Education and smoking behavior in Brazil: decision to smoke and daily cigarette consumption intensity

Justus, Marcelo; Sant’Anna, Elder G.; Davanzo, Eloá S.; Moreira, Gustavo C.

doi:10.1590/0103-6351/4950

Marcelo Justus

Institute of Economics, University of Campinas, Campinas, São Paulo, Brazil.

Marcelo Justus - mjustus@unicamp.br Institute of Economics, University of Campinas, Campinas, São Paulo, Brazil.

https://orcid.org/0000-0001-8660-1779

Elder G. Sant’Anna

University of São Paulo, Piracicaba, São Paulo, Brazil

Elder G. Sant’Anna - eldergenerozo@gmail.com University of São Paulo, Piracicaba, São Paulo, Brazil

https://orcid.org/0000-0001-6988-4383

Eloá S. Davanzo

Institute of Economics, University of Campinas, Campinas, São Paulo, Brazil.

Eloá S. Davanzo - eloadavanzo@gmail.com Institute of Economics, University of Campinas, Campinas, São Paulo, Brazil.

https://orcid.org/0000-0003-2394-4031

Gustavo C. Moreira

Federal University of São João Del-Rei, São João Del-Rei, Minas Gerais, Brazil

Gustavo C. Moreira - gustavocmoreira@hotmail.com.br Federal University of São João Del-Rei, São João Del-Rei, Minas Gerais, Brazil

https://orcid.org/0000-0001-9526-0267

About the authors

Marcelo Justus - mjustus@unicamp.br

Institute of Economics, University of Campinas, Campinas, São Paulo, Brazil.

Elder G. Sant’Anna - eldergenerozo@gmail.com

University of São Paulo, Piracicaba, São Paulo, Brazil

Eloá S. Davanzo - eloadavanzo@gmail.com

Institute of Economics, University of Campinas, Campinas, São Paulo, Brazil.

Gustavo C. Moreira - gustavocmoreira@hotmail.com.br

Federal University of São João Del-Rei, São João Del-Rei, Minas Gerais, Brazil

Variable	Definition	Mean	Std. Dev.
no schooling	1 if the individual has no education and 0 otherwise	0.11	0.32
elementary or less	1 if the individual did not complete primary education and 0 otherwise	0.35	0.48
primary education	1 if the individual completed elementary school and 0 otherwise	0.18	0.38
high school	1 if the individual completed high school and 0 otherwise	0.27	0.45
higher education	1 if the individual is a college graduate and 0 otherwise	0.08	0.28
income(ln)	Logarithm for per capita household income	6.02	1.01
works	1 if the individual works and 0 otherwise	0.67	0.47
young	1 if the individual is a young person (aged 15-29) and 0 otherwise	0.31	0.46
adult	1 if the individual is an adult (aged 30-59) and 0 otherwise	0.53	0.50
elderly	1 if the individual is elderly (aged 60 and above) and 0 otherwise	0.16	0.36
white	1 if the individual is Caucasian or Oriental and 0 otherwise	0.47	0.50
householder	1 if the individual is the family head and 0 otherwise	0.52	0.50
smokers%	Percentage of smokers in the household	0.06	0.14
warning	1 if the individual is aware of the risks of tobacco addiction and 0 otherwise	0.97	0.17
marketing	1 if the individual saw cigarette ads and 0 otherwise	0.40	0.49
urban	1 if the individual lives in an urban area and 0 otherwise	0.85	0.36
metropolis	1 if the individual lives in a large city and 0 otherwise	0.38	0.48
cigarettes smoked	Number of cigarettes smoked in a day (if smoker)	1.96	5.19
smoking decision	1 if the individual smokes manufactured cigarettes and 0 otherwise	0.84	0.37

Characteristics	Non-smokers		Smokers		Ex-smokers		Att. To quit smoking
Characteristics	Mean	Std.dev.	Mean	Std.dev.	Mean	Std.dev.	Mean	Std.dev.
income (ln)	6.04	1.01	5.88	1.02	6.08	1.01	5.79	1.01
works	0.66	0.47	0.73	0.44	0.62	0.49	0.75	0.43
young	0.39	0.49	0.21	0.41	0.12	0.33	0.25	0.43
adult	0.49	0.50	0.67	0.48	0.58	0.49	0.65	0.48
elderly	0.12	0.33	0.14	0.35	0.29	0.46	0.11	0.31
man	0.40	0.49	0.60	0.49	0.54	0.50	0.55	0.45
white	0.49	0.50	0.43	0.49	0.47	0.45	0.41	0.49
householder	0.44	0.45	0.63	0.48	0.67	0.47	0.62	0.48
smokers%	0.05	0.13	0.12	0.18	0.06	0.14	0.10	0.17
warning	0.97	0.16	0.94	0.24	0.97	0.17	0.98	0.14
marketing	0.39	0.49	0.43	0.49	0.36	0.48	0.47	0.5
urban	0.86	0.35	0.80	0.40	0.84	0.37	0.82	0.38
metropolis	0.39	0.49	0.37	0.48	0.36	0.48	0.33	0.47
cig. smoked			12.15	6.81			11.29	6.72
n	22,967		3,444		6,713		2,477

Variables	Women (n = 9,865)				Men (n = 6,895)
	Probit model	Selection-sample model		ZINB model	Probit model	Selection-sample model		ZINB model
	Probit model	selection eq.	consumption eq.	consumption eq.	Probit model	selection eq.	consumption eq.	consumption eq.
elementary or less	-0.047^* ***** Significance at 1%.	-0.041^* ***** Significance at 1%.	-0.549^ Significance at 5%; and	-0.392^ Significance at 5%; and	-0.073^* ***** Significance at 1%.	-0.073^* ***** Significance at 1%.	-0.779^* * significance at 10%;	-0.705^ Significance at 5%; and
elementary or less	(0.016)	(0.014)	(0.218)	(0.194)	(0.024)	(0.024)	(0.455)	(0.352)
middle school	-0.050^* ***** Significance at 1%.	-0.042^ Significance at 5%; and	-0.448	-0.390^* * significance at 10%;	-0.125^* ***** Significance at 1%.	-0.126^* ***** Significance at 1%.	-1.443^* ***** Significance at 1%.	-1.301^* ***** Significance at 1%.
middle school	(0.018)	(0.018)	(0.276)	(0.229)	(0.028)	(0.028)	(0.546)	(0.417)
high school	-0.084^* ***** Significance at 1%.	-0.076^* ***** Significance at 1%.	-1.049^* ***** Significance at 1%.	-0.823^* ***** Significance at 1%.	-0.206^* ***** Significance at 1%.	-0.206^* ***** Significance at 1%.	-2.975^* ***** Significance at 1%.	-2.538^* ***** Significance at 1%.
high school	(0.017)	(0.016)	(0.237)	(0.215)	(0.026)	(0.026)	(0.491)	(0.376)
higher education	-0.077^* ***** Significance at 1%.	-0.073^* ***** Significance at 1%.	-0.983^* ***** Significance at 1%.	-0.864^* ***** Significance at 1%.	-0.222^* ***** Significance at 1%.	-0.222^* ***** Significance at 1%.	-3.472^* ***** Significance at 1%.	-2.855^* ***** Significance at 1%.
higher education	(0.019)	(0.018)	(0.268)	(0.234)	(0.030)	(0.030)	(0.538)	(0.418)
warning	-0.079^ Significance at 5%; and	-0.052^ Significance at 5%; and	-0.762^* * significance at 10%;	-0.609^ Significance at 5%; and	-0.118^* ***** Significance at 1%.	-0.118^* ***** Significance at 1%.	-1.612	-1.053
warning	(0.031)	(0.025)	(0.394)	(0.284)	(0.045)	(0.045)	(1.087)	(0.655)
elderly	-0.062^* ***** Significance at 1%.	-0.063^* ***** Significance at 1%.	-0.888^* ***** Significance at 1%.	-0.779^* ***** Significance at 1%.	-0.005	-0.005	-0.309	-0.200
elderly	(0.008)	(0.009)	(0.119)	(0.109)	(0.025)	(0.025)	(0.490)	(0.363)
income(ln)	-0.006	-0.005	-0.056	0.002	-0.015^* * significance at 10%;	-0.014^* * significance at 10%;	0.209	0.036
income(ln)	(0.005)	(0.005)	(0.067)	(0.059)	(0.008)	(0.008)	(0.164)	(0.114)
works	0.002	0.003	-0.040	-0.042	0.019	0.019	0.155	0.266
works	(0.008)	(0.008)	(0.116)	(0.104)	(0.019)	(0.019)	(0.371)	(0.264)
white	-0.018^ Significance at 5%; and	-0.015^ Significance at 5%; and	-0.172	-0.032	-0.016	-0.016	-0.401	-0.242
white	(0.008)	(0.008)	(0.111)	(0.096)	(0.014)	(0.014)	(0.258)	(0.192)
householder	0.053^* ***** Significance at 1%.	0.055^* ***** Significance at 1%.	0.840^* ***** Significance at 1%.	0.667^* ***** Significance at 1%.	0.019	0.019	0.047	0.131
householder	(0.008)	(0.008)	(0.128)	(0.108)	(0.016)	(0.016)	(0.306)	(0.231)
smokers	0.286^* ***** Significance at 1%.	0.269^* ***** Significance at 1%.	3.875^* ***** Significance at 1%.	3.484^* ***** Significance at 1%.	0.654^* ***** Significance at 1%.	0.655^* ***** Significance at 1%.	11.306^* ***** Significance at 1%.	8.941^* ***** Significance at 1%.
smokers	(0.022)	(0.021)	(0.308)	(0.283)	(0.050)	(0.050)	(0.927)	(0.693)
marketing	0.032^* ***** Significance at 1%.	0.028^* ***** Significance at 1%.	0.426^* ***** Significance at 1%.	0.351^* ***** Significance at 1%.	0.045^* ***** Significance at 1%.	0.045^* ***** Significance at 1%.	1.046^* ***** Significance at 1%.	0.804^* ***** Significance at 1%.
marketing	(0.008)	(0.008)	(0.119)	(0.105)	(0.013)	(0.013)	(0.266)	(0.200)
urban	-0.001	0.005	0.097	0.195	-0.027	-0.027	-0.409	-0.182
urban	(0.011)	(0.009)	(0.135)	(0.120)	(0.018)	(0.018)	(0.348)	(0.250)
metropolis	0.012	0.016^ Significance at 5%; and	0.178	0.261^ Significance at 5%; and	0.001	0.001	0.294	0.244
metropolis	(0.008)	(0.008)	(0.116)	(0.103)	(0.014)	(0.014)	(0.286)	(0.218)
north	-0.045^* ***** Significance at 1%.	-0.050^* ***** Significance at 1%.	-0.765^* ***** Significance at 1%.	-0.335^* ***** Significance at 1%.	-0.012	-0.012	-0.911^* * significance at 10%;	-0.643^* ***** Significance at 1%.
north	(0.014)	(0.013)	(0.193)	(0.090)	(0.026)	(0.026)	(0.503)	(0.208)
northeast	-0.040^* ***** Significance at 1%.	-0.039^* ***** Significance at 1%.	-0.594^* ***** Significance at 1%.	-0.198^* ***** Significance at 1%.	-0.003	-0.003	-0.582	-0.402^* ***** Significance at 1%.
northeast	(0.012)	(0.011)	(0.173)	(0.071)	(0.020)	(0.020)	(0.405)	(0.144)
southeast	-0.025^ Significance at 5%; and	-0.023^ Significance at 5%; and	-0.327^ Significance at 5%; and	-0.065	-0.004	-0.004	-0.520	-0.226^* * significance at 10%;
southeast	(0.011)	(0.011)	(0.165)	(0.059)	(0.018)	(0.018)	(0.371)	(0.134)
midwest	-0.044^* ***** Significance at 1%.	-0.037^* ***** Significance at 1%.	-0.586^* ***** Significance at 1%.	0.057	-0.023	-0.023	-0.370	-0.007
midwest	(0.014)	(0.014)	(0.198)	(0.088)	(0.023)	(0.023)	(0.495)	(0.177)

Variables	Adult				Elderly
	Probit model	Selection-sample model		ZINB model	Probit model	Selection-sample model		ZINB model
	Probit model	selection eq.	consumption eq.	consumption eq.	Probit model	selection eq.	consumption eq.	consumption eq.
Women
no schooling	-0.054	-0.035	-0.570	-0.084	-0.203^* ***** Significance at 1%.	-0.148^* ***** Significance at 1%.	-2.583^* ***** Significance at 1%.	-1.754^ Significance at 5%; and
no schooling	(0.075)	(0.058)	(1.023)	(0.789)	(0.063)	(0.046)	(0.878)	(0.759)
elementary or less	-0.197^* ***** Significance at 1%.	-0.182^* ***** Significance at 1%.	-3.500^ Significance at 5%; and	-2.024^ Significance at 5%; and	-0.054	-0.044	-0.608	-0.307
elementary or less	(0.066)	(0.061)	(1.385)	(1.009)	(0.043)	(0.035)	(0.491)	(0.288)
middle school	-0.139	-0.116	-2.174	-1.551	-0.046	-0.025	-0.164	-0.027
middle school	(0.102)	(0.086)	(1.766)	(1.489)	(0.065)	(0.052)	(0.805)	(0.473)
high school	0.069^* ***** Significance at 1%.	0.074^* ***** Significance at 1%.	1.002^* ***** Significance at 1%.	0.976^* ***** Significance at 1%.	-0.109	-0.069	-0.691	0.386
high school	(0.018)	(0.016)	(0.209)	(0.127)	(0.151)	(0.101)	(1.274)	(0.286)
higher education	-0.293^ Significance at 5%; and	-0.177^ Significance at 5%; and	-2.846^* * significance at 10%;	-0.932	-0.514^* * significance at 10%;	-0.282^ Significance at 5%; and	-5.985^* * significance at 10%;	-1.677
higher education	(0.143)	(0.079)	(1.568)	(0.714)	(0.295)	(0.142)	(3.478)	(1.239)
Men
no schooling	-0.051	-0.050	0.039	-0.459	-0.132	-0.133	-4.108	-2.225
no schooling	(0.075)	(0.075)	(1.147)	(1.075)	(0.097)	(0.098)	(3.010)	(1.529)
elementary or less	-0.038	0.076	0.039	0.013	-0.259^ Significance at 5%; and	-0.257^ Significance at 5%; and	-4.727^* * significance at 10%;	-4.115^ Significance at 5%; and
elementary or less	(0.065)	(0.065)	(1.197)	(0.964)	(0.121)	(0.121)	(2.445)	(2.000)
middle school	0.080	0.080	2.476^ Significance at 5%; and	1.710^* * significance at 10%;	0.044	0.044	0.388	0.055
middle school	(0.093)	(0.093)	(1.017)	(1.023)	(0.156)	(0.156)	(3.978)	(3.033)
high school	-0.264^* * significance at 10%;	-0.263^* * significance at 10%;	-6.739	-3.435	-0.307	-0.305	-4.873	-5.297
high school	(0.136)	(0.135)	(5.593)	(2.681)	(0.207)	(0.206)	(3.610)	(3.595)
higher education	-0.135	-0.135	0.219	0.092	-0.504^* * significance at 10%;	-0.504^* * significance at 10%;	-7.701^* * significance at 10%;	-8.227^* * significance at 10%;
higher education	(0.154)	(0.154)	(1.200)	(0.958)	(0.299)	(0.299)	(4.291)	(4.527)

Characteristics	Non-smokers			Smokers		Ex-smokers
Characteristics	Smokers	Ex-smokers	Att. To quit smok.	Ex-Smokers	Att. To quit smok.	Att. To quit smok.
income(ln)	0.00	0.03	0.00	0.00	0.00	0.00
works	0.00	0.00	0.00	0.00	0.13	0.00
adult	0.00	0.00	0.00	0.00	0.91	0.00
elderly	0.00	0.00	0.04	0.00	0.00	0.00
man	0.00	0.00	0.00	0.00	0.00	0.00
white	0.00	0.04	0.00	0.00	0.20	0.00
householder	0.00	0.00	0.00	0.00	0.30	0.00
smokers%	0.00	0.00	0.00	0.00	0.00	0.00
warning	0.00	0.50	0.08	0.00	0.00	0.00
marketing	0.00	0.00	0.00	0.00	0.00	0.00
urban	0.00	0.00	0.00	0.00	0.05	0.00
metropolis	0.14	0.00	0.00	0.36	0.00	0.36
cig. smoked					0.00

Variables	Probit model	Selection-sample model		ZINB model
Variables	Probit model	selection eq.	consumption eq.	consumption eq.
elementary or less	0.318	0.361	8.648	0.203
middle school	0.153	0.162	4.396	0.216
high school	-1.453^* ***** significance at 1%.	-1.423^* ***** significance at 1%.	-30.157^* ***** significance at 1%.	-0.876^* ***** significance at 1%.
higher education	0.434	0.165	3.724	-0.610^* * significance at 10%;
warning	-0.203	-0.139	-2.781	0.244
elementary or less × warning	-0.508	-0.523^* * significance at 10%;	-11.642^* * significance at 10%;	-0.102
middle school × warning	-0.326	-0.317	-7.451	-0.195
high school × warning	0.998^ significance at 5%; and	1.013^ significance at 5%; and	21.688^ significance at 5%; and	0.923^* ***** significance at 1%.
higher education × warning	-0.952^ significance at 5%; and	-0.670^* * significance at 10%;	-13.522^* * significance at 10%;	0.588^* * significance at 10%;
elderly	0.246	0.137	3.220	-0.035
elementary or less × elderly	-1.127^ significance at 5%; and	-1.047^* ***** significance at 1%.	-23.816^* ***** significance at 1%.	-0.435
middle school × elderly	-1.082^* * significance at 10%;	-1.005^* * significance at 10%;	-21.463^* * significance at 10%;	-0.471
high school × elderly	0.930	0.900	15.955	-3.301^* ***** significance at 1%.
higher education × elderly	0.321	0.169	5.422	-0.186
warning × elderly	-0.601^* * significance at 10%;	-0.505^* * significance at 10%;	-11.992^ significance at 5%; and	-0.172
elementary or less × warning × elderly	0.892^* * significance at 10%;	0.803^ significance at 5%; and	18.048^ significance at 5%; and	0.267
middle school × warning × elderly	0.695	0.723	21.570	0.900
high school × warning × elderly	-0.895	-0.867	-15.901	3.406^* ***** significance at 1%.
higher education × warning × elderly	-0.030	0.168	-0.609	0.253
income(ln)	-0.035	-0.030	-0.499	0.039
works	0.014	0.017	-0.493	-0.078^* * significance at 10%;
white	-0.108^ significance at 5%; and	-0.089^ significance at 5%; and	-1.527	0.078^* * significance at 10%;
householder	0.305^* ***** significance at 1%.	0.310^* ***** significance at 1%.	7.158^* ***** significance at 1%.	0.050
smokers	1.741^* ***** significance at 1%.	1.626^* ***** significance at 1%.	35.943^* ***** significance at 1%.	0.143
marketing	0.186^* ***** significance at 1%.	0.162^* ***** significance at 1%.	3.780^* ***** significance at 1%.	-0.024
urban	-0.009	0.032	0.955	0.215^* ***** significance at 1%.
metropolis	0.072	0.093^ significance at 5%; and	1.555	0.092^ significance at 5%; and
north	-0.267^* ***** significance at 1%.	-0.300^* ***** significance at 1%.	-7.301^* ***** significance at 1%.	-0.340^* ***** significance at 1%.
northeast	-0.231^* ***** significance at 1%.	-0.228^* ***** significance at 1%.	-5.233^* ***** significance at 1%.	-0.186^* ***** significance at 1%.
southeast	-0.135^ significance at 5%; and	-0.126^ significance at 5%; and	-2.577^ significance at 5%; and	-0.057
midwest	-0.255^* ***** significance at 1%.	-0.211^* ***** significance at 1%.	-5.184^* ***** significance at 1%.	0.048
constant	-0.669^ significance at 5%; and	-0.824^* ***** significance at 1%.	-17.971^* ***** significance at 1%.	1.797^* ***** significance at 1%.

Variables	Probit model	Selection-sample model		ZINB model
Variables	Probit model	selection eq.	consumption eq.	consumption eq.
elementary or less	-0.188	-0.184	1.064	-0.037
middle school	-0.786^* * significance at 10%;	-0.785^* * significance at 10%;	-4.296	-0.265
high school	0.022	0.020	8.614	0.027
higher education	-0.351	-0.350	-6.701	-0.726
warning	-0.142	-0.140	2.206	0.039
elementary or less × warning	0.026	0.021	0.153	0.093
middle school × warning	0.453	0.451	5.253^* * significance at 10%;	0.315
high school × warning	-0.758^* * significance at 10%;	-0.756^* * significance at 10%;	-8.408	-0.058
higher education × warning	-0.379	-0.380	6.386	0.707
elderly	0.318	0.321	2.893	-0.030
elementary or less × elderly	0.115	0.104	-1.570	0.178
middle school × elderly	-0.225	-0.227	13.850^ significance at 5%; and	0.786^* ***** significance at 1%.
high school × elderly	-0.062	-0.067	-8.969	0.278
higher education × elderly	0.578	0.574	4.342	0.950
warning × elderly	-0.210	-0.214	-6.996	-0.183
elementary or less × warning × elderly	-0.429	-0.416	2.500	-0.110
middle school × warning × elderly	0.069	0.070	-3.901	-0.419
high school × warning × elderly	0.189	0.196	14.282	0.053
higher education × warning × elderly	-0.929	-0.926	-5.236	-1.036
income(ln)	-0.049^* * significance at 10%;	-0.049^* * significance at 10%;	2.042^* ***** significance at 1%.	0.082^* ***** significance at 1%.
works	0.064	0.065	-0.726	0.011
white	-0.056	-0.056	-0.605	-0.018
householder	0.064	0.065	-1.243	-0.040
smokers	2.223^* ***** significance at 1%.	2.226^* ***** significance at 1%.	2.881	0.163^* * significance at 10%;
marketing	0.151^* ***** significance at 1%.	0.151^* ***** significance at 1%.	1.409^ significance at 5%; and	0.076^ significance at 5%; and
urban	-0.091	-0.091	0.163	0.063
metropolis	0.002	0.002	1.306	0.077^ significance at 5%; and
north	-0.041	-0.041	-3.302^ significance at 5%; and	-0.235^* ***** significance at 1%.
northeast	-0.011	-0.011	-2.392^ significance at 5%; and	-0.140^* ***** significance at 1%.
southeast	-0.013	-0.013	-2.062^ significance at 5%; and	-0.076^* * significance at 10%;
midwest	-0.080	-0.080	0.224	-0.002
constant	-0.158	-0.161	4.487	2.013^* ***** significance at 1%.

[1] Marcelo Justus - mjustus@unicamp.br

Institute of Economics, University of Campinas, Campinas, São Paulo, Brazil.

Brasil

Brasil

Education and smoking behavior in Brazil: decision to smoke and daily cigarette consumption intensity

Educação e comportamento tabagista no Brasil: decisão de fumar e intensidade de consumo diário de cigarros

Abstract