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Ischemic stroke with unknown onset of symptoms: current scenario and perspectives for the future

Acidente vascular cerebral isquêmico com tempo indeterminado de início dos sintomas: cenário atual e perspectivas para o futuro

Abstract

Background

Stroke is a major cause of disability worldwide and a neurological emergency. Intravenous thrombolysis and mechanical thrombectomy are effective in the reperfusion of the parenchyma in distress, but the impossibility to determine the exact time of onset was an important cause of exclusion from treatment until a few years ago.

Objectives

To review the clinical and radiological profile of patients with unknown-onset stroke, the imaging methods to guide the reperfusion treatment, and suggest a protocol for the therapeutic approach.

Methods

The different imaging methods were grouped according to current evidence-based treatments.

Results

Most studies found no difference between the clinical and imaging characteristics of patients with wake-up stroke and known-onset stroke, suggesting that the ictus, in the first group, occurs just prior to awakening. Regarding the treatment of patients with unknown-onset stroke, four main phase-three trials stand out: WAKE-UP and EXTEND for intravenous thrombolysis, and DAWN and DEFUSE-3 for mechanical thrombectomy. The length of the therapeutic window is based on the diffusion weighted imaging–fluid-attenuated inversion recovery (DWI-FLAIR) mismatch, core-penumbra mismatch, and clinical core mismatch paradigms. The challenges to approach unknown-onset stroke involve extending the length of the time window, the reproducibility of real-world imaging modalities, and the discovery of new methods and therapies for this condition.

Conclusion

The advance in the possibilities for the treatment of ischemic stroke, while guided by imaging concepts, has become evident. New studies in this field are essential and needed to structure the health care services for this new scenario.

Keywords
Ischemic Stroke; Neuroimaging; Tissue Plasminogen Activator; Thrombectomy

Resumo

Antecedentes

O acidente vascular cerebral (AVC) é uma das principais causas de incapacidade em todo o mundo, e uma emergência neurológica. A trombólise intravenosa e a trombectomia mecânica são eficazes na reperfusão do parênquima em sofrimento, mas a impossibilidade de determinar o tempo exato de início era uma causa importante de exclusão ao tratamento até alguns anos atrás.

Objetivos

Revisar o perfil clínico-radiológico dos pacientes com AVC de tempo indeterminado, os métodos de imagem para guiar o tratamento de reperfusão, e sugerir um protocolo para a abordagem terapêutica.

Métodos

Os diferentes métodos de imagem foram agrupados de acordo com os tratamentos atuais baseados em evidências.

Resultados

A maioria dos estudos não encontrou diferença entre as características clínicas e de imagem dos pacientes com AVC reconhecido ao despertar e AVC de tempo definido, o que sugere que o icto, no primeiro grupo, ocorre próximo ao acordar. Quanto ao tratamento do AVC de tempo indeterminado, quatro grandes estudos na fase três sobressaem: WAKE-UP e EXTEND para trombólise intravenosa, e DAWN e DEFUSE-3 para trombectomia mecânica. A ampliação da janela terapêutica fundamenta-se nos paradigmas de incompatibilidade da imagem ponderada de difusão–recuperação da inversão atenuada por fluidos (diffusion weighted imaging–fluid-attenuated inversion recovery, DWI-FLAIR, em inglês), do núcleo isquêmico e penumbra, e clínico-radiológico. Os desafios na abordagem do AVC de tempo indeterminado envolvem a ampliação da janela terapêutica, a reprodutibilidade das modalidades de imagem no mundo real, e a identificação de novos métodos e tratamentos para essa condição.

Conclusão

É evidente o avanço nas possibilidades de tratamento do AVC isquêmico guiado pelos conceitos de imagem. Novos estudos nesse campo são essenciais, com necessidade de estruturar os serviços de saúde para esse novo cenário.

Palavras-chave
AVC Isquêmico; Neuroimagem; Ativador de Plasminogênio Tecidual; Trombectomia

INTRODUCTION

Stroke is one of the main causes of disability worldwide, and it consists of an episode of acute neurological dysfunction presumably due to ischemia or bleeding persisting for more than 24 hours or leading to death.11 Sacco RL, Kasner SE, Broderick JP, et al; American Heart Association Stroke Council, Council on Cardiovascular Surgery and Anesthesia; on Cardiovascular Radiology and Intervention; Council on Cardiovascular and Stroke Nursing; Council on Epidemiology and Prevention; Council on Peripheral Vascular Disease; Council on Nutrition, Physical Activity and Metabolism. An updated definition of stroke for the 21st century: a statement for healthcare professionals from the American Heart Association/American Stroke Association. Stroke 2013;44(07): 2064–2089. Doi: 10.1161/STR.0b013e318296aeca
https://doi.org/10.1161/STR.0b013e318296...

Due to the social and economic impacts of strike, studies published in recent decades have tried to exhaustively assess the benefit of treatments that could change the progression of the disease and, thus, reduce the permanent sequelae in individuals. Regarding that, intravenous thrombolysis22 HackeW, Donnan G, Fieschi C, et al; ATLANTIS Trials Investigators; ECASS Trials Investigators; NINDS rt-PA Study Group Investigators. Association of outcome with early stroke treatment: pooled analysis of ATLANTIS, ECASS, and NINDS rt-PA stroke trials. Lancet 2004; 363(9411):768–774. Doi: 10.1016/S0140-6736(04)15692-4
https://doi.org/10.1016/S0140-6736(04)15...
44 Wardlaw JM, Murray V, Berge E, del Zoppo GJ. Thrombolysis for acute ischaemic stroke. Cochrane Database Syst Rev 2014; CD000213(07):CD000213. Doi: 10.1002/14651858.CD000213.pub3
https://doi.org/10.1002/14651858.CD00021...
and mechanical thrombectomy55 Goyal M, Demchuk AM, Menon BK, et al; ESCAPE Trial Investigators. Randomized assessment of rapid endovascular treatment of ischemic stroke. N Engl J Med 2015;372(11):1019–1030. Doi: 10.1056/NEJMoa1414905
https://doi.org/10.1056/NEJMoa1414905...
99 Jovin TG, Chamorro A, Cobo E, et al; REVASCAT Trial Investigators. Thrombectomy within 8 hours after symptom onset in ischemic stroke. N Engl J Med 2015;372(24):2296–2306. Doi: 10.1056/NEJMoa1503780
https://doi.org/10.1056/NEJMoa1503780...
proved to be effective in the reperfusion of the brain parenchyma suffering from ischemic distress.

However, both treatments are underused worldwide, mainly due to the patient's late admission to emergency services, as per the time window parameter according to which the therapies were approved in agreement with national1010 Martins SC, Freitas GR, Pontes-Neto OM, et al; Executive Committee from the Brazilian Stroke Society and the Scientific Department in Cerebrovascular Diseases of the Brazilian Academy of Neurology. Guidelines for acute ischemic stroke treatment: part II: stroke treatment. Arq Neuropsiquiatr 2012;70(11):885–893. Doi: 10.1590/s0004-282×2012001100012
https://doi.org/10.1590/s0004-282×201200...
and international guidelines.1111 Adams HP Jr, del Zoppo G, Alberts MJ, et al; American Heart Association/American Stroke Association Stroke Council; American Heart Association/American Stroke Association Clinical Cardiology Council; American Heart Association/American Stroke Association Cardiovascular Radiology and Intervention Council; Atherosclerotic Peripheral Vascular Disease Working Group; Quality of Care Outcomes in Research Interdisciplinary Working Group. Guidelines for the early management of adults with ischemic stroke: a guideline from the American Heart Association/American Stroke Association Stroke Council, Clinical Cardiology Council, Cardiovascular Radiology and Intervention Council, and the Atherosclerotic Peripheral Vascular Disease and Quality of Care Outcomes in Research Interdisciplinary Working Groups: The American Academy of Neurology affirms the value of this guideline as an educational tool for neurologists. Circulation 2007;115(20):e478–e534. Doi: 10.1161/CIRCULATIONAHA. 107.181486
https://doi.org/10.1161/CIRCULATIONAHA.1...
,1212 European Stroke Organisation (ESO) Executive Committee; ESO Writing Committee. Guidelines for management of ischaemic stroke and transient ischaemic attack 2008. Cerebrovasc Dis 2008;25(05):457–507. Doi: 10.1159/000131083
https://doi.org/10.1159/000131083...
Among the factors leading to this problem, the impossibility of determining the moment of onset of symptoms that can be attributed to stroke by either the patient or a witness stands out in some cases.

One in five stroke patients wakes up with neurological deficits and, because of that, they are unable to specify the onset of the ictus.1313 Rubin MN, Barrett KM. What to do with wake-up stroke. Neurohospitalist 2015;5(03):161–172. Doi: 10.1177/1941874415576204
https://doi.org/10.1177/1941874415576204...
In addition, another portion of patients presents with symptoms that make it impossible for them to communicate with the medical team, which in turn deprives them from receiving the most suitable treatment.

From the perspective of this complex issue, new studies have sought to perform in-depth analyses of the characteristics of this subpopulation and find objective ways to safely extend the therapeutic window in ischemic stroke – and thus benefit more individuals. We will herein review the clinical and radiological profile of patients with unknown-onset stroke, the imaging methods used to guide the reperfusion treatment, and suggest a therapeutic approach protocol. The different methods will be grouped according to the treatment possibilities currently offered in acute ischemic stroke: intravenous thrombolysis and mechanical thrombectomy.

CLINICAL AND EPIDEMIOLOGICAL CHARACTERISTICS OF UNKNOWN-ONSET STROKE

Unknown-onset stroke includes all conditions in which an exact time of onset of neurological symptoms cannot be established. More specifically, the patient may have gone to sleep well and woke up presenting with symptoms of stroke or is unable to communicate the time of onset of ictus due to aphasia or a change in their level of consciousness, and there is no available witness. For the purpose of understanding this review, the first group will be referred to as a wake-up stroke and the second, as a daytime-unwitnessed stroke.

The study by Dekker et al.1414 Dekker L, Hund H, Lemmens R, Boiten J, van den Wijngaard I. Unknown onset ischemic strokes in patients last-seen-well >4.5 h: differences between wake-up and daytime-unwitnessed strokes. Acta Neurol Belg 2017;117(03):637–642. Doi: 10.1007/s13760-017-0830-7
https://doi.org/10.1007/s13760-017-0830-...
showed no difference in the functional outcome and radiological evaluation (using the Alberta Stroke Program Early CT Score, ASPECTS, and a collateral system) between patients with wake-up stroke and patients with daytime-unwitnessed stroke. It should be noted that it took the first subgroup 2.5 hours longer than the second subgroup to present to the emergency service.

Other previous studiesn1515 Roveri L, La Gioia S, Ghidinelli C, Anzalone N, De Filippis C, Comi G. Wake-up stroke within 3 hours of symptom awareness: imaging and clinical features compared to standard recombinant tissue plasminogen activator treated stroke. J Stroke Cerebrovasc Dis 2013;22(06):703–708. Doi: 10.1016/j.jstrokecerebrovasdis.2011.10.003
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jstrokecerebro...
1818 Costa R, Pinho J, Alves JN, Amorim JM, Ribeiro M, Ferreira C. Wakeup stroke and stroke within the therapeutic window for thrombolysis have similar clinical severity, imaging characteristics, and outcome. J Stroke Cerebrovasc Dis 2016;25(03):511–514. Doi: 10.1016/j.jstrokecerebrovasdis.2015.10.032
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jstrokecerebro...
did not show significant differences regarding demographic characteristics, vascular risk factors, and the clinical severity of patients presenting with wake-up stroke or known-onset stroke. However, a population-based study1919 Mackey J, Kleindorfer D, Sucharew H, et al. Population-based study of wake-up strokes. Neurology 2011;76(19):1662–1667. Doi: 10.1212/WNL.0b013e318219fb30
https://doi.org/10.1212/WNL.0b013e318219...
found that patients who woke up presenting stroke-related symptoms were older and had a more severe condition as compared with patients who were awake at the onset of symptoms.

A study1515 Roveri L, La Gioia S, Ghidinelli C, Anzalone N, De Filippis C, Comi G. Wake-up stroke within 3 hours of symptom awareness: imaging and clinical features compared to standard recombinant tissue plasminogen activator treated stroke. J Stroke Cerebrovasc Dis 2013;22(06):703–708. Doi: 10.1016/j.jstrokecerebrovasdis.2011.10.003
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jstrokecerebro...
based on non-contrast computed tomography (NCCT) assessment showed no difference between hyperacute ischemic changes in patients who woke up with stroke symptoms within three hours of the awareness thereof and patients with known-onset stroke.

Another study,2020 Todo K,Moriwaki H, Saito K, TanakaM, Oe H, Naritomi H. Early CT findings in unknown-onset and wake-up strokes. Cerebrovasc Dis 2006;21(5-6):367–371. Doi: 10.1159/000091545
https://doi.org/10.1159/000091545...
with results similar to those of the aforementioned one,1515 Roveri L, La Gioia S, Ghidinelli C, Anzalone N, De Filippis C, Comi G. Wake-up stroke within 3 hours of symptom awareness: imaging and clinical features compared to standard recombinant tissue plasminogen activator treated stroke. J Stroke Cerebrovasc Dis 2013;22(06):703–708. Doi: 10.1016/j.jstrokecerebrovasdis.2011.10.003
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jstrokecerebro...
made an additional comparison of patients with stroke of known onset and at awakening with a third group of patients with daytime-unwitnessed stroke, revealing that this last group had better defined hypodense areas than did the first two groups. These radiological characteristics are in accordance with those from the study by Reid et al.,1717 Reid JM, Dai D, Cheripelli B, et al. Differences in wake-up and unknown onset stroke examined in a stroke registry. Int J Stroke 2015;10(03):331–335. Doi: 10.1111/ijs.12388
https://doi.org/10.1111/ijs.12388...
which showed worse clinical severity and outcome in patients with daytime-unwitnessed stroke, rather than wake-up stroke, in relation to patients with known-onset stroke.

Dankbaar et al.2121 Dankbaar JW, Bienfait HP, van den Berg C, et al; on behalf of the DUST investigators. Wake-up stroke versus stroke with known onset time: Clinical and multimodality CT imaging characteristics. Cerebrovasc Dis 2018;45(5-6):236–244. Doi: 10.1159/000489566
https://doi.org/10.1159/000489566...
compared wake-up stroke patients who were last seen well > 4.5 hours and ≤ 4.5 hours to patients with a known time of symptom onset ≤ 4.5 hours. Although the ASPECTS score was lower in the > 4.5h wake-up stroke patients as compared with patients with a known onset time, 75% of patients with wake-up stroke had favorable ASPECTS scores and good filling of the leptomeningeal collaterals on CT angiography (CTA).

There was also an additional analysis among patients who woke up presenting neurological deficits and proximal occlusion of the anterior circulation last seen well for > 6 hours and for ≤ 6 hours, who were compared with patients with known-onset stroke within ≤ 6h and proximal occlusion.2121 Dankbaar JW, Bienfait HP, van den Berg C, et al; on behalf of the DUST investigators. Wake-up stroke versus stroke with known onset time: Clinical and multimodality CT imaging characteristics. Cerebrovasc Dis 2018;45(5-6):236–244. Doi: 10.1159/000489566
https://doi.org/10.1159/000489566...
In this context, 57% of wake-up stroke patients with proximal occlusions last seen well for > 6h had an ASPECTS score higher than 7 and good collateral filling.

Taken together, these studies suggest that wake-up stroke actually occurs during the early hours of the morning, moments before the patient or any witnesses can recognize the symptoms. This concept has direct implications for the treatment of this subgroup of patients, as it would make them possibly eligible for reperfusion therapies.

It is noteworthy that, although there is agreement regarding the results in most studies, there are some limitations thereto. Some of these results come from single-center1414 Dekker L, Hund H, Lemmens R, Boiten J, van den Wijngaard I. Unknown onset ischemic strokes in patients last-seen-well >4.5 h: differences between wake-up and daytime-unwitnessed strokes. Acta Neurol Belg 2017;117(03):637–642. Doi: 10.1007/s13760-017-0830-7
https://doi.org/10.1007/s13760-017-0830-...
2020 Todo K,Moriwaki H, Saito K, TanakaM, Oe H, Naritomi H. Early CT findings in unknown-onset and wake-up strokes. Cerebrovasc Dis 2006;21(5-6):367–371. Doi: 10.1159/000091545
https://doi.org/10.1159/000091545...
Moreover, the inclusion and exclusion criteria varied among them.

ADVANCED NEUROIMAGING IN UNKNOWN-ONSET STROKE

The main goal when approaching the acute phase of stroke is to restore cerebral blood flow as soon as possible. Bearing that in mind, the hallmark in treating this condition occurred in 1995, when a trial by the National Institute of Neurological Disorders and Stroke (NINDS)2222 National Institute of Neurological Disorders and Stroke rt-PA Stroke Study Group. Tissue plasminogen activator for acute ischemic stroke. N Engl J Med 1995;333(24):1581–1587. Doi: 10.1056/NEJM199512143332401
https://doi.org/10.1056/NEJM199512143332...
showed the benefit of using recombinant tissue plasminogen activator (rt-PA) in patients within 3 hours of symptom onset.

Subsequent to the NINDS trial, the European Cooperative Acute Stroke Study (ECASS),2323 Hacke W, Kaste M, Fieschi C, et al; The European Cooperative Acute Stroke Study (ECASS) Intravenous thrombolysis with recombinant tissue plasminogen activator for acute hemispheric stroke. JAMA 1995;274(13):1017–1025. Doi: 10.1001/jama.1995.03530130023023
https://doi.org/10.1001/jama.1995.035301...
ECASS II,2424 HackeW, Kaste M, Fieschi C, et al; Second European-Australasian Acute Stroke Study Investigators. Randomised double-blind placebo- controlled trial of thrombolytic therapy with intravenous alteplase in acute ischaemic stroke (ECASS II). Lancet 1998;352 (9136):1245–1251. Doi: 10.1016/s0140-6736(98)08020-9
https://doi.org/10.1016/s0140-6736(98)08...
Alteplase Thrombolysis for Acute Noninterventional Therapy in Ischemic Stroke (ATLANTIS A),2525 Clark WM, Albers GW, Madden KP, Hamilton S. The rtPA (alteplase) 0- to 6-hour acute stroke trial, part A (A0276g) : results of a double-blind, placebo-controlled, multicenter study. Thromblytic therapy in acute ischemic stroke study investigators. Stroke 2000; 31(04):811–816. Doi: 10.1161/01.str.31.4.811
https://doi.org/10.1161/01.str.31.4.811...
and ATLANTIS B2626 Clark WM, Wissman S, Albers GW, Jhamandas JH, Madden KP, Hamilton S. Recombinant tissue-type plasminogen activator (Alteplase) for ischemic stroke 3 to 5 hours after symptom onset. The ATLANTIS Study: a randomized controlled trial. Alteplase Thrombolysis for Acute Noninterventional Therapy in Ischemic Stroke. JAMA 1999;282(21):2019–2026. Doi: 10.1001/jama.282.21.2019
https://doi.org/10.1001/jama.282.21.2019...
studies included stroke patients within a time period of 3 hours to 6 hours, but were individually negative as to the prespecified primary outcome. Only in 2008 did the ECASS III study2727 Hacke W, Kaste M, Bluhmki E, et al; ECASS Investigators. Thrombolysiswith alteplase 3 to 4.5 hours after acute ischemic stroke. N Engl J Med 2008;359(13):1317–1329. Doi: 10.1056/NEJMoa0804656
https://doi.org/10.1056/NEJMoa0804656...
find a better functional outcome in the group treated with rt-PA within the window of 3 hours to 4.5 hours when compared with placebo, despite emphasizing that the thrombolytic treatment is time-dependent and shows better outcome in patients treated earlier.

Endovascular thrombectomy (EVT), in turn, proved to be effective in patients with stroke due to large vessel occlusion (LVO), notably in 2015, with the publication of five important clinical trials: Endovascular Treatment for Small Core and Anterior Circulation Proximal Occlusion With Emphasis on Minimizing CT to Recanalization Times (ESCAPE),55 Goyal M, Demchuk AM, Menon BK, et al; ESCAPE Trial Investigators. Randomized assessment of rapid endovascular treatment of ischemic stroke. N Engl J Med 2015;372(11):1019–1030. Doi: 10.1056/NEJMoa1414905
https://doi.org/10.1056/NEJMoa1414905...
Solitaire FR with the Intention for Thrombectomy as Primary Endovascular Treatment for Acute Ischemic Stroke (SWIFT PRIME),66 Saver JL, Goyal M, Bonafe A, et al; SWIFT PRIME Investigators. Stent-retriever thrombectomy after intravenous t-PA vs. t-PA alone in stroke. N Engl J Med 2015;372(24):2285–2295. Doi: 10.1056/NEJMoa1415061
https://doi.org/10.1056/NEJMoa1415061...
Extending the Time for Thrombolysis in Emergency Neurological Deficits - Intra-Arterial (EXTEND-IA),77 Campbell BC, Mitchell PJ, Kleinig TJ, et al; EXTEND-IA Investigators. Endovascular therapy for ischemic stroke with perfusionimaging selection. N Engl J Med 2015;372(11):1009–1018. Doi: 10.1056/NEJMoa1414792
https://doi.org/10.1056/NEJMoa1414792...
Multicenter Randomized Clinical Trial of Endovascular Treatment for Acute Ischemic Stroke in the Netherlands (MR CLEAN),88 Berkhemer OA, Fransen PS, Beumer D, et al; MR CLEAN Investigators. A randomized trial of intraarterial treatment for acute ischemic stroke. N Engl J Med 2015;372(01):11–20. Doi: 10.1056/NEJMoa1411587
https://doi.org/10.1056/NEJMoa1411587...
and Endovascular Revascularization with Solitaire Device versus Best Medical Therapy in Anterior Circulation Stroke within 8 Hours (REVASCAT).99 Jovin TG, Chamorro A, Cobo E, et al; REVASCAT Trial Investigators. Thrombectomy within 8 hours after symptom onset in ischemic stroke. N Engl J Med 2015;372(24):2296–2306. Doi: 10.1056/NEJMoa1503780
https://doi.org/10.1056/NEJMoa1503780...
A meta-analysis of these studies, derived from the Highly Effective Reperfusion Using Multiple Endovascular Devices (HERMES) collaboration, showed a significant reduction in disability at 90 days in the EVT group compared with the controls (adjusted common odds ratio [cOR]: 2.49; 95% confidence interval [95%CI]: 1.76–3.53;p < 0.0001). The number needed to treat (NNT) for one additional patient to achieve a 1-point reduction in the modified Rankin scale (mRS) was 2.6.2828 Goyal M, Menon BK, van Zwam WH, et al; HERMES collaborators. Endovascular thrombectomy after large-vessel ischaemic stroke: a meta-analysis of individual patient data from five randomised trials. Lancet 2016;387(10029):1723–1731. Doi: 10.1016/S0140-6736(16)00163-X
https://doi.org/10.1016/S0140-6736(16)00...

However, until the 2013 American Heart Association/American Stroke Association (AHA/ASA) guidelines,2929 Jauch EC, Saver JL, Adams HP Jr, et al; American Heart Association Stroke Council; Council on Cardiovascular Nursing; Council on Peripheral Vascular Disease; Council on Clinical Cardiology. Guidelines for the early management of patients with acute ischemic stroke: a guideline for healthcare professionals from the American Heart Association/American Stroke Association. Stroke 2013;44 (03):870–947. Doi: 10.1161/STR.0b013e318284056a
https://doi.org/10.1161/STR.0b013e318284...
intravenous rt-PA and mechanical thrombectomy were recommended for patients within 4.5 hours (class I; level of evidence B) and 6 hours (class I; level of evidence B) of symptom onset respectively, excluding patients with unknown-onset stroke.

To also extend the treatment to this subgroup of patients, whose time of stroke-related symptoms onset cannot be determined, most studies over recent decades have focused on the assessment of advanced neuroimaging methods regarding the identification of patients who might benefit from reperfusion therapies.

For the sake of clarity, the main evidence regarding the reperfusion treatment based on advanced imaging paradigms will be subdivided relative to the therapy studied.

INTRAVENOUS THROMBOLYSIS IN UNKNOWNONSET STROKE

The main studies related to the use of intravenous thrombolysis in patients with unknown-onset stroke were based on two imaging concepts: the diffusion-weighted imaging–fluid-attenuated inversion recovery (DWI-FLAIR) mismatch and the core-penumbra mismatch.

The DWI-FLAIR mismatch tries to correlate signal changes in different sequences on magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) with the pathophysiological cascade of acute ischemia, in an attempt to estimate the elapsed time since the ischemic ictus. The reduction in cerebral blood flow caused by the occlusion of an intracranial artery leads to a disruption in the energy balance, failure of the sodium–potassium (Na+/K+) pumps, and translocation of water to the intracellular space, culminating in cytotoxic edema and restriction in the movement of water molecules (hyperintensity in DWI) within the first minutes after the ischemic event. During the following hours, with the progression of ischemia, there is a blood-brain barrier disruption and shift of macromolecules into the extravascular compartments, culminating in FLAIR hyperintensity. Thus, the presence of a lesion in DWI (positive) and absence of a corresponding altered area in FLAIR (negative) estimates an ischemia onset time at < 4.5 hours (Figures 1 and2).3030 Rimmele DL, Thomalla G. Wake-up stroke: clinical characteristics, imaging findings, and treatment option - an update. Front Neurol 2014;5:35. Doi: 10.3389/fneur.2014.00035
https://doi.org/10.3389/fneur.2014.00035...

Figure 1
Axial diffusion-weighted imaging (A,B) demonstrating restriction in the free movement of water in the right frontoparietal region, without correspondences in FLAIR sequences at the same level (C,D), suggesting an ischemic event < 4.5 hours.
Figure 2
Axial diffusion-weighted imaging (A,B) demonstrating restriction in the free movement of water in the left nucleocapsular region and ipsilateral precuneus, and hypersignal in the FLAIR sequence at the same level (C,D), suggesting an ischemic event > 4.5 hours.

The Identification of Stroke Patients ≤ 3 and ≤ 4.5 Hours of Symptom Onset by FLAIR Imaging and DWI (PRE-FLAIR) study3131 Thomalla G, Cheng B, Ebinger M, et al; STIR and VISTA Imaging Investigators. DWI-FLAIR mismatch for the identification of patients with acute ischaemic stroke within 4·5h of symptomonset (PRE-FLAIR): a multicentre observational study. Lancet Neurol 2011;10(11):978–986. Doi: 10.1016/S1474-4422(11)70192-2
https://doi.org/10.1016/S1474-4422(11)70...
showed that the DWI-FLAIR mismatch could be used to identify stroke patients within 4.5 hours with a sensitivity of 62%, specificity of 78%, positive predictive value of 83%, and negative predictive value of 54%. The main studies that tried to distinctly assess this concept were the Study of Intravenous Thrombolysis with Alteplase in MRI-Selected Patients (MR WITNESS),3232 Schwamm LH, Wu O, Song SS, et al; MR WITNESS Investigators. Intravenous thrombolysis in unwitnessed stroke onset: MRWITNESS trial results. Ann Neurol 2018;83(05):980–993. Doi: 10.1002/ana.25235
https://doi.org/10.1002/ana.25235...
Efficacy and Safety of MRI-based Thrombolysis in Wake-up Stroke (WAKE-UP),3333 Thomalla G, Simonsen CZ, Boutitie F, et al; WAKE-UP Investigators. MRI-Guided thrombolysis for stroke with unknown time of onset. N Engl J Med 2018;379(07):611–622. Doi: 10.1056/NEJMoa1804355
https://doi.org/10.1056/NEJMoa1804355...
and Thrombolysis for Acute Wake-up and Unclear-onset Strokes with Alteplase at 0.6 mg/kg Trial (THAWS).3434 Koga M, Yamamoto H, Inoue M, et al; THAWS Trial Investigators. Thrombolysis with alteplase at 0.6 mg/kg for stroke with unknown time of onset: A randomized controlled trial. Stroke 2020; 51(05):1530–1538. Doi: 10.1161/STROKEAHA.119.028127
https://doi.org/10.1161/STROKEAHA.119.02...

The MR WITNESS open trial3232 Schwamm LH, Wu O, Song SS, et al; MR WITNESS Investigators. Intravenous thrombolysis in unwitnessed stroke onset: MRWITNESS trial results. Ann Neurol 2018;83(05):980–993. Doi: 10.1002/ana.25235
https://doi.org/10.1002/ana.25235...
tested the safety of intravenous thrombolysis in patients who had a stroke onset time between 4.5 hours and 24 hours from the last time they were seen well, who received treatment within 4.5 hours of the recognition of symptoms. To achieve these goals, the researchers quantified the hyperintensity in the FLAIR sequence using the signal intensity ratio, obtained by dividing the region of interest (ROI) of the hyperintensity area by the ROI of the corresponding contralateral tissue with a normal appearance. Values of the signal intensity ratio lower than 1.15 were considered for inclusion in the study, that is, those showing up to 15% of relative increase in signal intensity as compared with the opposite hemisphere. Among 80 treated patients, there was only 1 (1.3%) case of symptomatic intracranial hemorrhage (sICH) and 3 (3.8%) cases of symptomatic edema, which demonstrates the safety of alteplase in selected patients with a quantitative DWI-FLAIR mismatch.

On the WAKE-UP trial,3333 Thomalla G, Simonsen CZ, Boutitie F, et al; WAKE-UP Investigators. MRI-Guided thrombolysis for stroke with unknown time of onset. N Engl J Med 2018;379(07):611–622. Doi: 10.1056/NEJMoa1804355
https://doi.org/10.1056/NEJMoa1804355...
the researchers randomized 503 patients with stroke symptoms upon awakening or with unknown onset within > 4.5 hours since the last time they were seen well, but who could be treated with alteplase if the time until symptom recognition was shorter than 4.5 hours. The eligibility criteria included evidence of an abnormal signal in the DWI sequence in association with a negative FLAIR as detected by visual inspection. Patients were excluded if they had a National Institutes of Health Stroke Scale (NIHSS) score greater than 25 and in whom mechanical thrombectomy was planned. Also excluded patients if MRI showed a lesion larger than one third of the territory of the middle cerebral artery and in whom a contraindication to thrombolysis was recognized (except for the unknown onset of symptoms).

The study was terminated early due to lack of funding, but it was sufficient to show that 53.3% of patients in the alteplase group and 41.8% of those in the placebo group (p = 0.02) had an mRS scores ranging from 0 to 1 at 90 days. It is noteworthy that the median NIHSS score was 6 in both groups, and the median volume of the ischemic core in the DWI sequence seen in the intervention group was of only 2.0 mL.

The Japanese THAWS trial3434 Koga M, Yamamoto H, Inoue M, et al; THAWS Trial Investigators. Thrombolysis with alteplase at 0.6 mg/kg for stroke with unknown time of onset: A randomized controlled trial. Stroke 2020; 51(05):1530–1538. Doi: 10.1161/STROKEAHA.119.028127
https://doi.org/10.1161/STROKEAHA.119.02...
used a neuroimaging concept similar to that of the WAKE-UP trial,3333 Thomalla G, Simonsen CZ, Boutitie F, et al; WAKE-UP Investigators. MRI-Guided thrombolysis for stroke with unknown time of onset. N Engl J Med 2018;379(07):611–622. Doi: 10.1056/NEJMoa1804355
https://doi.org/10.1056/NEJMoa1804355...
and evaluated the benefit of alteplase at a lower dose (0.6 mg/kg). The study was prematurely terminated with 131 of the 300 patients initially expected due to the publication of the positive results of the WAKE-UP trial.3333 Thomalla G, Simonsen CZ, Boutitie F, et al; WAKE-UP Investigators. MRI-Guided thrombolysis for stroke with unknown time of onset. N Engl J Med 2018;379(07):611–622. Doi: 10.1056/NEJMoa1804355
https://doi.org/10.1056/NEJMoa1804355...
The median NIHSS score was 7 in both groups. The study3434 Koga M, Yamamoto H, Inoue M, et al; THAWS Trial Investigators. Thrombolysis with alteplase at 0.6 mg/kg for stroke with unknown time of onset: A randomized controlled trial. Stroke 2020; 51(05):1530–1538. Doi: 10.1161/STROKEAHA.119.028127
https://doi.org/10.1161/STROKEAHA.119.02...
showed no benefit from intravenous thrombolysis, with mRS scores ranging from 0 to 1 among 47.1% of the alteplase group and 48.3% of the placebo group (p = 0.892). It is noteworthy that an early discontinuation of the study, the absence of blinding, and the lower dose of medication may all have influenced the results.

To assess whether the quantitative method to determine the intensity in the FLAIR sequence could change the effect of thrombolytic treatment, a post hoc analysis3535 Cheng B, Boutitie F, Nickel A, et al; WAKE-UP (Efficacy and Safety of MRI-Based Thrombolysis inWake-Up Stroke Trial) investigators and administrative staff are as follows. Quantitative signal intensity in fluid-attenuated inversion recovery and treatment effect in the WAKE-UP trial. Stroke 2020;51(01):209–215. Doi: 10.1161/STROKEAHA.119.027390
https://doi.org/10.1161/STROKEAHA.119.02...
of the WAKE-UP trial3333 Thomalla G, Simonsen CZ, Boutitie F, et al; WAKE-UP Investigators. MRI-Guided thrombolysis for stroke with unknown time of onset. N Engl J Med 2018;379(07):611–622. Doi: 10.1056/NEJMoa1804355
https://doi.org/10.1056/NEJMoa1804355...
concluded that, in patients selected by visual assessment, those with higher signal intensity ratio had worse clinical outcomes. However, this result should be interpreted with caution, as it was not the aim of the study3535 Cheng B, Boutitie F, Nickel A, et al; WAKE-UP (Efficacy and Safety of MRI-Based Thrombolysis inWake-Up Stroke Trial) investigators and administrative staff are as follows. Quantitative signal intensity in fluid-attenuated inversion recovery and treatment effect in the WAKE-UP trial. Stroke 2020;51(01):209–215. Doi: 10.1161/STROKEAHA.119.027390
https://doi.org/10.1161/STROKEAHA.119.02...
to assess differences in treatment among subgroups, but rather to primarily use a paradigm that would more quickly exclude patients with FLAIR hyperintensity and who would likely not benefit from thrombolysis.

Guided by the results of the WAKE-UP study3333 Thomalla G, Simonsen CZ, Boutitie F, et al; WAKE-UP Investigators. MRI-Guided thrombolysis for stroke with unknown time of onset. N Engl J Med 2018;379(07):611–622. Doi: 10.1056/NEJMoa1804355
https://doi.org/10.1056/NEJMoa1804355...
, the 2019 AHA/ASA guidelines3636 Powers WJ, Rabinstein AA, Ackerson T, et al. Guidelines for the early management of patients with acute ischemic stroke: 2019 update to the 2018 guidelines for the early management of acute ischemic stroke: A guideline for healthcare professionals from the American Heart Association/American Stroke Association. Stroke 2019;50(12):e344–e418. Doi: 10.1161/STR.0000000000000211
https://doi.org/10.1161/STR.000000000000...
(class IIa; level of evidence B) recommend the use of MRI to select patients with unknown-onset stroke who might benefit from the use of alteplase. The 2021 guidelines of the European Stroke Organization (ESO; high quality of evidence, strong recommendation level)3737 Berge E, Whiteley W, Audebert H, et al. European Stroke Organisation (ESO) guidelines on intravenous thrombolysis for acute ischaemic stroke. Eur Stroke J 2021;6(01):I–LXII. Doi: 10.1177/2396987321989865
https://doi.org/10.1177/2396987321989865...
also recommend that intravenous thrombolysis be performed in patients with ischemic stroke of unknown-onset, provided that they have a DWI-FLAIR mismatch and are not eligible for thrombectomy .

In turn, the concept of core-penumbra mismatch involves the identification of an area of the brain that is at risk of progressing to ischemia, but can still be saved if the regional blood flow is promptly reestablished. Such tissue suffering distress, albeit viable, is called penumbra. The mismatch comprehends the relationship between the penumbra region and the infarcted tissue that cannot be recovered, known as the ischemic core.

Regarding the imaging methods to assess cerebral perfusion, studies define the ischemic core differently: when using CT, the area under severely reduced cerebral blood flow is estimated – cerebral blood flow (CBF) of less than 30% in comparison to normal tissue –, whereas the MRI detects the region with increased intensity in the DWI sequence. To determine the penumbra in either method, a contrast agent is injected and, with the help of maps created with different sections of brain tissue, the region can be observed with a delay (Time-to-Maximum or Tmax) of the residual tissue function longer than 6 seconds.3838 Lansberg MG, Straka M, Kemp S, et al; DEFUSE 2 study investigators. MRI profile and response to endovascular reperfusion after stroke (DEFUSE 2): a prospective cohort study. Lancet Neurol 2012;11(10):860–867. Doi: 10.1016/S1474-4422(12)70203-X
https://doi.org/10.1016/S1474-4422(12)70...

Based on either CT perfusion or MRI perfusion, the Echoplanar Imaging Thrombolysis Evaluation Trial (EPITHET)3939 Davis SM, Donnan GA, Parsons MW, et al; EPITHET investigators. Effects of alteplase beyond 3 h after stroke in the Echoplanar Imaging Thrombolytic Evaluation Trial (EPITHET): a placebocontrolled randomised trial. Lancet Neurol 2008;7(04): 299–309. Doi: 10.1016/S1474-4422(08)70044-9
https://doi.org/10.1016/S1474-4422(08)70...
and ECASS-4,4040 Ringleb P, Bendszus M, Bluhmki E, et al; ECASS-4 study group. Extending the time window for intravenous thrombolysis in acute ischemic stroke using magnetic resonance imaging-based patient selection. Int J Stroke 2019;14(05):483–490. Doi: 10.1177/1747493019840938
https://doi.org/10.1177/1747493019840938...
with the use of alteplase, and the Desmoteplase in Acute Ischemic Stroke (DIAS)4141 Hacke W, Albers G, Al-Rawi Y, et al; DIAS Study Group. The Desmoteplase in Acute Ischemic Stroke Trial (DIAS): a phase II MRI-based 9-hour window acute stroke thrombolysis trial with intravenous desmoteplase. Stroke 2005;36(01):66–73 and DIAS-24242 Hacke W, Furlan AJ, Al-Rawi Y, et al. Intravenous desmoteplase in patients with acute ischaemic stroke selected by MRI perfusiondiffusionweightedimaging or perfusionCT (DIAS-2): a prospective, randomised, double-blind, placebo-controlled study. Lancet Neurol 2009;8(02):141–150. Doi: 10.1016/S1474-4422(08)70267-9
https://doi.org/10.1016/S1474-4422(08)70...
trials, with desmoteplase, were not successful in the attempt to extend the therapeutic window to 6 hours (EPITHET) or 9 hours (DIAS, DIAS-2, and ECASS-4), and all of them were conducted in patients with known-onset stroke, except for the ECASS-4, which also admitted patients who woke up with neurological deficits.

In the Extending the Time for Thrombolysis in Emergency Neurological Deficits (EXTEND) trial,4343 Ma H, Campbell BCV, Parsons MW, et al; EXTEND Investigators. Thrombolysis guided by perfusion imaging up to 9 hours after onset of stroke. N Engl J Med 2019;380(19):1795–1803. Doi: 10.1056/NEJMoa1813046
https://doi.org/10.1056/NEJMoa1813046...
the researchers randomized 225 stroke patients who were to receive alteplase or placebo and were within 4.5 to 9 hours of symptom onset, or within 9 hours of the midpoint of sleep (that is, the time between sleep onset and waking up with symptoms), in the case a case of wake-up stroke was involved. The core-penumbra mismatch was defined cumulatively by the ratio between the hypoperfusion volume and an ischemic core greater than 1.2, an absolute volume difference greater than 10 mL, and an ischemic core volume lower than 70 mL. The median NIHSS score was 12 in the rt-PA group and 10 in the control group. A favorable functional outcome was achieved by 35.4% of the patients in the group treated with alteplase and in 29.5% of patients in the placebo group (p = 0.04), confirming that this is the only positive study indicating thrombolysis based on core-penumbra mismatch.

It is emphasized that the EXTEND4343 Ma H, Campbell BCV, Parsons MW, et al; EXTEND Investigators. Thrombolysis guided by perfusion imaging up to 9 hours after onset of stroke. N Engl J Med 2019;380(19):1795–1803. Doi: 10.1056/NEJMoa1813046
https://doi.org/10.1056/NEJMoa1813046...
was terminated early after the publication of the results of the WAKE-UP trial,3333 Thomalla G, Simonsen CZ, Boutitie F, et al; WAKE-UP Investigators. MRI-Guided thrombolysis for stroke with unknown time of onset. N Engl J Med 2018;379(07):611–622. Doi: 10.1056/NEJMoa1804355
https://doi.org/10.1056/NEJMoa1804355...
which may reflect on its results. Also, 70% of the patients included had LVO, which would qualify them to undergo a mechanical thrombectomy according to the Endovascular Therapy Following Imaging Evaluation for Ischemic Stroke 3 (DEFUSE-3)4848 Albers GW, Marks MP, Kemp S, et al; DEFUSE 3 Investigators. Thrombectomy for stroke at 6 to 16 hours with selection by perfusion imaging. N Engl J Med 2018;378(08):708–718. Doi: 10.1056/NEJMoa1713973
https://doi.org/10.1056/NEJMoa1713973...
and the Diffusion Weighted Imaging or Computerized Tomography Perfusion Assessment with Clinical Mismatch in the Triage of Wake Up and Late Presenting Strokes Undergoing Neurointervention (DAWN)4747 Nogueira RG, Jadhav AP, Haussen DC, et al; DAWN Trial Investigators. Thrombectomy 6 to 24 hours after stroke with a mismatch between deficit and infarct. N Engl J Med 2018;378(01): 11–21. Doi: 10.1056/NEJMoa1706442
https://doi.org/10.1056/NEJMoa1706442...
trials, which are discussed later. In addition, the evaluation of the core-penumbra mismatch is especially indicated in cases of wake-up stroke, considering that 65% of the EXTEND4343 Ma H, Campbell BCV, Parsons MW, et al; EXTEND Investigators. Thrombolysis guided by perfusion imaging up to 9 hours after onset of stroke. N Engl J Med 2019;380(19):1795–1803. Doi: 10.1056/NEJMoa1813046
https://doi.org/10.1056/NEJMoa1813046...
trial population was part of this subgroup. The previous statement, however, does not preclude the inclusion of patients with daytime-unwitnessed stroke eligible for thrombolysis as indicated by this imaging pattern.

The positive results from using alteplase in patients with unknown-onset stroke were confirmed by a recent meta-analysis,4444 Thomalla G, Boutitie F, Ma H, et al; Evaluation of unknown Onset Stroke thrombolysis trials (EOS) investigators. Intravenous alteplase for stroke with unknown time of onset guided by advanced imaging: systematic review and meta-analysis of individual patient data. Lancet 2020;396(10262):1574–1584. Doi: 10.1016/S0140-6736(20)32163-2
https://doi.org/10.1016/S0140-6736(20)32...
which included 843 patients from the WAKE-UP, THAWS, EXTEND, and ECASS-4 trials, 429 (51%) of whom underwent treatment with rt-PA and, of these, 385 (90%) had wake-up stroke. The MRI was used for randomization in 714 (85%) patients. In this meta-analysis,4444 Thomalla G, Boutitie F, Ma H, et al; Evaluation of unknown Onset Stroke thrombolysis trials (EOS) investigators. Intravenous alteplase for stroke with unknown time of onset guided by advanced imaging: systematic review and meta-analysis of individual patient data. Lancet 2020;396(10262):1574–1584. Doi: 10.1016/S0140-6736(20)32163-2
https://doi.org/10.1016/S0140-6736(20)32...
47% of the alteplase group and 39% of the control group had a favorable functional outcome (p = 0.011), with an NNT of 12.

MECHANICAL THROMBECTOMY IN UNKNOWNONSET STROKE

Studies involving mechanical thrombectomy for patients with unknown-onset stroke sought to extend the 6-hour therapeutic window established in the 2015 AHA/ASA guidelines.4545 Powers WJ, Derdeyn CP, Biller J, et al; American Heart Association Stroke Council. 2015 American Heart Association/American Stroke Association focused update of the 2013 guidelines for the early management of patients with acute ischemic stroke regarding endovascular treatment: A guideline for healthcare professionals from the American Heart Association/American Stroke Association. Stroke 2015;46(10):3020–3035. Doi: 10.1161/STR.0000000000000074
https://doi.org/10.1161/STR.000000000000...
To that end, the two main studies used the core-penumbra mismatch concept, the rationale of which was already mentioned, and the clinical core mismatch.

The clinical core mismatch is based on the fact that the symptoms attributed to stroke are correlated with the brain tissue that is under hypoperfusion, including the ischemic core and penumbra. Therefore, large clinical deficits in areas not completely correlated with the ischemic core predict that there is an area of penumbra to be saved (positive mismatch). The pioneering study conducted by Dávalos et al.4646 Dávalos A, Blanco M, Pedraza S, et al. The clinical-DWI mismatch: a new diagnostic approach to the brain tissue at risk of infarction. Neurology 2004;62(12):2187–2192. Doi: 10.1212/01. wnl.0000130570.41127.ea
https://doi.org/10.1212/01.wnl.000013057...
concluded that an NIHSS score ≥ 8 and a DWI lesion ≤ 25 mL suggested a greater chance of infarct growth and early neurological deterioration.

Based on this concept, the DAWN trial4747 Nogueira RG, Jadhav AP, Haussen DC, et al; DAWN Trial Investigators. Thrombectomy 6 to 24 hours after stroke with a mismatch between deficit and infarct. N Engl J Med 2018;378(01): 11–21. Doi: 10.1056/NEJMoa1706442
https://doi.org/10.1056/NEJMoa1706442...
allocated patients with intracranial internal carotid artery (ICA) or proximal MCA occlusion within 6 to 24 hours since the last time they were seen well. The clinical core mismatch was defined based on the measurement of the ischemic core by CT along with a perfusion study or by the DWI sequence on MRI, stratified by age, as follows: ≥ 80 years of age – NIHSS ≥ 10 and core < 21 mL; < 80 years of age – NIHSS ≥ 10 and core < 31 mL; and < 80 years of age – NIHSS ≥ 20 and core between 31 mL and 50mL.

Thrombectomy was performed with a Trevo (Stryker, Kalamazoo, MI, US) device, without the possibility of using rescue therapy. The coprimary outcomes were the mean score for disability on the utility-weighted mRS, with values from 0 (death) to 10 (no symptom or disability), as well as an mRS score ranging from 0 to 2.45 The median NIHSS score was 17 in both groups. The mean score on the utility-weighted mRS was 5.5 in the thrombectomy group and 3.4 in the control group. In addition, an mRS score ranging from 0 to 2 was achieved by 49% of patients undergoing the endovascular treatment, and by 13% of patients in the control group. Although there was greater clinical severity in this study,4747 Nogueira RG, Jadhav AP, Haussen DC, et al; DAWN Trial Investigators. Thrombectomy 6 to 24 hours after stroke with a mismatch between deficit and infarct. N Engl J Med 2018;378(01): 11–21. Doi: 10.1056/NEJMoa1706442
https://doi.org/10.1056/NEJMoa1706442...
the sICH and mortality rates were comparable between groups.

The DEFUSE-3 trial4848 Albers GW, Marks MP, Kemp S, et al; DEFUSE 3 Investigators. Thrombectomy for stroke at 6 to 16 hours with selection by perfusion imaging. N Engl J Med 2018;378(08):708–718. Doi: 10.1056/NEJMoa1713973
https://doi.org/10.1056/NEJMoa1713973...
evaluated the benefit of mechanical thrombectomy in the treatment of occlusion in the same arterial segments as those in the DAWN, but with a time window between 6 hours and 16 hours since the last time the patient was seen well. The imaging protocol included CT perfusion or MRI diffusion and perfusion. The definition used for core-penumbra mismatch required an ischemic core and a penumbra volume < 70 mL and > 15 mL respectively, in addition to a penumbra-to-core volume ratio > 1.8. Patients were randomized to receive mechanical thrombectomy plus standard medical care or standard medical care alone. The median NIHSS score was 16 in both groups. Patients undergoing EVT had better results in the distribution of functional outcomes in the mRS at 90 days as compared with clinical treatment alone (OR: 2.77;p < 0.001). In addition, the percentage of patients with an mRS ranging from 0 to 2 was 45% in the EVT group versus 17% in the medical treatment group (p < 0.001).4848 Albers GW, Marks MP, Kemp S, et al; DEFUSE 3 Investigators. Thrombectomy for stroke at 6 to 16 hours with selection by perfusion imaging. N Engl J Med 2018;378(08):708–718. Doi: 10.1056/NEJMoa1713973
https://doi.org/10.1056/NEJMoa1713973...
Figure 3 demonstrates an example of core-penumbra mismatch that could be elegible for mechanical thrombectomy according to the DEFUSE-3 criteria.

Figure 3
(A) Diffusion-weighted imaging showing ischemic core < 70mL. The Tmax map by the perfusion study (B) shows mismatch volume > 15mL and the arterial angiographic study (C) demonstrates (dotted circle) obstruction in the right M1 segment.

The positive results obtained in the DEFUSE-34848 Albers GW, Marks MP, Kemp S, et al; DEFUSE 3 Investigators. Thrombectomy for stroke at 6 to 16 hours with selection by perfusion imaging. N Engl J Med 2018;378(08):708–718. Doi: 10.1056/NEJMoa1713973
https://doi.org/10.1056/NEJMoa1713973...
and DAWN4747 Nogueira RG, Jadhav AP, Haussen DC, et al; DAWN Trial Investigators. Thrombectomy 6 to 24 hours after stroke with a mismatch between deficit and infarct. N Engl J Med 2018;378(01): 11–21. Doi: 10.1056/NEJMoa1706442
https://doi.org/10.1056/NEJMoa1706442...
trials motivated a new recommendation in the 2019 AHA/ASA guidelines3636 Powers WJ, Rabinstein AA, Ackerson T, et al. Guidelines for the early management of patients with acute ischemic stroke: 2019 update to the 2018 guidelines for the early management of acute ischemic stroke: A guideline for healthcare professionals from the American Heart Association/American Stroke Association. Stroke 2019;50(12):e344–e418. Doi: 10.1161/STR.0000000000000211
https://doi.org/10.1161/STR.000000000000...
to perform CTA and CT perfusion, or magnetic resonance angiography (MRA) with DWI in association with MRI perfusion imaging or not for patients who are candidates for mechanical thrombectomy between 6 hours and 24 hours since the last time they were seen well (class I; level of evidence A). These should also be included in the EVT if the eligibility criteria in one of either study are met (class I; level of evidence A).3636 Powers WJ, Rabinstein AA, Ackerson T, et al. Guidelines for the early management of patients with acute ischemic stroke: 2019 update to the 2018 guidelines for the early management of acute ischemic stroke: A guideline for healthcare professionals from the American Heart Association/American Stroke Association. Stroke 2019;50(12):e344–e418. Doi: 10.1161/STR.0000000000000211
https://doi.org/10.1161/STR.000000000000...

Table 1 summarizes phase-3 trials with proven efficacy for the use of intravenous thrombolysis and mechanical thrombectomy in unknown-onset stroke.

Table 1
Summary of the positive phase-3 trials related to intravenous thrombolysis and mechanical thrombectomy in unknown-onset stroke

FUTURE IMPLICATIONS FOR APPROACHING UNKNOWN-ONSET STROKE

The extension of the treatment window for intravenous and endovascular treatments based on advanced neuroimaging concepts has gained new contours, especially after 2018, with the publication of the WAKE-UP3333 Thomalla G, Simonsen CZ, Boutitie F, et al; WAKE-UP Investigators. MRI-Guided thrombolysis for stroke with unknown time of onset. N Engl J Med 2018;379(07):611–622. Doi: 10.1056/NEJMoa1804355
https://doi.org/10.1056/NEJMoa1804355...
and EXTEND4343 Ma H, Campbell BCV, Parsons MW, et al; EXTEND Investigators. Thrombolysis guided by perfusion imaging up to 9 hours after onset of stroke. N Engl J Med 2019;380(19):1795–1803. Doi: 10.1056/NEJMoa1813046
https://doi.org/10.1056/NEJMoa1813046...
trials for thrombolysis, and the DAWN4747 Nogueira RG, Jadhav AP, Haussen DC, et al; DAWN Trial Investigators. Thrombectomy 6 to 24 hours after stroke with a mismatch between deficit and infarct. N Engl J Med 2018;378(01): 11–21. Doi: 10.1056/NEJMoa1706442
https://doi.org/10.1056/NEJMoa1706442...
and DEFUSE-34848 Albers GW, Marks MP, Kemp S, et al; DEFUSE 3 Investigators. Thrombectomy for stroke at 6 to 16 hours with selection by perfusion imaging. N Engl J Med 2018;378(08):708–718. Doi: 10.1056/NEJMoa1713973
https://doi.org/10.1056/NEJMoa1713973...
trials for mechanical thrombectomy. However, some limitations related to time and the method itself still need to be considered.

Concerning time, efficacy studies with an extended therapeutic window and defined upper time limit concluded that thrombolysis could be performed within 9 hours, and mechanical thrombectomy, within 24 hours.4343 Ma H, Campbell BCV, Parsons MW, et al; EXTEND Investigators. Thrombolysis guided by perfusion imaging up to 9 hours after onset of stroke. N Engl J Med 2019;380(19):1795–1803. Doi: 10.1056/NEJMoa1813046
https://doi.org/10.1056/NEJMoa1813046...
,4747 Nogueira RG, Jadhav AP, Haussen DC, et al; DAWN Trial Investigators. Thrombectomy 6 to 24 hours after stroke with a mismatch between deficit and infarct. N Engl J Med 2018;378(01): 11–21. Doi: 10.1056/NEJMoa1706442
https://doi.org/10.1056/NEJMoa1706442...
Some recent studies4949 Desai SM, Haussen DC, Aghaebrahim A, et al. Thrombectomy 24 hours after stroke: beyond DAWN. J Neurointerv Surg 2018; 10(11):1039–1042. Doi: 10.1136/neurintsurg-2018-013923
https://doi.org/10.1136/neurintsurg-2018...
,5050 Manning NW, Wenderoth J, Alsahli K, et al. Endovascular thrombectomy >24-hr from stroke symptom onset. Front Neurol 2018; 9:501. Doi: 10.3389/fneur.2018.00501
https://doi.org/10.3389/fneur.2018.00501...
have concluded that thrombectomy appears to be safe if performed after 24 hours; still, due to their retrospective nature and small samples, this needs to be better validated.

Regarding the method used in the published studies, a central issue to be analyzed is its reproducibility. First, in order for the concepts of core-penumbra mismatch and clinical core mismatch to be applied, suitable software for manual or automated processing are required. In addition, there are limitations to the use of automated processing, such as overestimating the lesion volume in perfusion or processing erroneous results due to image quality, which ultimately affects the therapeutic decision.5151 Austein F, Riedel C, Kerby T, et al. Comparison of perfusion CT software to predict the final infarct volume after thrombectomy. Stroke 2016;47(09):2311–2317. Doi: 10.1161/STROKEAHA. 116.013147
https://doi.org/10.1161/STROKEAHA.116.01...
Second, the WAKE-UP trial3333 Thomalla G, Simonsen CZ, Boutitie F, et al; WAKE-UP Investigators. MRI-Guided thrombolysis for stroke with unknown time of onset. N Engl J Med 2018;379(07):611–622. Doi: 10.1056/NEJMoa1804355
https://doi.org/10.1056/NEJMoa1804355...
has conditioned the treatment decision to performing only MRI scans, which, in most countries, has its availability limited to tertiary services. In turn, CT is more widely distributed and accessible, which makes it imperative to identify new markers to characterize the ischemia duration or potentially salvageable brain tissue by using this method.

Third, understanding that the dynamic changes in neuroimaging studies reflect the pathophysiological process of the ischemic injury, which involves the stages of cytotoxic, ionic, and vasogenic edema, other alternative methods are currently being evaluated to estimate the time of stroke onset.

By combining CT and CT perfusion, a German study5252 Minnerup J, Broocks G, Kalkoffen J, et al. Computed tomographybased quantification of lesion water uptake identifies patients within 4.5 hours of stroke onset: A multicenter observational study. Ann Neurol 2016;80(06):924–934. Doi: 10.1002/ana.24818
https://doi.org/10.1002/ana.24818...
aimed to correlate the quantitative water uptake in the lesion area with stroke onset time within and after 4.5 hours. With the cut-off value of water uptake of 11.5%, the researchers were able to distinguish the ischemic time with a sensitivity of 98.6% and a specificity of 90.5%.

A subsequent study5353 Broocks G, Leischner H, Hanning U, et al. Lesion age imaging in acute stroke: Water uptake in CT versus DWI-FLAIR mismatch. Ann Neurol 2020;88(06):1144–1152. Doi: 10.1002/ana.25903
https://doi.org/10.1002/ana.25903...
compared the CT-based quantitative water uptake marker to the DWI-FLAIR mismatch as measured by MRI, and found an accuracy of 86%, sensitivity of 91%, and specificity of 78% with a previously-defined water uptake threshold of 11.5%, all of which were comparable to values obtained by MRI.

Relying on the DWI-FLAIR mismatch pattern as a guide for where to induce thrombolysis, in an Austrian retrospective study,5454 Jakubicek S, Krebs S, Posekany A, et al. Modified DWI-FLAIR mismatch guided thrombolysis in unknown onset stroke. J Thromb Thrombolysis 2019;47(02):167–173. Doi: 10.1007/s11239-018-1766-3
https://doi.org/10.1007/s11239-018-1766-...
the researchers decided to include in the thrombolytic treatment group patients who were partially positive in FLAIR, as defined by the signal change in this sequence, but clearly less area than the corresponding DWI lesion and absent in the contralateral hemisphere. Sixty-four thrombolyzed patients with this imaging pattern were compared with a non-thrombolized control group by using clear positivity in FLAIR. Despite the methodological issues of this study,5454 Jakubicek S, Krebs S, Posekany A, et al. Modified DWI-FLAIR mismatch guided thrombolysis in unknown onset stroke. J Thromb Thrombolysis 2019;47(02):167–173. Doi: 10.1007/s11239-018-1766-3
https://doi.org/10.1007/s11239-018-1766-...
the frequency of sICH and the functional outcome were comparable between the groups, opening the possibility for further studies that validate the partial positivity of FLAIR as a safe biomarker to perform thrombolysis.

In turn, to assess the visual and quantitative performance of MR-based methods as predictors of the time of onset of stroke, McGarry et al.5555 McGarry BL, Damion RA, Chew I, et al. A comparison of T2 relaxation-based MRI stroke timing methods in hyperacute ischemic stroke patients: A pilot study. J Cent Nerv Syst Dis 2020; 12:1179573520943314. Doi: 10.1177/1179573520943314
https://doi.org/10.1177/1179573520943314...
compared the signal intensity ratios of the T2-weighted sequences, T2 relaxation, DWI, apparent diffusion coefficient (ADC), and FLAIR, in addition to DWI-FLAIR mismatch. The study concluded that the T2 relaxation time was the most accurate measurement to estimate the time of onset of ischemia and that, taken together with the quantification of the ADC map to identify the lesion, it may be sufficient for patients with unknown-onset stroke, for it presents even better accuracy than does the DWI-FLAIR mismatch.

Finally, in addition to comparing new brain imaging modalities with those already validated, other studies have been seeking to expand the therapeutic arsenal against acute ischemic stroke. Due to its pharmacological properties and ease of administration, research on tenecteplase has emerged in recent years.5656 Logallo N, Novotny V, Assmus J, et al. Tenecteplase versus alteplase for management of acute ischaemic stroke (NORTEST): a phase 3, randomised, open-label, blinded endpoint trial. Lancet Neurol 2017;16(10):781–788. Doi: 10.1016/S1474-4422(17)30253-3
https://doi.org/10.1016/S1474-4422(17)30...
,5757 Campbell BC, Mitchell PJ, Churilov L, et al; EXTEND-IA TNK Investigators. Tenecteplase versus alteplase before endovascular thrombectomy (EXTEND-IA TNK): A multicenter, randomized, controlled study. Int J Stroke 2018;13(03):328–334. Doi: 10.1177/1747493017733935
https://doi.org/10.1177/1747493017733935...
Three studies5858 ClinicalTrials.gov. Tenecteplase in wake-up ischaemic stroke trial. 2017 (Acessed on Jan 22, 2021). Available at: https://ClinicalTrials.gov/show/NCT03181360
https://ClinicalTrials.gov/show/NCT03181...
6060 ClinicalTrials.gov. Chinese acute tissue-based imaging selection for lysis in stroke -tenecteplase. 2019 (Acessed Jan 22, 2021). Available at: https://ClinicalTrials.gov/show/NCT04086147
https://ClinicalTrials.gov/show/NCT04086...
related to unknown-onset stroke are ongoing. The Tenecteplase in Wake-up Ischaemic Stroke Trial (TWIST)5858 ClinicalTrials.gov. Tenecteplase in wake-up ischaemic stroke trial. 2017 (Acessed on Jan 22, 2021). Available at: https://ClinicalTrials.gov/show/NCT03181360
https://ClinicalTrials.gov/show/NCT03181...
is a phase-3 study which aims to randomize 600 patients and assess the benefit of 0.25 mg/kg of tenecteplase within 4.5 hours of awakening with stroke symptoms, based on CT and CTA images (if possible). The Tenecteplase in Stroke Patients Between 4.5 and 24 Hours (TIMELESS) study,5959 ClinicalTrials.gov. Tenecteplase in stroke patients between 4.5 and 24 hours. 2018 (Acessed Jan 22, 2021). Available at: https://ClinicalTrials.gov/show/NCT03785678
https://ClinicalTrials.gov/show/NCT03785...
which is also in phase 3, adopts the DEFUSE-3 imaging criteria4848 Albers GW, Marks MP, Kemp S, et al; DEFUSE 3 Investigators. Thrombectomy for stroke at 6 to 16 hours with selection by perfusion imaging. N Engl J Med 2018;378(08):708–718. Doi: 10.1056/NEJMoa1713973
https://doi.org/10.1056/NEJMoa1713973...
and is recruiting patients with stroke and LVO (ICA or MCA) to assess 0.25 mg/kg of tenecteplase within 4.5 hours and 24 hours since the onset of symptoms. Unlike the others, the Chinese Acute Tissue-Based Imaging Selection for Lysis In Stroke – Tenecteplase (CHABLIS-T)6060 ClinicalTrials.gov. Chinese acute tissue-based imaging selection for lysis in stroke -tenecteplase. 2019 (Acessed Jan 22, 2021). Available at: https://ClinicalTrials.gov/show/NCT04086147
https://ClinicalTrials.gov/show/NCT04086...
is a phase-2 study comparing doses of 0.25 mg/kg and 0.32 mg/kg in stroke patients within 4.5 hours and 24 hours since the onset of symptoms as assessed by perfusion imaging.

PROPOSING A PROTOCOL TO APPROACH UNKNOWNONSET STROKE

In the context of acute ischemic stroke, establishing an assessment protocol in the emergency room for patients suspected to have ischemia is mandatory (class I; level of evidence B).3636 Powers WJ, Rabinstein AA, Ackerson T, et al. Guidelines for the early management of patients with acute ischemic stroke: 2019 update to the 2018 guidelines for the early management of acute ischemic stroke: A guideline for healthcare professionals from the American Heart Association/American Stroke Association. Stroke 2019;50(12):e344–e418. Doi: 10.1161/STR.0000000000000211
https://doi.org/10.1161/STR.000000000000...
Furthermore, as a clear time of symptom onset cannot be established in 20% of the cases, stroke teams must be able to investigate them promptly, to offer reperfusion therapies to the greatest number of patients.

In summary, the studies that have shown the benefit of intravenous thrombolysis and mechanical thrombectomy in this population used perfusion CT or MRI with or without perfusion. Understanding that perfusion studies are dependent on manual or automated processing by software and that contrast injection is necessary, we have chosen, in the suggested protocol, to make the MRI the modality of choice to investigating unknown-onset stroke.

The strengths of the MRI are the possibility of establishing a protocol that is faster to execute and yields a quicker final response by including only the DWI, FLAIR, T2* (or another hemorrhage-sensitive) sequences and time-of-flight (TOF) angiography, which directly address the questions regarding whether a treatment is possible or not, as well as regarding the modality thereof that can be used. In the real world, probably the biggest downside is its unavailability in smaller centers.

If the patient does not have contraindications to undergo an MRI scan, the criteria of the WAKE-UP trial33 should be evaluated to consider eligibility for intravenous thrombolysis, or the criteria of the DAWN trial4747 Nogueira RG, Jadhav AP, Haussen DC, et al; DAWN Trial Investigators. Thrombectomy 6 to 24 hours after stroke with a mismatch between deficit and infarct. N Engl J Med 2018;378(01): 11–21. Doi: 10.1056/NEJMoa1706442
https://doi.org/10.1056/NEJMoa1706442...
when LVO is suspected. If it is impossible to perform MRI scans, either due to contraindication unavailability, perfusion CT is the next best option and helps in the inclusion of patients by the presence of a core-penumbra mismatch.

The CT protocol starts with a scout view followed by non-contrast head CT, intracranial and cervical angiotomography (CTA), and then, perfusion CT. After non-contrast slices, a volume of 35 mL to 50 mL of iodinated contrast followed by a 20 mL saline chase is injected into a vein ideally at or above the antecubital region or the forearm to acquire the CTA. After that, another 30 mL to 50 mL of intravenous contrast is necessary to acquire perfusion images. Full brain coverage either by 2 perfusion slabs or by single perfusion (which is available in modern scanners), is mandatory.

Automated perfusion processing software have been used to accelerate data availability and reduce interobserver variability. The RAPID CTP (iSchemaView, Menlo Park, CA, US) has been used and validated in the EXTEND,4343 Ma H, Campbell BCV, Parsons MW, et al; EXTEND Investigators. Thrombolysis guided by perfusion imaging up to 9 hours after onset of stroke. N Engl J Med 2019;380(19):1795–1803. Doi: 10.1056/NEJMoa1813046
https://doi.org/10.1056/NEJMoa1813046...
DEFUSE-3,4848 Albers GW, Marks MP, Kemp S, et al; DEFUSE 3 Investigators. Thrombectomy for stroke at 6 to 16 hours with selection by perfusion imaging. N Engl J Med 2018;378(08):708–718. Doi: 10.1056/NEJMoa1713973
https://doi.org/10.1056/NEJMoa1713973...
and DAWN4747 Nogueira RG, Jadhav AP, Haussen DC, et al; DAWN Trial Investigators. Thrombectomy 6 to 24 hours after stroke with a mismatch between deficit and infarct. N Engl J Med 2018;378(01): 11–21. Doi: 10.1056/NEJMoa1706442
https://doi.org/10.1056/NEJMoa1706442...
trials. In Brazil, it was used in the RESILIENT trial.6161 Martins SO, Mont’Alverne F, Rebello LC, et al; RESILIENT Investigators. Thrombectomy for stroke in the public health care system of Brazil. N Engl J Med 2020;382(24):2316–2326. Doi: 10.1056/NEJMoa2000120
https://doi.org/10.1056/NEJMoa2000120...
However, its use requires evaluation of the vascular time-attenuation curves, generated from the selection of an arterial input function (AIF) and a venous output function (VOF). The selection of a large-caliber artery (carotid terminus, anterior cerebral artery, and proximal middle cerebral artery) and a large dural venous sinus (torcular Herophili, transverse sinus, or superior sagittal sinus) such as the AIF and VOF respectively, is recommended.

Using deconvolutional analysis, postprocessing software platforms can provide measures of cerebral blood flow (CBF), cerebral blood volume (CBV), mean transit time (MTT), time-to-peak (TTP) and time-to-maximum (Tmax). The maps and thresholds used to estimate the ischemic core and penumbra are relative to CBF <30% of the contralateral hemisphere, and to Tmax > 6 seconds respectively.

For perfusion CT, the same criteria as those used in the EXTEND trial4343 Ma H, Campbell BCV, Parsons MW, et al; EXTEND Investigators. Thrombolysis guided by perfusion imaging up to 9 hours after onset of stroke. N Engl J Med 2019;380(19):1795–1803. Doi: 10.1056/NEJMoa1813046
https://doi.org/10.1056/NEJMoa1813046...
will be used to consider intravenous thrombolysis. In case of LVO, the DAWN4747 Nogueira RG, Jadhav AP, Haussen DC, et al; DAWN Trial Investigators. Thrombectomy 6 to 24 hours after stroke with a mismatch between deficit and infarct. N Engl J Med 2018;378(01): 11–21. Doi: 10.1056/NEJMoa1706442
https://doi.org/10.1056/NEJMoa1706442...
and DEFUSE-34848 Albers GW, Marks MP, Kemp S, et al; DEFUSE 3 Investigators. Thrombectomy for stroke at 6 to 16 hours with selection by perfusion imaging. N Engl J Med 2018;378(08):708–718. Doi: 10.1056/NEJMoa1713973
https://doi.org/10.1056/NEJMoa1713973...
trials guide the selection of patients for mechanical thrombectomy. A flowchart to approach unknown-onset stroke is proposed inFigure 4.

Figure 4
Flowchart for an advanced image-guided therapeutic approach to unknown-onset stroke. Abbreviatons: CT, computed tomography; CTA, computed tomography angiography; CTP, computed tomography perfusion; LVO, large vessel occlusion; MRA, magnetic resonance angiography; MRI, magnetic resonance imaging; MT, mechanical thrombectomy; rt-PA, recombinant tissue plasminogen activator. Notes: rt-PA – alteplase 0.9 mg/kg (maximum 90 mg);1Includes DWI, FLAIR, T2*, and TOF angiography.

It is necessary to emphasize that, in patients with a time of symptom onset shorter than 4.5 hours, non-contrast CT is effective to exclude hemorrhage and, in the absence of other contraindications, to indicate the thrombolytic treatment.3636 Powers WJ, Rabinstein AA, Ackerson T, et al. Guidelines for the early management of patients with acute ischemic stroke: 2019 update to the 2018 guidelines for the early management of acute ischemic stroke: A guideline for healthcare professionals from the American Heart Association/American Stroke Association. Stroke 2019;50(12):e344–e418. Doi: 10.1161/STR.0000000000000211
https://doi.org/10.1161/STR.000000000000...

If an LVO within 6 hours since the last time the patient was seen well is suspected, the association of CT and CTA is sufficiently recommended to select the patient to undergo a mechanical thrombectomy.3636 Powers WJ, Rabinstein AA, Ackerson T, et al. Guidelines for the early management of patients with acute ischemic stroke: 2019 update to the 2018 guidelines for the early management of acute ischemic stroke: A guideline for healthcare professionals from the American Heart Association/American Stroke Association. Stroke 2019;50(12):e344–e418. Doi: 10.1161/STR.0000000000000211
https://doi.org/10.1161/STR.000000000000...
Nevertheless, the RESILIENT trial,6161 Martins SO, Mont’Alverne F, Rebello LC, et al; RESILIENT Investigators. Thrombectomy for stroke in the public health care system of Brazil. N Engl J Med 2020;382(24):2316–2326. Doi: 10.1056/NEJMoa2000120
https://doi.org/10.1056/NEJMoa2000120...
which showed the benefit of mechanical thrombectomy plus standard care for patients within 8 hours of symptom onset, used CT or CTA in 99.1% of the intervention group, showing that this imaging modality may be suitable for this longer time window than otherwise stated in the guidelines.

In conclusion, despite being a frequent condition in the clinical practice, unknown-onset stroke recently crossed the line of conservative clinical treatment to a level of multiple approaches depending on the time of symptom recognition, the availability of advanced imaging methods, and the expertise of the team, all of which are key to ensure that the best treatment is provided.

Due to the publication of the four main positive trials on efficacy (WAKE-UP,3333 Thomalla G, Simonsen CZ, Boutitie F, et al; WAKE-UP Investigators. MRI-Guided thrombolysis for stroke with unknown time of onset. N Engl J Med 2018;379(07):611–622. Doi: 10.1056/NEJMoa1804355
https://doi.org/10.1056/NEJMoa1804355...
EXTEND,4343 Ma H, Campbell BCV, Parsons MW, et al; EXTEND Investigators. Thrombolysis guided by perfusion imaging up to 9 hours after onset of stroke. N Engl J Med 2019;380(19):1795–1803. Doi: 10.1056/NEJMoa1813046
https://doi.org/10.1056/NEJMoa1813046...
DAWN,4747 Nogueira RG, Jadhav AP, Haussen DC, et al; DAWN Trial Investigators. Thrombectomy 6 to 24 hours after stroke with a mismatch between deficit and infarct. N Engl J Med 2018;378(01): 11–21. Doi: 10.1056/NEJMoa1706442
https://doi.org/10.1056/NEJMoa1706442...
and DEFUSE-34848 Albers GW, Marks MP, Kemp S, et al; DEFUSE 3 Investigators. Thrombectomy for stroke at 6 to 16 hours with selection by perfusion imaging. N Engl J Med 2018;378(08):708–718. Doi: 10.1056/NEJMoa1713973
https://doi.org/10.1056/NEJMoa1713973...
), intravenous thrombolysis can be offered to this population because of the evidence from DWI-FLAIR or core-penumbra mismatch, and mechanical thrombectomy due to the evidence from clinical core or core-penumbra mismatch.

The need to identify new possibilities to extend the therapeutic window for patients with unknown-onset stroke is evident. This should be achieved with the identification of new neuroimaging modalities or the establishment of new criteria for previous positive studies, so that the treatment they propose becomes increasingly more available to everyone. In addition, depending on their own possibilities, national health systems need to structure themselves to expand the supply of human and technological resources for the approach to acute ischemic stroke and thus identify potential candidates for reperfusion therapies who, until recently, were excluded due to the strict time window they involved.

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Publication Dates

  • Publication in this collection
    01 May 2023
  • Date of issue
    2022

History

  • Received
    13 Aug 2021
  • Accepted
    01 Nov 2021
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