Abstract
The riverine population of the Amazon Basin are among the largest consumers of fish in the world, but the consumption patterns could be regionally distinct. Moreover, their total fish catches are not fully known. The objective of this work was to estimate the per capita fish consumption of the riverine people that inhabit the Paciência Island (Iranduba, Amazonas), where there is a fishing agreement in force. A total of 273 questionnaires were applied during the first two weeks of each month between April 2021 and March 2022. The sample unit was the residences. The questionnaire contained questions about the species captured and their quantities. Consumption was calculated by dividing the average monthly capture with the average number of residents per household interviewed, which was multiplied by the number of questionnaires applied. Thirty groups of consumed fish species belonging to 17 families and 5 orders were recorded. The total catch was 3,388.35 kg and the highest monthly catch was 602.60 kg during the falling-water season in October. Daily per capita fish consumption averaged 66.13 ± 29.21 g/day, with a peak of 116.45 g/day during the falling-water season in August. The high fish consumption rate highlighted the importance of fisheries management to food security and the maintenance of the community’s lifestyle.
Keywords:
riverine population; fishery production; artisanal fisheries; floodplain lakes; fishery management
Resumo
As populações amazônicas são uma das maiores consumidoras de pescado do mundo, contudo os padrões de consumo podem ser regionalmente distintos. Além disso, as capturas totais não são totalmente conhecidas. O objetivo do trabalho foi estimar o consumo per capita e as capturas de pescado por ribeirinhos residentes na Ilha da Paciência (Iranduba, Amazonas), onde há um acordo de pesca vigente. Foram aplicados no total 273 questionários durante as duas primeiras semanas de cada mês entre abril de 2021 e março de 2022. A unidade amostral foram as residências. O questionário continha perguntas sobre as espécies capturadas e respectivas quantidades. O consumo foi calculado pela divisão entre a média de captura mensal com a média de moradores por residência entrevistada que foi multiplicada pelo número de questionários aplicados. Foram registrados 30 grupos de espécies de peixes consumidos pertencentes a 17 famílias e 5 ordens. A captura total foi de 3.388,35 kg e a maior captura mensal foi de 602,60 kg durante a vazante no mês de outubro. O consumo de pescado per capita diário foi em média 66,13 ± 29,21 g/dia, com pico de 116,45 g/dia durante a vazante no mês de agosto. A alta taxa de consumo de pescado mostra a importância do manejo pesqueiro para a segurança alimentar e a manutenção do estilo de vida da comunidade.
Palavras-chaves:
ribeirinhos; produção pesqueira; pesca artesanal; lagos de várzea; manejo pesqueiro
1. Introduction
The Amazon region has a vast area of aquatic environments that are home to a great diversity of fish. Some stocks are very abundant and support important fisheries that stand out for the amount of fish caught when compared to those carried out in other regions of the country (Barthem and Fabré, 2004BARTHEM, R.B. and FABRÉ, N.N., 2004. Biologia e diversidade dos recursos pesqueiros da amazônia. In: M.L. RUFFINO, ed. A pesca e os recursos pesqueiros na Amazônia brasileira. Manaus: ProVárzea, p.17-62.). Among the different habitats in the Amazon region are the plains adjacent to the great whitewater rivers that begin in the pre-Andean and Andean zone (Junk et al., 2012JUNK, W.J., PIEDADE, M.T.F., SCHÖNGART, J. and WITTMANN, F., 2012. A classification of major natural habitats of Amazonian white-water river floodplains (várzeas). Wetlands Ecology and Management, vol. 20, no. 6, pp. 461-475. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s11273-012-9268-0.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s11273-012-926...
). Known as floodplains, these plains are complex aquatic environments that are formed by lakes and channels. The water in these environments has a pH close to neutral, high electrical conductivity due to the high concentration of sediments and minerals, and high fishery productivity (Junk, 1984JUNK, W.J., 1984. Ecology of the várzea, floodplain of Amazonian whitewater rivers. In: H. SIOLI, ed. The Amazon: limnology and landscape ecology of a mighty tropical river and its basin. Netherlands: Springer, pp. 215-243.. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/978-94-009-6542-3_8.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/978-94-009-654...
), the seasonal flood assure the annual nutrient input to the floodplains (Junk et al., 2012JUNK, W.J., PIEDADE, M.T.F., SCHÖNGART, J. and WITTMANN, F., 2012. A classification of major natural habitats of Amazonian white-water river floodplains (várzeas). Wetlands Ecology and Management, vol. 20, no. 6, pp. 461-475. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s11273-012-9268-0.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s11273-012-926...
).
Fishing is a traditional activity that provides the main food item in the diet of Amazonian populations, which makes them dependent on fishery resources (Fraxe et al., 2007FRAXE, T.J.P., WITKOSKI, A.C. and PEREIRA, H.S. 2007. Comunidades ribeirinhas amazônicas. 1st ed. Manaus: EDUA. 224p.; Alho et al., 2015ALHO, C.J.R., REIS, R.E. and AQUINO, P.P.U., 2015. Amazonian freshwater habitats experiencing environmental and socioeconomic threats affecting subsistence fisheries. Ambio, vol. 44, no. 5, pp. 412-425. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s13280-014-0610-z. PMid:25572836.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s13280-014-061...
). The variation in river level influences the patterns of connectivity between Amazonian environments, which also affects the vulnerability of fish to fishing (Bittencourt and Amadio, 2007BITTENCOURT, M.M. and AMADIO, S.A., 2007. Proposta para identificação rápida dos períodos hidrológicos em áreas de várzea do rio Solimões-Amazonas nas proximidades de Manaus. Acta Amazonica, vol. 37, no. 2, pp. 303-308. http://dx.doi.org/10.1590/S0044-59672007000200019.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1590/S0044-59672007...
; Hurd et al., 2016HURD, L.E., SOUSA, R.G.C., SIQUEIRA-SOUZA, F.K., COOPER, G.J., KAHN, J.R. and FREITAS, C.E.C., 2016. Amazon floodplain fish communities: habitat connectivity and conservation in a rapidly deteriorating environment. Biological Conservation, vol. 195, no. 1, pp. 118-127. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.biocon.2016.01.005.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.biocon.2016....
), which is the main source of animal protein to the riverine people (Batista et al., 1998BATISTA, V.S., INHAMUNS, A.J., FREITAS, C.E.C. and FREIRE-BRASIL, D., 1998. Characterization of the fishery in river communities in the low-Solimões/high-Amazon region. Fisheries Management and Ecology, vol. 5, no. 5, pp. 419-435. http://dx.doi.org/10.1046/j.1365-2400.1998.550419.x.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1046/j.1365-2400.19...
; Cerdeira et al., 2000CERDEIRA, R.G.P., RUFFINO, M.L. and ISAAC, V.J., 2000. Fish catches among riverside communities around Lago Grande de Monte Alegre, Lower Amazon, Brazil. Fisheries Management and Ecology, vol. 7, no. 4, pp. 355-373. http://dx.doi.org/10.1046/j.1365-2400.2000.007004355.x.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1046/j.1365-2400.20...
). Thus, seasonality directly influences the way of life of riverine populations, who use natural resources to obtain food and income through fishing, agriculture, and plant extractivism, among other productive activities (Fraxe et al., 2007FRAXE, T.J.P., WITKOSKI, A.C. and PEREIRA, H.S. 2007. Comunidades ribeirinhas amazônicas. 1st ed. Manaus: EDUA. 224p.; Porto Braga and Rabêlo, 2015PORTO BRAGA, T.M. and RABÊLO, G.H., 2015. Usos da fauna por comunitários da reserva: o problema do desenvolvimento sustentável. Papers do NAEA, vol. 24, no. 1, pp. 3-25. http://dx.doi.org/10.18542/papersnaea.v24i1.11215.
http://dx.doi.org/10.18542/papersnaea.v2...
; Venticinque et al., 2016VENTICINQUE, E., FORSBERG, B., BARTHEM, R., PETRY, P., HESS, L., MERCADO, A., CAÑAS, C., MONTOYA, M., DURIGAN, C. and GOULDING, M., 2016. An explicit GIS-based river basin framework for aquatic ecosystem conservation in the Amazon. Earth System Science Data, vol. 8, no. 1, pp. 651-661. http://dx.doi.org/10.5194/essd-8-651-2016.
http://dx.doi.org/10.5194/essd-8-651-201...
).
Subsistence fishing is carried out by riverine families using simple equipment, such as canoes and diverse fishing tackle (Cerdeira et al., 2000CERDEIRA, R.G.P., RUFFINO, M.L. and ISAAC, V.J., 2000. Fish catches among riverside communities around Lago Grande de Monte Alegre, Lower Amazon, Brazil. Fisheries Management and Ecology, vol. 7, no. 4, pp. 355-373. http://dx.doi.org/10.1046/j.1365-2400.2000.007004355.x.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1046/j.1365-2400.20...
; Santos et al., 2010SANTOS, G.M., FERREIRA, E.J.G. and VAL, A.L., 2010. Recursos pesqueiros e sustentabilidade na Amazônica: fatos e perspectivas. Hiléia - Revista do Direito Ambiental da Amazônia, vol. 8, no. 1, pp. 43-77.; Hallwass and Silvano, 2016HALLWASS, G. and SILVANO, R.A.M., 2016. Patterns of selectiveness in the Amazonian freshwater fisheries: implications for management. Journal of Environmental Planning and Management, vol. 59, no. 9, pp. 1537-1559. http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/09640568.2015.1081587.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/09640568.2015....
). According to Silva et al. (2017)SILVA, R.J., GARAVELLO, M.E.P.E., NARDOTO, G.B., MAZZI, E.A. and MARTINELLI, L.A., 2017. Factors influencing the food transition in riverine communities in the Brazilian Amazon. Environment, Development and Sustainability, vol. 19, no. 3, pp. 1087-1102. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s10668-016-9783-x.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s10668-016-978...
, riverine populations who fish for subsistence may occasionally sell surplus fish as a way to increase their income. Ruffino (2004)RUFFINO, M., 2004. A pesca e os recursos pesqueiros na Amazônia Brasileira. 1st ed. Manaus: Ibama/ProVárzea, 272 p. reported that, despite the importance of the region’s fishing sector, much of the fishing production of rural areas in the Amazon remains unknown. This scarcity of fishing data is a common problem in regions with great biodiversity, such as the Amazon basin (Doria et al., 2018DORIA, C.R.C., ATHAYDE, S., MARQUES, E.E., LIMA, M.A.L., DUTKA-GIANELLI, J., RUFFINO, M.L., KAPLAN, D., FREITAS, C.E.C. and ISAAC, V.N., 2018. The invisibility of fisheries in the process of hydropower development across the Amazon. Ambio, vol. 47, no. 4, pp. 453-465. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s13280-017-0994-7. PMid:29210012.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s13280-017-099...
). Inland fisheries receive less attention when compared to other sectors such as agriculture, which have more information available, with this, threats to fishery resources can be seen as less urgent issues to be resolved and puts the sustainability of fisheries at risk (Lynch et al., 2020LYNCH, A.J., ELLIOTT, V., PHANG, S.C., CLAUSSEN, J.E., HARRISON, I., MURCHIE, K.J., STEEL, E.A. and STOKES, G.L., 2020. Inland fish and fisheries integral to achieving the Sustainable Development Goals. Nature Sustainability, vol. 3, no. 3, pp. 579-587. http://dx.doi.org/10.1038/s41893-020-0517-6.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1038/s41893-020-051...
).
The diffuse nature and informality of subsistence fishing make it difficult to estimate its production (Silva et al., 2017SILVA, R.J., GARAVELLO, M.E.P.E., NARDOTO, G.B., MAZZI, E.A. and MARTINELLI, L.A., 2017. Factors influencing the food transition in riverine communities in the Brazilian Amazon. Environment, Development and Sustainability, vol. 19, no. 3, pp. 1087-1102. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s10668-016-9783-x.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s10668-016-978...
; Funge-Smith and Bennett, 2019FUNGE-SMITH, S. and BENNETT, A., 2019. A fresh look at inland fisheries and their role in food security and livelihoods. Fish and Fisheries, vol. 20, no. 6, pp. 1176-1195. http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/faf.12403.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/faf.12403...
). The lack of data contributes to lower visibility of subsistence fishing, despite its importance, especially for the most vulnerable and resource-dependent populations (Funge-Smith and Bennett, 2019FUNGE-SMITH, S. and BENNETT, A., 2019. A fresh look at inland fisheries and their role in food security and livelihoods. Fish and Fisheries, vol. 20, no. 6, pp. 1176-1195. http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/faf.12403.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/faf.12403...
). The available data on fish consumption are mostly inaccurate mainly in remote areas and, by elucidating the importance of inland fishing from catch data, it is possible to manage the fishery resource in order to ensure the food security of these populations (Fluet-Chouinard et al., 2018FLUET-CHOUINARD, E., FUNGE-SMITH, S. and MCINTYRE, P.B., 2018. Global hidden harvest of freshwater fish revealed by household surveys. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America, vol. 115, no. 29, pp. 7623-7628. http://dx.doi.org/10.1073/pnas.1721097115. PMid:29915069.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1073/pnas.172109711...
).
From the fish consumption information, it is possible to discover the eating habits and nutritional level of a population, in addition to estimating fishery production (Isaac and Almeida, 2011ISAAC, V.J. and ALMEIDA, M.C., 2011. El Consumo de pescado en la Amazonía Brasileña. 1st ed. Rome: FAO, 54 p.). The objective of this study was to estimate the per capita consumption and fishery catches of riverine populations who exploit the resources of floodplain lakes located on Paciência Island (Solimões River).
2. Materials and Methods
2.1. Study area
Fish consumption data were collected from families living on Paciência Island (3° 19' 16" S, 60° 13' 29.5" W), which is located in the lower stretches of the Solimões River (Figure 1). The variation in the level of the Amazon River and its tributaries is of the monomodal type, presenting annually alternating seasons of high water and low water; this being the main force that governs the system and keeps it in balance (Junk et al., 2012JUNK, W.J., PIEDADE, M.T.F., SCHÖNGART, J. and WITTMANN, F., 2012. A classification of major natural habitats of Amazonian white-water river floodplains (várzeas). Wetlands Ecology and Management, vol. 20, no. 6, pp. 461-475. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s11273-012-9268-0.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s11273-012-926...
). For the areas of the Solimões-Amazon River near Manaus, where this island is located, the peak of the high water occurs between May and June (Marengo, 2006MARENGO, J., 2006. On the hydrological cycle of the Amazon Basin: a historical review and current state-of-the-art. Revista Brasileira de Meteorologia, vol. 21, no. 3, pp. 19.; Venticinque et al., 2016VENTICINQUE, E., FORSBERG, B., BARTHEM, R., PETRY, P., HESS, L., MERCADO, A., CAÑAS, C., MONTOYA, M., DURIGAN, C. and GOULDING, M., 2016. An explicit GIS-based river basin framework for aquatic ecosystem conservation in the Amazon. Earth System Science Data, vol. 8, no. 1, pp. 651-661. http://dx.doi.org/10.5194/essd-8-651-2016.
http://dx.doi.org/10.5194/essd-8-651-201...
). In this area, when flooding occurs, isolated lakes can connect with each other and to the main river depending on the distance and degree of flooding that varies between years (Freitas et al., 2010FREITAS, C.E.C., SIQUEIRA-SOUZA, F.K., GUIMARÃES, A.R., SANTOS, F.A. and SANTOS, I.L.A. 2010. Interconnectedness during high water maintains similarity in fish assemblages of island floodplain lakes in the Amazonian Basin. Zoologia (Curitiba), vol. 27, no. 1, pp. 931-938. http://dx.doi.org/10.1590/S1984-46702010000600014.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1590/S1984-46702010...
).
Paciência Island (Solimões River, Amazon basin) with the identification of the lakes exploited for commercial and subsistence fishing (Appendix 1). Sources: IBGE (2021)INSTITUTO BRASILEIRO DE GEOGRAFIA E ESTATÍSTICA - IBGE, 2021 [viewed 11 December 2021]. Cidades e Estados: Iranduba [online]. Available from: https://www.ibge.gov.br/cidades-e-estados/am/iranduba.html
https://www.ibge.gov.br/cidades-e-estado... and INPE (2021INSTITUTO NACIONAL DE PESQUISAS ESPACIAIS - INPE, 2021 [viewed 11 December 2021]. Catálogo de imagens [online]. Available from: http://www.dgi.inpe.br/CDSR/
http://www.dgi.inpe.br/CDSR/... ).
The island is 62.9 km2 and is home to 32 lakes (Appendix 1) that vary in size during the year according to the flood pulse of the river. The use of the fishery resources of these lakes is governed by normative instruction N° 02/11 (Manaus, 2011MANAUS. SECRETÁRIA DE ESTADO DO MEIO AMBIENTE E DESENVOLVIMENTO SUSTENTÁVEL - SDS, 2011. Instrução Normativa n° 02, de 18 de abril de 2011. Diário Oficial do Amazonas, vol. 32076. pp 2-3.). Currently, the total population of Paciência Island is 198 people, and families are engaged in fishing, animal husbandry and agriculture.
2.2 Data collection
A total of 273 interviews (Appendix 2) were conducted by a trained interviewer during the first two weeks of each month between April 2021 and March 2022. On average, 23 questionnaires were administered per month. Each residence comprised a sampling unit, where one fisher per family was interviewed. The questionnaire addressed questions related to the species caught and its quantity, according to the fisher’s recall (Isaac and Almeida, 2011ISAAC, V.J. and ALMEIDA, M.C., 2011. El Consumo de pescado en la Amazonía Brasileña. 1st ed. Rome: FAO, 54 p.). The data were organized in electronic spreadsheets. Due to the proximity of Paciência Island to the state capital, we used the data of the height (m) of the Negro River, which is measured daily in the port of the state capital, Manaus (Porto de Manaus, 2022PORTO DE MANAUS, 2022 [viewed 20 May 2022]. Porto de Manaus [online]. Available from: https://www.portodemanaus.com.br
https://www.portodemanaus.com.br...
), to represent the river level.
2.3. Per capita consumption
Per capita consumption was obtained according to the Equation 1:
Where C is the average monthly catch, R is the average number of residents per household interviewed and Q is the number of questionnaires applied.
2.4. Species identification
The species were registered in the questionnaires according to their vernacular name and identified up to the level of species, genus and/or family via the literature (Santos et al., 2009SANTOS, G.M., FERREIRA, E.J.G. and ZUANON, J.A.S., 2009. Peixes comerciais de Manaus. 1st ed. Manaus: INPA, 144 p., Dagosta and Pinna, 2019DAGOSTA, F.C.P. and PINNA, M.D., 2019. The fishes of the Amazon: distribution and biogeographical patterns, with a comprehensive list of species. Bulletin of the American Museum of Natural History, vol. 2019, no. 431, pp. 1-163. http://dx.doi.org/10.1206/0003-0090.431.1.1.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1206/0003-0090.431....
), the Fishbase database (Fishbase, 2022FISH BASE, 2022 [viewed 15 July 2022]. Fish base [online]. Available from: https://www.fishbase.se/search.php
https://www.fishbase.se/search.php...
) and the Global Biodiversity Information Facility (GBIF, 2022GLOBAL BIODIVERSITY INFORMATION FACILITY - GBIF [online], 2022. [viewed 15 July 2022]. Available from: https://www.gbif.org/pt/
https://www.gbif.org/pt/...
).
3. Results
A total of 30 groups of fish species were recorded being consumed by residents in the riverine communities of Paciência Island. These species are distributed in 17 families and 5 orders (Table 1). The most captured species were pacu (Serrasalmidae) (32.22%), curimatã (Prochilodus nigricans Spix & Agassiz, 1829) (25.90%) and bodó (Pterygoplichthys pardalis Castelnau, 1855) (14.31%). The pacu was captured throughout the year and its capture was greater than 50% during the high-water period (Figure 2). The total catch was 3,388.35 kg and the largest catch occurred in October, during the falling-water period. In this period, there was also a greater variation in production (Figure 3). The daily per capita consumption of fish was, on average, 66.13 ± 29.21 g/day, with a peak of 116.45 g/day during the falling-water period (Figure 4).
Temporal variation of the relative frequency of capture by species group on Paciência Island, Iranduba, AM.
Temporal variation of fish catches by subsistence fishers of Paciência Island, Iranduba, AM.
Temporal variation of daily per capita consumption (g/day) of the population of Paciência Island, AM.
4. Discussion
In South America, Characiformes dominate the ichthyofauna, and species of this order make up a good part of the fish assemblages in floodplain lakes (Siqueira-Souza and Freitas, 2004SIQUEIRA-SOUZA, F.K. and FREITAS, C.E.C., 2004. Fish diversity of floodplain lakes on the lower stretch of the Solimões River. Brazilian Journal of Biology = Revista Brasileira de Biologia, vol. 64, no. 3A, pp. 501-510. http://dx.doi.org/10.1590/S1519-69842004000300013. PMid:15622847.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1590/S1519-69842004...
; Granado-Lorencio et al., 2012GRANADO-LORENCIO, C., GULFO, A., ALVAREZ, F., JIMÉNEZ-SEGURA, L.F., CARVAJAL-QUINTERO, J.D. and HERNÁNDEZ-SERNA, A., 2012. Fish assemblages in floodplain lakes in a Neotropical river during the wet season (Magdalena River, Colombia). Journal of Tropical Ecology, vol. 28, no. 3, pp. 271-279. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/S0266467412000181.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/S0266467412000...
; Borie et al., 2019BORIE, A., HUNGRIA, D.B., ALI, H., DORIA, C.R., FINE, M.L. and TRAVASSOS, P.E., 2019. Disturbance calls of five migratory Characiformes species and advertisement choruses in Amazon spawning sites. Journal of Fish Biology, vol. 95, no. 3, pp. 820-832. http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/jfb.14078. PMid:31215642.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/jfb.14078...
; Dagosta and Pinna, 2019DAGOSTA, F.C.P. and PINNA, M.D., 2019. The fishes of the Amazon: distribution and biogeographical patterns, with a comprehensive list of species. Bulletin of the American Museum of Natural History, vol. 2019, no. 431, pp. 1-163. http://dx.doi.org/10.1206/0003-0090.431.1.1.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1206/0003-0090.431....
; Virgilio et al., 2020VIRGILIO, L.R., SILVA, A.L.C., SALDANHA, R.F., SUÇUARANA, M., FERNANDES, E.C. and VIEIRA, L.J.S., 2020. Fish fauna in oxbow lakes of the Middle Purus River in the Neotropical Region of the Amazon Rainforest. Brazilian Journal of Development, vol. 6, no. 8, pp. 55545-55564. http://dx.doi.org/10.34117/bjdv6n8-108.
http://dx.doi.org/10.34117/bjdv6n8-108...
). The preference of riverine communities for consumption of species of this order has already been observed in other studies (Garcez et al., 2009GARCEZ, D.S., BOTERO, J.I.S. and FABRÉ, N.N., 2009. Caracterização das pescarias de subsistência e comercial praticadas por ribeirinhos de áreas de várzea em Manacapuru, Baixo Solimões, Amazonas, Brasi. Boletim Técnico-Científico do CEPNOR, vol. 9, no. 1, pp. 43-66. http://dx.doi.org/10.17080/1676-5664/btcc.v9n1p43-66.
http://dx.doi.org/10.17080/1676-5664/btc...
; Silva et al., 2017SILVA, R.J., GARAVELLO, M.E.P.E., NARDOTO, G.B., MAZZI, E.A. and MARTINELLI, L.A., 2017. Factors influencing the food transition in riverine communities in the Brazilian Amazon. Environment, Development and Sustainability, vol. 19, no. 3, pp. 1087-1102. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s10668-016-9783-x.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s10668-016-978...
; Begossi et al., 2019BEGOSSI, A., SALIVONCHYK, S.V., HALLWASS, G., HANAZAKI, N., LOPES, P.F.M., SILVANO, R.A.M., DUMARESQ, D. and PITTOCK, J., 2019. Fish consumption on the Amazon: a review of biodiversity, hydropower and food security issues. Brazilian Journal of Biology = Revista Brasileira de Biologia, vol. 79, no. 2, pp. 345-357. http://dx.doi.org/10.1590/1519-6984.186572. PMid:30379202.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1590/1519-6984.1865...
). Characiformes are also the most exploited species by commercial fishing and the most consumed in regional urban centers such as Manaus (Freitas and Rivas, 2006FREITAS, C.E.C. and RIVAS, A.A.F., 2006. A pesca e os recursos pesqueiros na Amazônia Ocidental. Ciência e Cultura, vol. 58, no. 3, pp. 30-32.; Corrêa et al., 2014CORRÊA, M.A.A., KAHN, J.R. and FREITAS, C.E.C., 2014. Perverse incentives in fishery management: the case of the defeso in the Brazilian Amazon. Ecological Economics, vol. 106, no. 1, pp. 186-194. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.ecolecon.2014.07.023.
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; Faria Junior and Batista, 2019FARIA JUNIOR, C.H.H. and BATISTA, V.S.S., 2019. Frota pesqueira comercial na Amazônia Central: composição, origem, espécies exploradas e mercado. Revista Agroecossistemas, vol. 11, no. 1, pp. 146-168. http://dx.doi.org/10.18542/ragros.v11i1.5248.).
During a research in the same study area, Batista et al. (1998)BATISTA, V.S., INHAMUNS, A.J., FREITAS, C.E.C. and FREIRE-BRASIL, D., 1998. Characterization of the fishery in river communities in the low-Solimões/high-Amazon region. Fisheries Management and Ecology, vol. 5, no. 5, pp. 419-435. http://dx.doi.org/10.1046/j.1365-2400.1998.550419.x.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1046/j.1365-2400.19...
identified pacu (Serrasalmidae), curimatã (P. nigricans), and bodó (P. pardalis) as the most consumed species, as was also observed in our work. Among the Siluriformes, the bodó is one of the species that is most appreciated by riverine populations (Batista et al., 1998BATISTA, V.S., INHAMUNS, A.J., FREITAS, C.E.C. and FREIRE-BRASIL, D., 1998. Characterization of the fishery in river communities in the low-Solimões/high-Amazon region. Fisheries Management and Ecology, vol. 5, no. 5, pp. 419-435. http://dx.doi.org/10.1046/j.1365-2400.1998.550419.x.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1046/j.1365-2400.19...
), unlike others of the same order, the so-called flatfish, which are generally not consumed due to “food taboos” (Begossi and Braga, 1992BEGOSSI, A. and BRAGA, F.M.S., 1992. Food taboos and folk medicine among fishermen from the Tocantins River (Brazil). Amazoniana: Limnologia et Oecologia Regionalis Systematis Fluminis Amazonas, vol. 12, no. 1, pp. 101-118.; Garcez et al., 2009GARCEZ, D.S., BOTERO, J.I.S. and FABRÉ, N.N., 2009. Caracterização das pescarias de subsistência e comercial praticadas por ribeirinhos de áreas de várzea em Manacapuru, Baixo Solimões, Amazonas, Brasi. Boletim Técnico-Científico do CEPNOR, vol. 9, no. 1, pp. 43-66. http://dx.doi.org/10.17080/1676-5664/btcc.v9n1p43-66.
http://dx.doi.org/10.17080/1676-5664/btc...
; Costa et al., 2013COSTA, T.V., SILVA, R.R.S., SOUZA, J.L., BATALHA, O.S. and HOSHIBA, M.A., 2013. Aspectos do consumo e comércio de pescado em Parintins. Boletim do Instituto de Pesca, vol. 39, no. 1, pp. 63-75.). Subsistence fishing is less selective when compared to other modalities such as commercial fishing, which seeks to meet the demands of the urban market (Hallwass and Silvano, 2016HALLWASS, G. and SILVANO, R.A.M., 2016. Patterns of selectiveness in the Amazonian freshwater fisheries: implications for management. Journal of Environmental Planning and Management, vol. 59, no. 9, pp. 1537-1559. http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/09640568.2015.1081587.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/09640568.2015....
). Tregidgo et al. (2021)TREGIDGO, D., PARRY, L., BARLOW, J. and POMPEU, P.S., 2021. Urban market amplifies strong species selectivity in Amazonian artisanal fisheries. Neotropical Ichthyology, vol. 19, no. 3, pp. 1-20. http://dx.doi.org/10.1590/1982-0224-2021-0097.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1590/1982-0224-2021...
analyzed the composition of catches from communities near and far from urban areas and the target species depended on the type of fishing, whether for consumption or sale, or both, as well as the distance of the community to the urban center. Most of the catches were made up of only four species (Mylosoma albiscopum Cope 1872, Osteoglossum bicirrhosum Cuvier 1829, Colossoma macropomum Cuvier 1816 and Arapaima gigas Schinz 1822). For these authors, fishing in the Amazon is quite selective, especially when it is intended for sale. In the estuary of Babitonga Bay, in southern Brazil, Cunha et al. (2023)CUNHA, S.M.B., HERBST, D.F., MACEDO-SOARES, L.C.P., CREMER, M.J. and HANAZAKI, N., 2023. Selection of fish resources for consumption and sale by artesanal fishers and implications to fisheries sustainability. Fisheries Research, vol. 261, no. 1, pp. 106615. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.fishres.2023.106615.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.fishres.2023...
observed that fishers preferentially consumed those species with lower trophic level and lower commercial value. Batista et al. (2000)BATISTA, V., FREITAS, C.E.C., INHAMUNS, A. and BRASIL, D.F., 2000. The fishing activity of the river people in the floodplain of the Central Amazon. In: W.F. JUNK, J.J. OHLY, M.T.F. PIEDADE and M.G.M. SOARES, eds. The Central Amazon Floodplain: actual use and options for a sustainable management. Netherlands: Backhuys Publishers, p. 417-431. also observed differences in the composition of catches according to the purpose of fishing; sardines (Triportheus spp.) were the most frequent when the fish was intended only for consumption or for consumption and sale, while P. nigricans was the most frequent species in commercial fisheries, in which 100% of the production is sold.
As observed in this study, fisheries also depend on the seasons, which determine the availability of habitats, behavior and phase of the fishes’ life cycle (Welcomme, 2001WELCOMME, R.L., 2001. Inland fisheries: ecology and management. 1st ed. Oxford: Fishing News Books, 358 p. http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/9780470995693.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/9780470995693...
; Isaac et al., 2016ISAAC, V.J., CASTELLO, L., SANTOS, P.R.B. and RUFFINO, M.L., 2016. Seasonal and interannual dynamics of river-floodplain multispecies fisheries in relation to flood pulses in the Lower Amazon. Fisheries Research, vol. 183, no. 1, pp. 352-359. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.fishres.2016.06.017.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.fishres.2016...
). Silva et al. (2021)SILVA, P.B., ARANTES, C.C., FREITAS, C.E.C., PETRERE JUNIOR, M. and RIBEIRO, F.R.V., 2021. Seasonal hydrology and fish assemblage structure in the floodplain of the lower Amazon River. Ecology Freshwater Fish, vol. 30, no. 2, pp. 162-173. http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/eff.12572.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/eff.12572...
observed that the river level and variables related to spatial and temporal variation of the aquatic environment were responsible for 10% of the variation of the fish assemblage in a floodplain area. During the high-water period, herbivorous species, such as the pacu, enter the flooded forest to feed and fishers take advantage of this moment to fish in those areas that are accessible (Batista et al., 2000BATISTA, V., FREITAS, C.E.C., INHAMUNS, A. and BRASIL, D.F., 2000. The fishing activity of the river people in the floodplain of the Central Amazon. In: W.F. JUNK, J.J. OHLY, M.T.F. PIEDADE and M.G.M. SOARES, eds. The Central Amazon Floodplain: actual use and options for a sustainable management. Netherlands: Backhuys Publishers, p. 417-431.; Silva et al., 2021SILVA, P.B., ARANTES, C.C., FREITAS, C.E.C., PETRERE JUNIOR, M. and RIBEIRO, F.R.V., 2021. Seasonal hydrology and fish assemblage structure in the floodplain of the lower Amazon River. Ecology Freshwater Fish, vol. 30, no. 2, pp. 162-173. http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/eff.12572.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/eff.12572...
). Batista et al. (1998)BATISTA, V.S., INHAMUNS, A.J., FREITAS, C.E.C. and FREIRE-BRASIL, D., 1998. Characterization of the fishery in river communities in the low-Solimões/high-Amazon region. Fisheries Management and Ecology, vol. 5, no. 5, pp. 419-435. http://dx.doi.org/10.1046/j.1365-2400.1998.550419.x.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1046/j.1365-2400.19...
obtained similar results to this study noting the predominance of pacu during the high-water period with bodó and curimatã during the low-water period. Tregidgo et al. (2021)TREGIDGO, D., PARRY, L., BARLOW, J. and POMPEU, P.S., 2021. Urban market amplifies strong species selectivity in Amazonian artisanal fisheries. Neotropical Ichthyology, vol. 19, no. 3, pp. 1-20. http://dx.doi.org/10.1590/1982-0224-2021-0097.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1590/1982-0224-2021...
also observed that pacu made up a good part of the catch during the high-water period and aruanã (O. bicirrhosum) stood out during the low-water period; during this period, there was also a greater diversity of species caught. Siqueira-Souza and Freitas (2004)SIQUEIRA-SOUZA, F.K. and FREITAS, C.E.C., 2004. Fish diversity of floodplain lakes on the lower stretch of the Solimões River. Brazilian Journal of Biology = Revista Brasileira de Biologia, vol. 64, no. 3A, pp. 501-510. http://dx.doi.org/10.1590/S1519-69842004000300013. PMid:15622847.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1590/S1519-69842004...
analyzed the diversity and frequency of fish in floodplain areas and observed that groups of species, such as branquinha, aracu and piranha, were predominant during the periods of falling-water and low-water.
Estimated at 55.62 g/day, per capita fish consumption on Paciência Island is higher than the global average (FAO, 2020). The average per capita fish consumption of this community also exceeds rates observed in continents such as Asia, which has a consumption of 66.02 g/day (FAO, 2020FOOD AND AGRICULTURE ORGANIZATION - FAO, 2020. The state of world fisheries and aquaculture 2020: sustainability in action. In: FOOD AND AGRICULTURE ORGANIZATION - FAO, The State of World Fisheries and Aquaculture (SOFIA). Rome: FAO, 244 p. ), and Africa that consumes 3.1 g/day (Chan et al., 2019CHAN, C.Y., TRAN, N., PETHIYAGODA, S., CRISSMAN, C.C., SULSER, T.B. and PHILLIPS, M.J., 2019. Prospects and challenges of fish for food security in Africa. Global Food Security, vol. 20, no. 1, pp. 17-25. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.gfs.2018.12.002.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.gfs.2018.12....
). According to the Household Budget Survey, between 2017 and 2018, the estimated average per capita consumption of fish in Brazil was 15.5 g/day, the consumption in rural areas was 33.1 g/day and in urban areas was 12.5 g/day (Wagner et al., 2023WAGNER, Y.G., COELHO, A.B. and TRAVASSOS, G.F., 2023. Análise do consumo domiciliar de pescados no Brasil utilizando dados da POF 2017-2018. Revista de Economia e Sociologia Rural, vol. 63, no. 3, pp. 28. http://dx.doi.org/10.1590/1806-9479.2022.250494.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1590/1806-9479.2022...
). The total consumption of the Brazilian Amazon was estimated at 575,678.00 t/year (Isaac and Almeida, 2011ISAAC, V.J. and ALMEIDA, M.C., 2011. El Consumo de pescado en la Amazonía Brasileña. 1st ed. Rome: FAO, 54 p.). The per capita consumption in Paciência Island is lower compared to other Amazonian communities, such as in the rural area of Manacapuru, the estimated consumption is 542.1 g/day (Garcez et al., 2009GARCEZ, D.S., BOTERO, J.I.S. and FABRÉ, N.N., 2009. Caracterização das pescarias de subsistência e comercial praticadas por ribeirinhos de áreas de várzea em Manacapuru, Baixo Solimões, Amazonas, Brasi. Boletim Técnico-Científico do CEPNOR, vol. 9, no. 1, pp. 43-66. http://dx.doi.org/10.17080/1676-5664/btcc.v9n1p43-66.
http://dx.doi.org/10.17080/1676-5664/btc...
). For relatively isolated communities in the lower Amazon River, Purus River and Trombetas River the rate of fish consumption is 462 g−1 per capita day−1, which is higher than in countries such as Japan (Isaac et al., 2015ISAAC, V.J., ALMEIDA, M.C., GIARRIZZO, T., DEUS, C.P., VALE, R., KLEIN, G. and BEGOSSI, A., 2015. Food consumption as an indicator of the conservation of natural resources in riverine communities of the Brazilian Amazon. Anais da Academia Brasileira de Ciências, vol. 87, no. 4, pp. 2229-2242. http://dx.doi.org/10.1590/0001-3765201520140250. PMid:26628023.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1590/0001-376520152...
). In the communities studied by Batista et al. (1998)BATISTA, V.S., INHAMUNS, A.J., FREITAS, C.E.C. and FREIRE-BRASIL, D., 1998. Characterization of the fishery in river communities in the low-Solimões/high-Amazon region. Fisheries Management and Ecology, vol. 5, no. 5, pp. 419-435. http://dx.doi.org/10.1046/j.1365-2400.1998.550419.x.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1046/j.1365-2400.19...
, among them Paciência Island, the authors estimated fish consumption between 510 and 600 g−1 per capita day−1, above what is recommended to meet nutritional needs. The frequency and quantity of fish consumed depends on factors such as access to other sources of protein, may be related to proximity to the urban area, and purchasing power, as well as the family composition (Rivero et al. 2022RIVERO, S.L.M., ALMEIDA, O.T., TORRES, P.C., MORAES, A., CHACÓN-MONTALVÁN, E. and PERRY, L., 2022. Urban Amazonians use Fishing as a Strategy for Coping with Food Insecurity. The Journal of Development Studies, vol. 58, no. 12, pp. 2544-2565. http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/00220388.2022.2113063.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/00220388.2022....
; Wagner et al., 2023WAGNER, Y.G., COELHO, A.B. and TRAVASSOS, G.F., 2023. Análise do consumo domiciliar de pescados no Brasil utilizando dados da POF 2017-2018. Revista de Economia e Sociologia Rural, vol. 63, no. 3, pp. 28. http://dx.doi.org/10.1590/1806-9479.2022.250494.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1590/1806-9479.2022...
). In general, Amazonian populations are among the largest consumers of fish in the world (Tregidgo et al., 2020TREGIDGO, D., BARLOW, J., POMPEU, P.S. and PARRY, L., 2020. Tough fishing and severe seasonal food insecurity in Amazonian flooded forests. People and Nature, vol. 2, no. 2, pp. 468-482. http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/pan3.10086.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/pan3.10086...
).
Fish consumption is recommended due to the quality of its protein, and it provides vitamins, minerals and other nutrients essential to human health (Smith and Sahyoun, 2005SMITH, K.M. and SAHYOUN, N.R., 2005. Fish consumption: recommendations versus advisories, can they be reconciled? Nutrition Reviews, vol. 63, no. 2, pp. 39-46. http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1753-4887.2005.tb00120.x. PMid:15762087.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1753-4887.20...
; Vieira et al., 2015VIEIRA, H.C., MORGADO, F., SOARES, A.M.V.M. and ABREU, S.N., 2015. Fish consumption recommendations to conform to current advice in regard to mercury intake. Environmental Science and Pollution Research International, vol. 22, no. 13, pp. 9595-9602. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s11356-015-4635-z. PMid:25948385.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s11356-015-463...
). The diet of riverine populations is also composed of manioc flour, which is produced in an artisanal manner from cassava (Manihot esculenta Crantz), and banana (Musa spp.), also cultivated by the riverine populations in a proportional amount to other vegetables (Dufour et al., 2016DUFOUR, D.L., PIPERATA, B.A., MURRIETA, R.S.S., WILSON, W.M. and WILLIAMS, D.D., 2016. Amazonian foods and implications for human biology. Annals of Human Biology, vol. 43, no. 4, pp. 330-348. http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/03014460.2016.1196245. PMid:27337942.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/03014460.2016....
; Silva et al., 2017SILVA, R.J., GARAVELLO, M.E.P.E., NARDOTO, G.B., MAZZI, E.A. and MARTINELLI, L.A., 2017. Factors influencing the food transition in riverine communities in the Brazilian Amazon. Environment, Development and Sustainability, vol. 19, no. 3, pp. 1087-1102. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s10668-016-9783-x.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s10668-016-978...
). With the greater access of riverine populations to the urban market, they have begun to consume more processed foods; however, this is not a simple cause and effect relationship, since the purchasing power of individuals is a decisive factor (Isaac et al., 2015ISAAC, V.J., ALMEIDA, M.C., GIARRIZZO, T., DEUS, C.P., VALE, R., KLEIN, G. and BEGOSSI, A., 2015. Food consumption as an indicator of the conservation of natural resources in riverine communities of the Brazilian Amazon. Anais da Academia Brasileira de Ciências, vol. 87, no. 4, pp. 2229-2242. http://dx.doi.org/10.1590/0001-3765201520140250. PMid:26628023.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1590/0001-376520152...
; Silva et al., 2017SILVA, R.J., GARAVELLO, M.E.P.E., NARDOTO, G.B., MAZZI, E.A. and MARTINELLI, L.A., 2017. Factors influencing the food transition in riverine communities in the Brazilian Amazon. Environment, Development and Sustainability, vol. 19, no. 3, pp. 1087-1102. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s10668-016-9783-x.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s10668-016-978...
). Van Vliet et al. (2015)VAN VLIET, N., QUICENO-MESA, M.P., CRUZ-ANTIA, D., TELLEZ, L., MARTINS, C., HAIDEN, E., OLIVEIRA, M.R., ADAMS, C., MORSELLO, C., VALENCIA, L., BONILLA, T., YAGÜE, B., and NASI, R., 2015. From fish and bushmeat to chicken nuggets: the nutrition transition in a continuum from rural to urban settings in the Tri frontier Amazon region. Ethnobiology and Conservation, vol. 4, no. 6, pp. 12. http://dx.doi.org/10.15451/ec2015-7-4.6-1-12.
http://dx.doi.org/10.15451/ec2015-7-4.6-...
observed that, in urban areas of Colombia, there is greater consumption of beef by wealthier families, while in traditional communities along the Amazon River there is greater consumption of fish, which is replaced by chicken when the family can afford it.
The feeding of Amazonian populations depends on the availability of natural resources and the amount of labor expended for their exploitation. In general, the availability of natural resources, including fisheries, varies between the different phases of the fluvial regime (Fonseca and Pezzuti, 2013FONSECA, R.A. and PEZZUTI, J.C.B., 2013. Dietary breadth of the animal protein consumed by riverine communities in the Tapajós National Forest, Brazil. Revista de Biología Tropical, vol. 61, no. 1, pp. 263-272. PMid:23894979.; Castello et al., 2015CASTELLO, L., ISAAC, V.J. and THAPA, R., 2015. Flood pulse effects on multispecies fishery yields in the Lower Amazon. Royal Society Open Science, vol. 2, no. 11, pp. 150299. http://dx.doi.org/10.1098/rsos.150299. PMid:26715994.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1098/rsos.150299...
). The results obtained show that lower catches, and consequently the lower consumption of fish, also occurred during the period of rising water. In this period, with the increase in the flooded area, the fish are more dispersed in the environment (Ruffino, 2014RUFFINO, M.L., 2014. Status and trends of the fishery resources of the Amazon Basin in Brazil. In: R.L. WELCOMME, J. VALBO-JORGENSEN, A. S. HALLS, eds. Inland fisheries evolution and management: case studies from four continents. Rome: FAO, pp. 1-19.), thus making it more difficult to catch them. To compensate, fishers increase fishing effort during high-water period (Garcez et al., 2009GARCEZ, D.S., BOTERO, J.I.S. and FABRÉ, N.N., 2009. Caracterização das pescarias de subsistência e comercial praticadas por ribeirinhos de áreas de várzea em Manacapuru, Baixo Solimões, Amazonas, Brasi. Boletim Técnico-Científico do CEPNOR, vol. 9, no. 1, pp. 43-66. http://dx.doi.org/10.17080/1676-5664/btcc.v9n1p43-66.
http://dx.doi.org/10.17080/1676-5664/btc...
). The opposite occurs in the period of falling water, since during this period the extent of aquatic environments is reduced and the fish are confined to the open-water areas of the lakes, facilitating the capture by the riverine populations (Barthem and Fabré, 2004BARTHEM, R.B. and FABRÉ, N.N., 2004. Biologia e diversidade dos recursos pesqueiros da amazônia. In: M.L. RUFFINO, ed. A pesca e os recursos pesqueiros na Amazônia brasileira. Manaus: ProVárzea, p.17-62.).
The falling-water and low-water periods are the most productive periods for riverine populations, as they can plant and fish, thus maximizing their yields (Almeida et al., 2011ALMEIDA, O., LORENZEN, K., MCGRATH, D.G. and RIVERO, S., 2011. Impacts of the comanagement of subsistence and commercial fishing on Amazon fisheries. In: M. PINEDO-VASQUEZ, M.L. RUFFINO, C. PADOCH and E.S. BRONDÍZIO, eds. The Amazon Várzea: the decade past and the decade ahead. Netherlands: Springer, p. 107-117. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/978-94-007-0146-5_8.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/978-94-007-014...
). Tregidgo et al. (2020)TREGIDGO, D., BARLOW, J., POMPEU, P.S. and PARRY, L., 2020. Tough fishing and severe seasonal food insecurity in Amazonian flooded forests. People and Nature, vol. 2, no. 2, pp. 468-482. http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/pan3.10086.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/pan3.10086...
analyzed the effects of the seasonality of the aquatic environment on the food security of communities in the Purus River, and noted that during the high-water period there was a reduction in fish catches and a greater probability of not catching anything. For these authors, the high-water period is the period when riverine populations are subject to food insecurity. If fishers do not catch anything, families have few options to replace the fish and may stop eating one meal a day. Food security is ensured when people have constant access to food and in sufficient quantities, in a safe way and that meets their nutritional needs and food preferences for a healthy life (Mertens et al., 2015MERTENS, F., FILLION, M., SAINT-CHARLES, J., MONGEAU, P., TÁVORA, R., SOUSA PASSOS, C.J. and MERGLER, D., 2015. The role of strong-tie social networks in mediating food security of fish resources by a traditional riverine community in the Brazilian Amazon. Ecology and Society, vol. 20, no. 3, pp. 12. http://dx.doi.org/10.5751/ES-07483-200318.
http://dx.doi.org/10.5751/ES-07483-20031...
). In addition, extreme oscillations of the river level, regardless of intensity or duration, such as the historical high waters that occurred in June 2021, when the height of 30.02 m was recorded in the Negro River, affect the life of the riverine populations economically and socially (Langill and Abizaid, 2020LANGILL, J.C. and ABIZAID, C., 2020. What is a bad flood? Local perspectives of extreme floods in the Peruvian Amazon. Ambio, vol. 49, no. 8, pp. 1423-1436. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s13280-019-01278-8. PMid:31691130.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s13280-019-012...
) and impact the acquisition of food for their subsistence.
In communities of the lower Amazon, where there is fishing management, fishing represents 31% of total family income, with agriculture, livestock and government benefits their other sources of income (Almeida et al., 2009ALMEIDA, O.T., LORENZEN, K. and MCGRATH, D.G., 2009. Fishing agreements in the lower Amazon: for gain and restraint. Fisheries Management and Ecology, vol. 16, no. 1, pp. 61-67. http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1365-2400.2008.00647.x.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1365-2400.20...
). On Paciência Island, families that participate in the management of pirarucu obtain an extra income from the sale of this species during the falling-water period (Silva, 2017SILVA, M.J.A., 2017. Conhecimento Tradicional no Manejo do Pirarucu Arapaima gigas (Schinz, 1822) na Ilha da Paciência, Município de Iranduba, Amazonas. Manaus: Universidade Federal do Amazonas, 66 p. Dissertação de Mestrado em Ciências Pesqueiras nos Trópicos.; Medeiros-Leal et al., 2021MEDEIROS-LEAL, W.M., CASTELLO, L., FREITAS, C.E.C. and SIQUEIRA-SOUZA, F.K., 2021. Single-species co-management improves fish assemblage structure and composition in a Tropical River. Frontiers in Ecology and Evolution, vol. 9, no. 604170, pp. 13. http://dx.doi.org/10.3389/fevo.2021.604170.
http://dx.doi.org/10.3389/fevo.2021.6041...
). The extra income for those who participate in the management can cover expenses such as travel to the urban area and medical care, which are fundamental for the quality of life of the riverine populations (Campos-Silva and Peres, 2016CAMPOS-SILVA, J.V. and PERES, C.A., 2016. Community-based management induces rapid recovery of a high-value tropical freshwater fishery. Scientific Reports, vol. 6, no. 1, pp. 34745. http://dx.doi.org/10.1038/srep34745. PMid:27731319.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1038/srep34745...
).
Subsistence fishing carried out by populations in rural areas, including those along the Amazon River, is essential in order to meet some of the UN’s sustainable development goals, including the reduction of hunger and poverty (Gebremedhin et al., 2021GEBREMEDHIN, S., BRUNEEL, S., GETAHUN, A., ANTENEH, W. and GOETHALS, P., 2021. Scientific methods to understand fish population dynamics and support sustainable fisheries management. Water (Basel), vol. 13, no. 4, pp. 574. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/w13040574.
http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/w13040574...
). On Paciência Island, the management of the pirarucu (Arapaima gigas) favored the assemblages of fish of other species, which contributes to the food security of the community (Medeiros-Leal et al., 2021MEDEIROS-LEAL, W.M., CASTELLO, L., FREITAS, C.E.C. and SIQUEIRA-SOUZA, F.K., 2021. Single-species co-management improves fish assemblage structure and composition in a Tropical River. Frontiers in Ecology and Evolution, vol. 9, no. 604170, pp. 13. http://dx.doi.org/10.3389/fevo.2021.604170.
http://dx.doi.org/10.3389/fevo.2021.6041...
). The conservation of ecosystems is necessary in order to avoid a reduction in fish stocks, which would affect the populations that depend on these resources.
Supplementary Material
Supplementary material accompanies this paper.
Appendix 2 Questionnaire (fish consumption).
This material is available as part of the online article from https://doi.org/10.1590/1519-6984.271572
Acknowledgements
To all residents of Paciência island who contributed to this work, to the Instituto Nacional de Pesquisas da Amazônia (INPA) and the postgraduate program Biologia de Água Doce e Pesca Interior (BADPI), to FAPEAM and CNPq for the financial support.
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» http://dx.doi.org/10.1590/1806-9479.2022.250494 - WELCOMME, R.L., 2001. Inland fisheries: ecology and management 1st ed. Oxford: Fishing News Books, 358 p. http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/9780470995693
» http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/9780470995693
Publication Dates
-
Publication in this collection
21 Apr 2023 -
Date of issue
2023
History
-
Received
28 Jan 2023 -
Accepted
20 Mar 2023