The End of the "Second Slavery" in the Confederate South and the Great Brigandage in Southern Italy: Some Comparative Suggestions

Lago, Enrico Dal

doi:10.1590/2236-463320120404

Abstract

Between 1861 and 1865, the newly formed Confederate nation and the Kingdom of Italy faced comparable crises of legitimacy, as the South of the former United States and southern Italy underwent the horrific ordeals of the American Civil War and of Italy's "Great Brigandage", also in itself a civil war. Even though on different scales and in different ways, the two civil wars affected relationships between the agrarian elites and their slave and peasant workers, leading to the shattering of the "second slavery" in the Confederate South and to a deep crisis in the landowning socio-economic system of southern Italy. Whereas the Confederate nation did not survive the crisis of legitimacy and collapsed under combined military pressure from the Union and internal opposition, the Kingdom of Italy survived the crisis of legitimacy at the cost of strengthening the government's authoritarian character and of the indiscriminate use of military force.

Keywords:
American Civil War; Great Brigandage; Confederate States of America; Kingdom of Italy; Second Slavery; Italian Mezzogiorno

Resumo

Entre 1861 e 1865, a nova nação Confederada e o Reino da Itália enfrentaram crises comparáveis de legitimidade, na medida em que o Sul dos antigos Estados Unidos da América e o sul da Itália passaram pelas terríveis experiências da Guerra Civil norte-americana e da "Grande Bandidagem" italiana, ela própria uma guerra civil. Mesmo que em escalas distintas e por diferentes caminhos, as duas guerras civis afetaram as relações entre respectivas elites agrárias e trabalhadores rurais escravos e camponeses, conduzindo ao esfacelamento da Segunda Escravidão no Sul Confederado e à profunda crise do sistema socioeconômico do latifúndio do sul da Itália. Mas, enquanto a nação Confederada não sobreviveu à crise de legitimidade, entrando em colapso diante da combinação entre pressão militar da União e oposição interna, o Reino da Itália sobreviveu à crise de legitimidade ao custo do fortalecimento do caráter autoritário do governo e do uso indiscriminado da força militar.

Palavras-chave:
Guerra Civil Americana; Grande Bandidagem; Estados Confederados da América; Reino da Itália; Segunda Escravidão; Mezzogiorno Italiano

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1
See especially DAVIS, David Brion. Inhuman Bondage: The Rise and Fall of Slavery in the New World. New York: Oxford University Press, 2006; BLACKBURN, Robin. The American Crucible: Slavery, Emancipation, and Human Rights. London: Verso, 2011; KOLCHIN, Peter. Unfree Labor: American Slavery and Russian Serfdom. Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1987; BOWMAN, Shearer Davis. Masters and Lords: Mid-Nineteenth Century Prussian Junkers and U.S. Planters. New York: Oxford University Press, 1993; SMITH, Mark. Old South Time in Comparative Perspective. American Historical Review, n.101, p.1432-1469, 1996; RUGEMER, Edward. The Problem of Emancipation: The Caribbean Origins of the Civil War. Baton Rouge: Louisiana State University Press, 2008; SCHOEN, Brian. The Fragile Fabric of Union: Cotton, Federal Politics, and the Global Origins of the Civil War. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 2009; BECKERT, Sven. Emancipation and Empire: Reconstructing the World Wide Web of Cotton Production in the Age of the American Civil War. American Historical Review, n.109, p.1405-1438, 2004; ROBERTS, Timothy. Distant Revolutions: 1848 and the Challenge to American Exceptionalism. Charlottesville: University of Virginia Press, 2009; TOMICH, Dale. Through the Prism of Slavery: Labor, Capital, and the World Economy. Lanham: Rowman and Littlefield, 2004. p.56-74; TOMICH, Dale and ZEUSKE, Michael. Introduction, The Second Slavery: Mass Slavery, World-Economy, and Comparative Microhistories. Review, n.31, p.91-100, 2008; and KAYE, Anthony. The Second Slavery: Modernity in the NineteenthCentury South and the Atlantic World. Journal of Southern History, n.75, p.627-650, 2009.
2
SCOTT, Rebecca. Degrees of Freedom: Louisiana and Cuba after Slavery. Baton Rouge: Louisiana State University Press, 2005; FREEHLING, William. The Reintegration of American History: Slavery and the Civil War. New York: Oxford University Press, 1994. p.176-219.
3
See HAHN, Steven. Class and State in Postemancipation Societies: Southern Planters in Comparative Perspective. American Historical Review n.95, p.75-98, 1990; BUSH, Michael L. Servitude in Modern Times. Cambridge: Polity, 2000; and particularly KOLCHIN, Peter. Some controversial questions concerning nineteenthcentury abolition from slavery and serfdom. In: BUSH, Michael L. (org.). Slavery and Serfdom: Studies in Legal Bondage. London: Longman, 1996. p.42-68.
4
See especially BENDER, Thomas. A Nation among Nations: America´s place in World History. New York: Hill and Wang, 2006; GUARNERI, Carl J. America in the World: United States History in Global Context. New York: McGraw-Hill, 2007; and TYRRELL, Ian. Transnational Nation. United States History in Global Perspective since 1789. Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan, 2007.
5
See WALLERSTEIN, Immanuel. The Capitalist World-Economy. New York: Cambridge University Press, 1979, p.1-36; and Idem. The Modern World-System. Vol.IV: Centrist Liberalism Triumphant, 1789-1914. Berkeley: University of California Press, 2011.
6
See DAL LAGO, Enrico. Agrarian Elites: American Slaveholders and Southern Italian Landowners, 1815-1861. Baton Rouge: Louisiana State University Press, 2005. p.28-96. See also SCARBOROUGH, William. Masters of the Big House: Elite Planters in the Nineteenth-Century South. Baton Rouge: Louisiana State University Press, 2003; FOLLETT, Richard. The Sugar Masters: Planters and Slave in Louisiana's Cane World, 1820-1860. Baton Rouge: Louisiana State University Press, 2005; LUPO, Salvatore. I proprietari terrieri del Mezzogiorno. In: BEVILACQUA, Piero (org.). Storia dell'agricoltura italiana in età moderna e contemporanea. Vol.II: Uomini e Classi. Venice: Marsilio, 1990. p.105-150; and PETRUSEWICZ, Marta. Latifundium: Moral Economy and Material Life in a Nineteenth-Century Periphery. Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press, 1996.
7
See DAL LAGO, Enrico. Agrarian Elites, Op. Cit., p.98-179. On "second slavery" and "second serfdom", see especially TOMICH, Dale. Through the Prism of Slavery, Op. Cit.; TOMICH, Dale and ZEUSKE, Michael. Introduction, The Second Slavery, Op. Cit., p.91-100; and DAL LAGO, Enrico. American Slavery, Atlantic Slavery, and Beyond: The U.S. "Peculiar Institution" in International Perspective. Boulder: Paradigm Publishers, 2012. p.95-122.
8
See DAL LAGO, Agrarian Elites, Op. Cit., p.180-270. See also, within the very vast bibliography, FREEHLING, William. The Road to Disunion. 2 Vols. New York: Oxford University Press, 1990-2007; BONNER, Robert. Mastering America: Southern Slaveholders and the Crisis of the Union. New York: Cambridge University Press, 2009; SPAGNOLETTI, Angelantonio. Storia del Regno delle Due Sicilie. Bologna: Il Mulino, 1997; and DAVIS, John A. Naples and Napoleon: Southern Italy and the European Revolutions, 1790-1860. New York: Oxford University Press, 2006.
9
ESCOTT, Paul D. The Confederacy: The Slaveholders' Failed Venture. Santa Barbara: ABCCLIO, 2010. p.14 e p.31; FREEHLING, William W. The South vs. the South: How Anti-Confederate Southerners Shaped the Course of the Civil War. New York: Oxford University Press, 2001. See also ESCOTT, Paul D. After Secession: Jefferson Davis and the Failure of Confederate Nationalism. Baton Rouge: Louisiana State University Press, 1978; and SHEEHAN-DEAN, Aaron. Why Confederates Fought: Family and Nation in Civil War Virginia. Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 2007.
10
MCCURRY, Stephanie. Confederate Reckoning: Power and Politics in the Civil War South. Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 2010. p.117. See also WILLIAMS, David. Bitterly Divided: The South's Inner Civil War. New York: New Press, 2010; and INSCOE, John C. and KENZER, Robert (orgs.). Enemies of the Country: New Perspectives on Unionists in the Civil War South. Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 2004.
11
MARTUCCI, Roberto. L'invenzione dell'Italia unita, 1855-1864. Florence: Sansoni, 1999. p.189. See also CANDELORO, Giorgio. Storia dell'Italia moderna. Vol.5: Dalla rivoluzione nazionale all'Unità (1849-1860). Milan: Feltrinelli, 1964; and RIALL, Lucy. Sicily and the Unification of Italy, 1859-1866. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1998.
12
DI FIORE, Gigi. Controstoria dell'Unità d'Italia. Fatti e misfatti del Risorgimento. Milan: Rizzoli, 2007. p.199-201. See also SCIROCCO, Alfonso. Il Mezzogiorno nella crisi dell'unificazione (1860-1861). Naples: ESI, 1981; and AMORE, Fulvio. Uccidete José Borjés: l'ordine dei Piemontesi durante la conquista del Sud. Il racconto di un'infamia (1860-1862). Naples: Controcorrente, 2010.
13
LINCOLN, Abraham. The Emancipation Proclamation (1863). In: HALPERN, Rick and DAL LAGO, Enrico (orgs.). Slavery and Emancipation. Oxford: Blackwell, 2002. p.380. See also BERLIN, Ira et al. Slaves No More: Three Essays on Emancipation and the Civil War. New York: Cambridge University Press, 1992. p.1-76; GERTEIS, Louis. Slaves, Servants, and Soldiers: Uneven Paths to Freedom in the Border States, 1861-1865. In: BLAIR, William A. and YOUNGER, Karen Fischer (orgs.). Lincoln's proclamation; Emancipation Reconsidered. Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 2009. p.170- 194; and FONER, Eric. The Fiery Trial: Abraham Lincoln and American Slavery. New York: Norton, 2010. p.166-206.
14
See especially BYNUM, Victoria. The Long Shadow of the Civil War: Southern Dissent and its Legacies. Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 2010; BYNUM, Victoria. The Free State of Jones: Mississippi's Longest Civil War. Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 2002; and JORDAN, Winthrop. Tumult and Silence at Second Creek: An Inquiry into a Civil War Slave Conspiracy. Baton Rouge: Louisiana State University Press, 1995.
15
KOLCHIN, Peter. Slavery and Freedom in the Civil War South. In: MCPHERSON, James and COOPER, William J. (orgs.). Writing the Civil War: The Quest to Understand. Columbia: University of South Carolina Press, 1998. p.245; James Henry Hammond's quotation is in BLESER, Carol (org.). Secret and Sacred: The Diaries of James Henry Hammond, a Southern Slaveholder. New York: Oxford University Press, 1981. p.297.
16
LITWACK, Leon F. Been in the Storm So Long: The Aftermath of Slavery. New York: Knopf, 1979. p.46. See also HAHN, Steven. A Nation under our Feet: Black Political Struggle in the Rural South from Slavery to the Great Migration. Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 2003. p.62-115; and HAHN, Steven. The Political Worlds of Slavery and Freedom. Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 2009. p.55-114.
17
See MCCURRY, Stephanie. Confederate Reckoning, Op. Cit., p.239-262.
18
Crocco's quotation is in CUTRUFELLI, Maria Rosa. L'Unità d'Italia. Guerra contadina e nascita del sottosviluppo nel Sud. Verona: Bertani, 1974. p.259.
19
MARTUCCI, Roberto. L'invenzione dell'Italia unita, Op. Cit., p.314. See also MOLFESE, Franco. Storia del brigantaggio dopo l'Unità. Milan: Feltrinelli, 1964; DICKIE, John. A Word at War: The Italian Army and Brigandage, 1860-1870. History Workshop Journal, n.33, p.1-24, 1992; and ADORNI, Daniela. Il brigantaggio. In: VIOLANTE, Luciano (org.). Storia d'Italia, Annali 12: La criminalità. Turin: Einaudi, 1996. p.283-319.
20
LUPO, Salvatore. Il passato del nostro presente. Il lungo ottocento, 1776-1913. Rome: Laterza, 2010. p.107. See also especially Idem. L'unificazione italiana. Mezzogiorno, rivoluzione, guerra civile. Rome: Laterza, 2011; Idem. Il Grande Brigantaggio. Interpretazione e memoria di una guera civile. In: BARBERIS, Walter (org.). Storia d'Italia, Annali 18: Guerra e Pace. Turin: Einaudi, 2002. p.465-504; and DAVIS, John A. Le guerre del brigantaggio. In: ISNENGHI, Mario and CECCHINATO, Eva (orgs.). Fare l'Italia. Unità e disunità nel Risorgimento. Turin: UTET, 2008. p.738-752.
21
See MERIGGI, Marco. Dopo l'Unità. Forme e ambivalenza del legittimismo borbonico. Passato e Presente, n.29, p.39-56, 2011; and SCIROCCO, Alfonso. Giuseppe Garibaldi. Battaglie, amori, ideali di un cittadino del mondo. Rome: Laterza, 2001. p.293-295.
22
On some of these issues, see DAL LAGO, Enrico. States of Rebellion: Civil War, Rural Unrest, and the Agrarian Question in the American South and the Italian Mezzogiorno, 1861-1865. Comparative Studies in Society and History, n.47, p.403-432, 2005.
23
See FONER, Eric. Reconstruction: America's Unfinished Revolution. New York: Harper & Row, 1988.

Publication Dates

Publication in this collection
Dec 2012

History

Received
July 2012
Accepted
Sept 2012

This is an open-access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License

[1] 1
See especially DAVIS, David Brion. Inhuman Bondage: The Rise and Fall of Slavery in the New World. New York: Oxford University Press, 2006; BLACKBURN, Robin. The American Crucible: Slavery, Emancipation, and Human Rights. London: Verso, 2011; KOLCHIN, Peter. Unfree Labor: American Slavery and Russian Serfdom. Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1987; BOWMAN, Shearer Davis. Masters and Lords: Mid-Nineteenth Century Prussian Junkers and U.S. Planters. New York: Oxford University Press, 1993; SMITH, Mark. Old South Time in Comparative Perspective. American Historical Review, n.101, p.1432-1469, 1996; RUGEMER, Edward. The Problem of Emancipation: The Caribbean Origins of the Civil War. Baton Rouge: Louisiana State University Press, 2008; SCHOEN, Brian. The Fragile Fabric of Union: Cotton, Federal Politics, and the Global Origins of the Civil War. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 2009; BECKERT, Sven. Emancipation and Empire: Reconstructing the World Wide Web of Cotton Production in the Age of the American Civil War. American Historical Review, n.109, p.1405-1438, 2004; ROBERTS, Timothy. Distant Revolutions: 1848 and the Challenge to American Exceptionalism. Charlottesville: University of Virginia Press, 2009; TOMICH, Dale. Through the Prism of Slavery: Labor, Capital, and the World Economy. Lanham: Rowman and Littlefield, 2004. p.56-74; TOMICH, Dale and ZEUSKE, Michael. Introduction, The Second Slavery: Mass Slavery, World-Economy, and Comparative Microhistories. Review, n.31, p.91-100, 2008; and KAYE, Anthony. The Second Slavery: Modernity in the NineteenthCentury South and the Atlantic World. Journal of Southern History, n.75, p.627-650, 2009.

[2] 2
SCOTT, Rebecca. Degrees of Freedom: Louisiana and Cuba after Slavery. Baton Rouge: Louisiana State University Press, 2005; FREEHLING, William. The Reintegration of American History: Slavery and the Civil War. New York: Oxford University Press, 1994. p.176-219.

[3] 3
See HAHN, Steven. Class and State in Postemancipation Societies: Southern Planters in Comparative Perspective. American Historical Review n.95, p.75-98, 1990; BUSH, Michael L. Servitude in Modern Times. Cambridge: Polity, 2000; and particularly KOLCHIN, Peter. Some controversial questions concerning nineteenthcentury abolition from slavery and serfdom. In: BUSH, Michael L. (org.). Slavery and Serfdom: Studies in Legal Bondage. London: Longman, 1996. p.42-68.

[4] 4
See especially BENDER, Thomas. A Nation among Nations: America´s place in World History. New York: Hill and Wang, 2006; GUARNERI, Carl J. America in the World: United States History in Global Context. New York: McGraw-Hill, 2007; and TYRRELL, Ian. Transnational Nation. United States History in Global Perspective since 1789. Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan, 2007.

[5] 5
See WALLERSTEIN, Immanuel. The Capitalist World-Economy. New York: Cambridge University Press, 1979, p.1-36; and Idem. The Modern World-System. Vol.IV: Centrist Liberalism Triumphant, 1789-1914. Berkeley: University of California Press, 2011.

[6] 6
See DAL LAGO, Enrico. Agrarian Elites: American Slaveholders and Southern Italian Landowners, 1815-1861. Baton Rouge: Louisiana State University Press, 2005. p.28-96. See also SCARBOROUGH, William. Masters of the Big House: Elite Planters in the Nineteenth-Century South. Baton Rouge: Louisiana State University Press, 2003; FOLLETT, Richard. The Sugar Masters: Planters and Slave in Louisiana's Cane World, 1820-1860. Baton Rouge: Louisiana State University Press, 2005; LUPO, Salvatore. I proprietari terrieri del Mezzogiorno. In: BEVILACQUA, Piero (org.). Storia dell'agricoltura italiana in età moderna e contemporanea. Vol.II: Uomini e Classi. Venice: Marsilio, 1990. p.105-150; and PETRUSEWICZ, Marta. Latifundium: Moral Economy and Material Life in a Nineteenth-Century Periphery. Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press, 1996.

[7] 7
See DAL LAGO, Enrico. Agrarian Elites, Op. Cit., p.98-179. On "second slavery" and "second serfdom", see especially TOMICH, Dale. Through the Prism of Slavery, Op. Cit.; TOMICH, Dale and ZEUSKE, Michael. Introduction, The Second Slavery, Op. Cit., p.91-100; and DAL LAGO, Enrico. American Slavery, Atlantic Slavery, and Beyond: The U.S. "Peculiar Institution" in International Perspective. Boulder: Paradigm Publishers, 2012. p.95-122.

[8] 8
See DAL LAGO, Agrarian Elites, Op. Cit., p.180-270. See also, within the very vast bibliography, FREEHLING, William. The Road to Disunion. 2 Vols. New York: Oxford University Press, 1990-2007; BONNER, Robert. Mastering America: Southern Slaveholders and the Crisis of the Union. New York: Cambridge University Press, 2009; SPAGNOLETTI, Angelantonio. Storia del Regno delle Due Sicilie. Bologna: Il Mulino, 1997; and DAVIS, John A. Naples and Napoleon: Southern Italy and the European Revolutions, 1790-1860. New York: Oxford University Press, 2006.

[9] 9
ESCOTT, Paul D. The Confederacy: The Slaveholders' Failed Venture. Santa Barbara: ABCCLIO, 2010. p.14 e p.31; FREEHLING, William W. The South vs. the South: How Anti-Confederate Southerners Shaped the Course of the Civil War. New York: Oxford University Press, 2001. See also ESCOTT, Paul D. After Secession: Jefferson Davis and the Failure of Confederate Nationalism. Baton Rouge: Louisiana State University Press, 1978; and SHEEHAN-DEAN, Aaron. Why Confederates Fought: Family and Nation in Civil War Virginia. Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 2007.

[10] 10
MCCURRY, Stephanie. Confederate Reckoning: Power and Politics in the Civil War South. Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 2010. p.117. See also WILLIAMS, David. Bitterly Divided: The South's Inner Civil War. New York: New Press, 2010; and INSCOE, John C. and KENZER, Robert (orgs.). Enemies of the Country: New Perspectives on Unionists in the Civil War South. Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 2004.

[11] 11
MARTUCCI, Roberto. L'invenzione dell'Italia unita, 1855-1864. Florence: Sansoni, 1999. p.189. See also CANDELORO, Giorgio. Storia dell'Italia moderna. Vol.5: Dalla rivoluzione nazionale all'Unità (1849-1860). Milan: Feltrinelli, 1964; and RIALL, Lucy. Sicily and the Unification of Italy, 1859-1866. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1998.

[12] 12
DI FIORE, Gigi. Controstoria dell'Unità d'Italia. Fatti e misfatti del Risorgimento. Milan: Rizzoli, 2007. p.199-201. See also SCIROCCO, Alfonso. Il Mezzogiorno nella crisi dell'unificazione (1860-1861). Naples: ESI, 1981; and AMORE, Fulvio. Uccidete José Borjés: l'ordine dei Piemontesi durante la conquista del Sud. Il racconto di un'infamia (1860-1862). Naples: Controcorrente, 2010.

[13] 13
LINCOLN, Abraham. The Emancipation Proclamation (1863). In: HALPERN, Rick and DAL LAGO, Enrico (orgs.). Slavery and Emancipation. Oxford: Blackwell, 2002. p.380. See also BERLIN, Ira et al. Slaves No More: Three Essays on Emancipation and the Civil War. New York: Cambridge University Press, 1992. p.1-76; GERTEIS, Louis. Slaves, Servants, and Soldiers: Uneven Paths to Freedom in the Border States, 1861-1865. In: BLAIR, William A. and YOUNGER, Karen Fischer (orgs.). Lincoln's proclamation; Emancipation Reconsidered. Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 2009. p.170- 194; and FONER, Eric. The Fiery Trial: Abraham Lincoln and American Slavery. New York: Norton, 2010. p.166-206.

[14] 14
See especially BYNUM, Victoria. The Long Shadow of the Civil War: Southern Dissent and its Legacies. Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 2010; BYNUM, Victoria. The Free State of Jones: Mississippi's Longest Civil War. Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 2002; and JORDAN, Winthrop. Tumult and Silence at Second Creek: An Inquiry into a Civil War Slave Conspiracy. Baton Rouge: Louisiana State University Press, 1995.

[15] 15
KOLCHIN, Peter. Slavery and Freedom in the Civil War South. In: MCPHERSON, James and COOPER, William J. (orgs.). Writing the Civil War: The Quest to Understand. Columbia: University of South Carolina Press, 1998. p.245; James Henry Hammond's quotation is in BLESER, Carol (org.). Secret and Sacred: The Diaries of James Henry Hammond, a Southern Slaveholder. New York: Oxford University Press, 1981. p.297.

[16] 16
LITWACK, Leon F. Been in the Storm So Long: The Aftermath of Slavery. New York: Knopf, 1979. p.46. See also HAHN, Steven. A Nation under our Feet: Black Political Struggle in the Rural South from Slavery to the Great Migration. Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 2003. p.62-115; and HAHN, Steven. The Political Worlds of Slavery and Freedom. Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 2009. p.55-114.

[17] 17
See MCCURRY, Stephanie. Confederate Reckoning, Op. Cit., p.239-262.

[18] 18
Crocco's quotation is in CUTRUFELLI, Maria Rosa. L'Unità d'Italia. Guerra contadina e nascita del sottosviluppo nel Sud. Verona: Bertani, 1974. p.259.

[19] 19
MARTUCCI, Roberto. L'invenzione dell'Italia unita, Op. Cit., p.314. See also MOLFESE, Franco. Storia del brigantaggio dopo l'Unità. Milan: Feltrinelli, 1964; DICKIE, John. A Word at War: The Italian Army and Brigandage, 1860-1870. History Workshop Journal, n.33, p.1-24, 1992; and ADORNI, Daniela. Il brigantaggio. In: VIOLANTE, Luciano (org.). Storia d'Italia, Annali 12: La criminalità. Turin: Einaudi, 1996. p.283-319.

[20] 20
LUPO, Salvatore. Il passato del nostro presente. Il lungo ottocento, 1776-1913. Rome: Laterza, 2010. p.107. See also especially Idem. L'unificazione italiana. Mezzogiorno, rivoluzione, guerra civile. Rome: Laterza, 2011; Idem. Il Grande Brigantaggio. Interpretazione e memoria di una guera civile. In: BARBERIS, Walter (org.). Storia d'Italia, Annali 18: Guerra e Pace. Turin: Einaudi, 2002. p.465-504; and DAVIS, John A. Le guerre del brigantaggio. In: ISNENGHI, Mario and CECCHINATO, Eva (orgs.). Fare l'Italia. Unità e disunità nel Risorgimento. Turin: UTET, 2008. p.738-752.

[21] 21
See MERIGGI, Marco. Dopo l'Unità. Forme e ambivalenza del legittimismo borbonico. Passato e Presente, n.29, p.39-56, 2011; and SCIROCCO, Alfonso. Giuseppe Garibaldi. Battaglie, amori, ideali di un cittadino del mondo. Rome: Laterza, 2001. p.293-295.

[22] 22
On some of these issues, see DAL LAGO, Enrico. States of Rebellion: Civil War, Rural Unrest, and the Agrarian Question in the American South and the Italian Mezzogiorno, 1861-1865. Comparative Studies in Society and History, n.47, p.403-432, 2005.

[23] 23
See FONER, Eric. Reconstruction: America's Unfinished Revolution. New York: Harper & Row, 1988.

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