, stb, lt, eae y vt se analizaron mediante PCR y se investigó la prevalencia de los perfiles de virulencia en función de la distribución geográfica. La prevalencia de aislamientos de E. coli patogénicos con al menos un gen de virulencia fue del 30,1 %. Once perfiles de virulencia fueron identificados, dependiendo de la combinación de genes presentes. La mayor parte de las muestras presentó un solo gen de virulencia, y no predominó ninguna combinación de genes de fimbrias y toxinas. No hubo asociación entre la frecuencia y la distribución de los genes de virulencia y el estado de salud de los terneros. La mayoría de los perfiles de virulencia fueron compatibles con cepas ECET y se distribuyeron cubriendo toda el área geográfica muestreada. No se reconoció ningún patrón de agrupamiento espacial para dichos perfiles. Este trabajo provee información actualizada sobre la caracterización molecular de E. coli patógena en rodeos lecheros de Córdoba, Argentina. Estos resultados serían importantes para formular programas preventivos y terapias eficaces contra la diarrea bovina causada por E. coli.

The aim of this study was to investigate the phenotypic and genotypic characteristics of Streptococcus uberis isolated from subclinical mastitis (SCM) cases, and to examine the possible association between both characteristics. A total of 32 S. uberis were isolated from 772 quarter milk samples (SCM > 250,000 cells/ml) collected from 195 cows selected randomly from 18 dairy farms located in Argentina. The S. uberis strains were characterized phenotypically by the presence of virulence factors as plasminogen activator factor (PAF), hyaluronidase (HYA), capsule (CAP) and CAMP factor, and were further characterized genotypically by pulsed-field gel electrophoresis (PFGE). S. uberis strains expressed plasminogen activator factor, hyaluronidase or capsule (65.5 %, 56.3 %, 59.4 %, respectively), but only 25 % of isolates were CAMP factor positive. Thirteen different virulence profiles were identified on the basis of the combination of virulence factors. Eighteen PFGE patterns with 90% of similarity were identified among 32 S. uberis. A great diversity of virulence profiles and PFGE patterns were present among dairy farms. S. uberis strains with the same PFGE pattern showed different virulence profiles. Bovine S. uberis strains causing SCM included in the present study showed heterogeneity in regard to their phenotypic and genotypic characteristics, and the PFGE patterns are not associated with the virulence profiles.

Caracterización fenotípica y genotípica de Streptococcus uberis aislados de mastitis bovina subclínica en tambos de Argentina. El objetivo de este estudio fue investigar las características fenotípicas y genotípicas de Streptococcus uberis aislados de casos de mastitis subclínica (MSC) y examinar la posible asociación entre ambas características. Un total de 32 cepas de S. uberis fueron aisladas de 772 muestras de leche de cuartos mamarios (MSC > 25 0000 células/ml) colectadas de 195 vacas seleccionadas al azar pertenecientes a 18 tambos lecheros localizados en Argentina. Las cepas de S. uberis fueron caracterizadas fenotípicamente sobre la base de la presencia de factores de virulencia tales como el factor activador del plasminógeno (FAP), la hialuronidasa (HIA), la cápsula (CAP) y el factor CAMP. Además, fueron caracterizadas genotípicamente por electroforesis de campos pulsados (PFGE). Las cepas de S. uberis expresaron el factor activador del plasminógeno, la hialuronidasa o la cápsula (65,5 %, 56,3 % y 59,4 %, respectivamente), pero solo el 25 % fueron CAMP positivas. Sobre la base de la combinación de los factores de virulencia se identificaron 13 perfiles de virulencia diferentes. Asimismo, se identificaron 18 patrones de PFGE con un 90 % de similitud entre las 32 cepas de S. uberis. Se presentó una gran diversidad de perfiles de virulencia y patrones de PFGE entre los tambos. Cepas con el mismo patrón de PFGE presentaron perfiles de virulencia diferentes. Las cepas de S. uberis causantes de MSC en bovinos incluidas en el presente estudio mostraron heterogeneidad con respecto a sus características fenotípicas y genotípicas, y los patrones de PFGE no estuvieron asociados con los perfiles de virulencia.

Os objetivos deste estudo foram determinar a prevalência de Cryptosporidium spp. e Giardia spp., a presença de aglomerados, a distribuição espacial de acordo com o tipo de solo e padrões de eliminação de cistos e oocistos em bezerros de propriedades leiteiras em Córdoba, Argentina. Amostras fecais foram colhidas de 620 bezerros com menos de sete semanas de idade, provenientes de 43 propriedades leiteiras e examinadas pelas técnicas de formol-éter e Ziehl-Neelsen modificada. Foram realizadas uma análise univariada e o teste de Kruskal-Wallis e, em seguida, uma análise multivariada com a intensidade de eliminação de cistos e oocistos, como um evento. A presença de aglomerados foi determinada com o método de varredura e a análise espacial foi realizada para explorar a sobreposição de rebanhos com alta prevalência e tipo de solo. A prevalência de Cryptosporidium spp. e Giardia spp. foi de 19,35% (IC 95%: 16,14; 22,54) e 34,50% (IC 95%: 30,69; 38,34), respectivamente. A probabilidade de infecção por Cryptosporidium spp. foi quase quatro vezes maior para bezerros com menos de 2 semanas em comparação com os bezerros mais velhos (RR: 3,78, IC 95% 2,27; 6,26). O mesmo padrão de infecção relacionada à idade foi observado para Giardia spp. (RR: 1,33, IC 95% 1,02; 1,75). Foi encontrado um aglomerado primário com alta prevalência de Cryptosporidium spp., e rebanhos com alta prevalência foram localizados em solos mal drenados.

The objectives of this study were to estimate calf and herd prevalence of Cryptosporidium spp. and Giardia spp., the herd prevalence clustering, spatial distribution according to soil type and shedding patterns in dairy calves from Cordoba, Argentina. Six hundred twenty calves younger than 7 weeks of age from 43 dairy herds were sampled. Samples were processed with the formol-ether and modified Ziehl-Neelsen techniques. Univariate analysis and Kruskall-Wallis tests were used. Factors associated were subjected to multivariate analysis with calf shedding intensity as the response variable. Clustering of herd prevalence was assessed by a scan method, and spatial analysis was applied to explore the overlapping of high prevalence herds and soil type. Overall calf prevalence for Cryptosporidium spp. oocysts and Giardia spp. cysts were 19.35% (95% CI: 16.14; 22.54) and 34.50% (95% CI: 30.69; 38.34), respectively. Calves younger than two weeks of age were almost four times more likely to be infected with Cryptosporidium, in comparison to older ones (RR: 3.78, 95% CI: 2.27; 6.26). Giardia spp. shedding showed a similar age pattern (RR: 1.33, 95% CI: 1.02; 1.75). A primary cluster of high Cryptosporidium prevalence was found, and high prevalence herds were located in areas with poor drained soil.

Bacteriological contamination of well water and wash water in a random sample obtained from 50 farms from Villa María (Córdoba) dairy area, Argentina, was evaluated during a visit in 2007. Forty six percent and 24 % of farms showed an aerobic mesophilic bacteria count higher than 500 CFU/ml in wash water and well water, respectively. Escherichia coli was isolated in 20 % of samples from both sources. Pseudomonas aeruginosa showed high frequency of isolation in well water (36 %) and wash water (42 %). Eighty and eighty-eight percent of dairy farms have contaminated well water and wash water, respectively. The findings show moderate concordance between contamination of well water and wash water for mesophilic aerobics and total coliforms. The results reveal that a high percentage of dairy farms in the basin under study have poor bacteriological water quality, not suitable for milking and washing facilities.

Se evaluó la calidad bacteriológica del agua de pozo y del agua de lavado en una muestra aleatoria de 50 tambos distribuidos en la cuenca lechera de Villa María (Córdoba), Argentina. La visita a los tambos se realizó en 2007. Un 46 % y un 24 % de los tambos presentaron recuentos de aerobios mesófilos superiores a 500 UFC/ml en el agua de lavado y en el agua de pozo, respectivamente. En un 20 % de los establecimientos se aisló Escherichia coli de ambas fuentes de agua. Pseudomonas aeruginosa registró una alta frecuencia de aislamiento en el agua de pozo (36 %) y en la de lavado (42 %). Un 80 % y un 88 % de los establecimientos contaban con agua de pozo y de lavado no aptas, respectivamente. Los niveles de mesófilos aerobios y de coliformes totales presentes en el agua de pozo mostraron una concordancia moderada con los detectados en el agua destinada al lavado. En virtud de estos resultados, puede afirmarse que un elevado porcentaje de los tambos ubicados en la cuenca lechera de Villa María emplean agua de calidad bacteriológica deficiente, no apta para el ordeño ni el lavado de las instalaciones.