The multiplicity of epidemiological scenarios shown by Chagas Disease, derived from multiple transmission routes of the aetiological agent, occurring on multiple geo-ecobiosocial settings determines the complexity of the disease and reveal the difficulties for its control. From the first description of the link between the parasite, the vector and its domestic habitat and the disease that Carlos Chagas made in 1909, the epidemiological scenarios of the American Trypanosomiasis has shown a dynamic increasing complexity. These scenarios changed with time and geography because of new understandings of the disease from multiple studies, because of policies change at the national and international levels and because human movements brought the parasite and vectors to new geographies. Paradigms that seemed solid at a time were broken down, and we learnt about the global dispersion of Trypanosoma cruzi infection, the multiplicity of transmission routes, that the infection can be cured, and that triatomines are not only a health threat in Latin America. We consider the multiple epidemiological scenarios through the different T. cruzi transmission routes, with or without the participation of a Triatominae vector. We then consider the scenario of regions with vectors without the parasite, to finish with the consideration of future prospects.

Resumen Introducción. Los murciélagos se han reportado como huéspedes del protozoario Trypanosoma cruzi, agente etiológico de la tripanosomiasis americana, enfermedad zoonótica endémica en México. Objetivo. Describir la infección con T. cruzi en murciélagos capturados en los estados de Campeche y Yucatán, México. Materiales y métodos. Se realizaron capturas de marzo a noviembre de 2017 en tres sitios de Yucatán y uno de Campeche. Para la captura se emplearon hasta cuatro redes de niebla por dos noches consecutivas. Se identificó la especie de los murciélagos capturados y se les practicó la eutanasia para recolectar muestras de riñón y corazón, utilizadas posteriormente en la extracción de ADN total. La infección con T. cruzi se detectó por la amplificación con PCR convencional de un fragmento perteneciente al ADN nuclear de T. cruzi. Resultados. Se capturaron 86 murciélagos pertenecientes a cinco familias (Vespertilionidae, Noctilionidae, Mormoopidae, Phyllostomidae, Molossidae) y 13 especies (Rhogeessa aeneus, Noctilio leporinus, Pteronotus davyi, P. parnellii, Artibeus jamaicensis, A. lituratus, A. phaeotis, Glossophaga soricina, Carollia sowelli, Chiroderma villosum, Uroderma bilobatum, Sturnira parvidens y Molossus rufus). La PCR mostró una frecuencia de infección de 30,2 % (26/86), detectada únicamente en tejido renal. Las especies infectadas fueron P. parnellii, G. soricina, A. lituratus, A. jamaicensis, S. parvidens, C. villosum y R. aeneus. Conclusiones. Los resultados confirmaron la participación de varias especies de murciélagos como huéspedes en el ciclo de transmisión de T. cruzi en la región. Es necesario realizar más estudios para determinar la importancia de estos animales en la transmisión zoonótica de T. cruzi.

Abstract Introduction: Bats have been reported as hosts of the Trypanosoma cruzi protozoan, the etiologic agent of American trypanosomiasis, an endemic zoonotic disease in México. Objective: To describe T. cruzi infection in bats from the states of Campeche and Yucatán, México. Materials and methods: Captures were made from March to November, 2017 at three sites in Yucatán and one in Campeche. Up to four mist nets on two consecutive nights were used for the capture. The bats' species were identified and euthanasia was performed to collect kidney and heart samples for total DNA extraction. Trypanosoma cruzi infection was detected by conventional PCR with the amplification of a fragment belonging to the T. cruzi DNA nuclear. Results: Eighty-six bats belonging to five families (Vespertilionidae, Noctilionidae, Mormoopidae, Phyllostomidae, and Molossidae) and 13 species (Rhogeessa aeneus, Noctilio leporinus, Pteronotus davyi, P. parnellii, Artibeus jamaicensis, A. lituratus, A. phaeotis, Glossophaga soricina, Carollia sowelli, Chiroderma villosum, Uroderma bilobatum, Sturnira parvidens, and Molossus rufus) were captured. Infection frequency by PCR was 30,2% (26/86) detected only in the renal tissue. The infected species were P. parnellii, G. soricina, A. lituratus, A. jamaicensis, S. parvidens, C. villosum, and R. aeneus. Conclusions: Our results confirmed the participation of several bat species as hosts in the T. cruzi transmission cycle in the region. Further studies are necessary to establish the importance of these animals in the zoonotic transmission of T. cruzi.

Chagas disease prevention remains mostly based on triatomine vector control to reduce or eliminate house infestation with these bugs. The level of adaptation of triatomines to human housing is a key part of vector competence and needs to be precisely evaluated to allow for the design of effective vector control strategies. In this review, we examine how the domiciliation/intrusion level of different triatomine species/populations has been defined and measured and discuss how these concepts may be improved for a better understanding of their ecology and evolution, as well as for the design of more effective control strategies against a large variety of triatomine species. We suggest that a major limitation of current criteria for classifying triatomines into sylvatic, intrusive, domiciliary and domestic species is that these are essentially qualitative and do not rely on quantitative variables measuring population sustainability and fitness in their different habitats. However, such assessments may be derived from further analysis and modelling of field data. Such approaches can shed new light on the domiciliation process of triatomines and may represent a key tool for decision-making and the design of vector control interventions.

Bolivia is a high-endemic country for Chagas disease, for which the principal vector is Triatoma infestans (Triatominae). This is a mainly domestic species that is also found in the wild environment. Recently, an increasing number of studies have shown the importance of Triatominae resistance to insecticides, especially in Bolivia. Data regarding the susceptibility/resistance of wild and domestic populations of T. infestans to deltamethrin are presented. For the first time, domestic populations of the department of Santa Cruz were tested, showing low resistance. Although most of the wild populations were found to be susceptible to deltamethrin, three populations from three departments showed a mortality rate of less than 100%. This result is emphasised here.