During development, thyroid hormone deficiency results in delayed skeletal maturation and epiphyseal dysgenesis, resulting in reduced growth and skeletal abnormalities. Thyroid hormone also has effects on bones of adults. Thyrotoxicosis is frequently associated with increased bone turnover and decreased bone mass. However, the mechanisms that mediate its effects on bone tissue are poorly understood. Thyroid hormone acts indirectly in the skeleton, by increasing the secretion of growth hormone and insulin-like growth factor-1; or directly, by modulating target genes via specific nuclear receptors. In vitro findings, such as the presence of thyroid receptors (TRs) and the induction of genes and proteins in skeletal cells by thyroid hormone, emphasize the importance of direct actions. The aim of this review is to summarize the in vivo and in vitro findings related to the effects of thyroid hormone on the skeleton.
Hyperthyroidism; Hypothyroidism; Bone mass; Bone remodeling; Bone development; Osteoporosis