ABSTRACT
Leaves, stems, roots and inflorescence of the asteraceous weed Circium arvense were extracted in methanol for two weeks. Methanol was evaporated in a rotary evaporator. Different concentrations (1, 2, 3, 4 and 5%) of methanolic extracts were prepared, and their antifungal activities were studied against Macrophomina phaseolina, using malt extract broth as growth medium. In general, extracts of all plant parts showed antifungal activities to variable extents. The highest antifungal activity occurred due to methanolic extract of leaves, followed by stem and root extracts, resulting in 10-74%, 6-57% and 11-39% reduction in fungal biomass over control, respectively. Inflorescence extract showed the least antifungal activity, resulting in 2-30% reduction in fungal biomass over control. There was a linear and inverse relationship between extract concentrations and fungal biomass for extracts of all the four parts. GC-MS analysis showed that there were 10 compounds in most effective methanolic leaf extract. Among these, 10-octadecanoic acid, methyl ester (26.442%), 2H-1-benzopyran, 6,7-dimethoxy-2-2-dimethyl (20.195%), hexadecanoic acid, methyl ester (15.752%) and 9,12-octadecadienoic acid (Z,Z)-, methyl ester (12.628%) were predominant compounds in the extract that may be responsible for antifungal activity. This study concludes that methanolic leaf extracts of C. arvense can be used for the management of M. phaseolina.
Keywords:
antifungal activity; asteraceous weed; Cirsium arvense; Macrophomina phaseolina
RESUMO
Foram extraídos em metanol, por duas semanas, as folhas, caules, raízes e inflorescência de uma planta daninha da família Asteraceae, a Circium arvense. A evaporação do metanol se fez com o auxílio de um evaporador rotativo. Foram preparadas diferentes concentrações (1, 2, 3, 4 e 5%) de extratos de metanol, e suas atividades antifúngicas contra o Macrophomina phaseolina foram analisadas através da utilização de caldo extrato de malte como ambiente de crescimento. De forma geral, ocorreram graus variáveis de atividades antifúngicas nos extratos de todas as partes da planta. A atividade antifúngica mais significativa ocorreu ao extrato de metanol das folhas, seguido dos extratos do caule e da raiz, com redução de 10-74%, 6-57% e 11-39% de biomassa fúngica em relação ao grupo controle, respectivamente. No extrato de inflorescência ocorreu a menor atividade antifúngica, resultando em redução de 2-30% de biomassa fúngica em relação ao controle. Houve uma relação inversamente proporcional entre concentração de extrato e biomassa fúngica para todas as quatro partes de extratos. O método GC-MS de análise revelou 10 compostos no extrato de metanol da folha, que foi mais eficaz. Dentre estes, o ácido 10-octadecanóico, éster de metilo (26,442%), 2H-1-benzopirano, 6,7-dimetoxi-2-2-dimetil (20,195%), ácido hexadecanóico, éster de metilo (15,752%) e ácido 9-12-octadecadienóico (Z,Z)-, éster de metilo (12,628%) predominaram no extrato que pode ter sido responsável pela atividade antifúngica. Este estudo conclui que extratos de metanol de folhas de C. arvense podem ser utilizados para controlar o M. phaseolina.
Palavras-chave:
atividade antifúngica; ervas daninhas da Asteraceae; Cirsium arvense; Macrophomina phaseolina
INTRODUCTION
The notorious soil and seed-borne fungus Macrophomina phaseolina is responsible for infecting over 500 hosts, including legumes and cereal crops, and it generally causes rot diseases, especially charcoal rot disease, in arid and water-deficient regions of the world (Das et al., 2008Das, I.K., Fakrudin, B., Arora, D.K. RAPD cluster analysis and chlorate sensitivity of some Indian isolates of Macrophomina phaseolina from sorghum and their relationships with pathogenicity. Microbiol Res. 2008;163:215-24.). Many economically important oilseed plants, such as Glycine max, Gossypium herbaceum, Zea mays, Sesamum indicum, Phaseolus vulgaris and Helianthus annuus, also become victims of this fungus, with great yield loss (Mayek-Perez et al., 2002Mayek-Perez N., Lopez-Chestnut G.C., Acosta-Gallegos J.A. Reaction of germplasm of Phaseolus sp. against Macrophomina phaseolina. Mexican Fitotec Magazine. 2002;25:35-42.; Beas et al., 2006; Abdel-Kader et al., 2010Abdel-Kader M.M. et al. First report of Ashy stem blight caused by Macrophomina phaseolina on Aeonium canariense in Egypt. J Plant Pathol Microbiol. 2010; 1:1-6.). Besides being a destructive phytopathogen, M. phaseolina has also been documented as an opportunistic pathogen to human with the potential to weaken plant, animal, and human immunity (Arora et al., 2012Arora P., Dilbaghi N., Chaudhury A. Opportunistic invasive fungal pathogen Macrophomina phaseolina prognosis from immunocompromised humans to potential mitogenic RBL with an exceptional and novel antitumor and cytotoxic effect. Eur J Clin Microbiol Infect Dis. 2012;31:101-7.). Moreover, strains that can infect plants and humans have been interestingly reported. Similarly, it is possible that it could spread widely, causing unpredictable losses to every living being (Srinivasan et al., 2009Srinivasan A. et al. Cutaneous infection caused by Macrophomina phaseolina in a child with acute myeloid leukemia. J Clin Microbiol. 2009;47:1969-72.).
M. phaseolina has shown to be comparatively a hard pathogen to control, and cultural, chemical or biological disease management strategies have failed to provide expected results (Abdel-Kader et al., 2010Abdel-Kader M.M. et al. First report of Ashy stem blight caused by Macrophomina phaseolina on Aeonium canariense in Egypt. J Plant Pathol Microbiol. 2010; 1:1-6.). So far, no registered fungicide has become available to fight M. phaseolina (Srinivasan et al., 2009Srinivasan A. et al. Cutaneous infection caused by Macrophomina phaseolina in a child with acute myeloid leukemia. J Clin Microbiol. 2009;47:1969-72.), although some fungicides such as quintozene (PCNB) and captan have been used against this pathogen to some extent (Frison et al., 1990Frison E.A. et al. FAO/IBPGR Technical Guidelines for the Safe Movement of Legume Germplasm. Rome: Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations/International Board for Plant Genetic Resources, 1990.; Dubey et al., 2012Dubey P., Gupta G.P., Dubey R.C. Culture filtrates of plant growth promoting Bradyrhizobiumsp. (Vigna) Strains VR1 and VR2 inhibit growth and sclerotia germination of Macrophomin aphaseolina In vitro. New York Sci J. 2012;5:1-9. ). However, the plead for sustainable agriculture in an eco-friendly manner cannot be sustained with such health hazard chemicals (Oruc, 2010Oruc H.H. Fungicides and their effects on animals. In: Carisse O., editor Fungicides. Rijeka: In-Tech Publishers, 2010. p.349-62.). An alternative strategy could be applied through the exploration of natural antimicrobial compounds from plant bark, stems, leaves, flowers and fruits (Ikram and Dawar, 2013Ikram N., Dawar S. Effect of Prosopis juliflora (sw.) dc. in the control of root rot fungi of cowpea (Vigna unguiculata L.) and mung bean [Vigna radiata (L.) Wilczek]. Pak J Bot. 2013;45:649-54.; Silva et al., 2014Silva J.L. et al. Antifungal activity using medicinal plant extracts against pathogens of coffee tree. Rev Bras Plantas Med. 2014;16:539-44.; Javaid and Akhtar, 2015Javaid A. et al. Management of Macrophomina phaseolina by extracts of an allelopathic grass Imperata cylindrica. Pak J Agric Sci. 2015;15:37-41.). These can act directly as pesticides or may provide structural lead for the development of pesticides (Kilani, 2006Kilani A.M. Antibacterial assessment of whole stem bark of Vitex doniana against some enteriobacteriacae. Afr J Biotechnol. 2006;5:958-9.; Tapwal et al., 2011Tapwal A. et al. In vitro antifungal potency of plant extracts against five phytopathogens. Braz Arch Biol Technol. 2011;54:1093-8. ).
Cirsium arvense is a perennial plant belonging to family Asteraceae (Orhan et al., 2013Orhan C. et al. The effect of Cirsium arvense extract on antioxidant status in quail. Brit Poultry Sci. 2013;54:620-6.). It is native to Europe, parts of North Africa and Asia, including Pakistan, Iran Afghanistan and China (Jacobs, 2006Jacobs J. Ecology and management of Canada thistle [Cirsium arvense (L.) Scop.]. Washington: United States Department of Agriculture Natural Resources Conservation Service Invasive, 2006. (Species Technical Note, MT-5)). It is often found as a noxious weed in almost all types of crops, including pastures and range lands (Khan et al., 2011Khan A. et al. In vitro screening of Cirsium arvense for potential antibacterial and antifungal activities. Pak J Pharm Sci. 2011a;24:519-22.a). Its diuretic, anti-inflammatory and hemostatic, astringent, anti-phlogerstic and hepatic medicinal values have been documented to be associated with the presence of flavonoid and coumarin (Khan et al., 2011Khan Z.U.H. et al. Phytochemical study on the constituents from Cirsium arvense. Mediter J Chem. 2011b;2:64-9.b). Likewise, antioxidant and antimicrobial aspects have also been previously reported as positive properties of C. arvense (Maria et al., 2010Maria H.B. et al. Enhancement of antibacterial effects of extracts from Cirsium species using sodium picolinate and estimation of their toxicity. Nat Prod Res. 2010;24:554-61.; Orhan et al., 2013Orhan C. et al. The effect of Cirsium arvense extract on antioxidant status in quail. Brit Poultry Sci. 2013;54:620-6.). However, there are only a few studies addressing the antifungal activity of C. arvense against M. phaseolina. Therefore, in this present study, the antifungal activity of methanolic extract of different parts of C. arvense has been assessed against M. phaseolina.
MATERIALS AND METHODS
Fungal pathogen isolation and culturing
M. phaseolina was isolated from infected mash bean stem. The 2 mm pieces of infected stem were surface sterilized with 1% sodium hypochlorite solution, by soaking them for 2 min, followed by washing with autoclaved water. The pre-sterilized samples were placed on 2% malt extract agar medium and incubated at 27 oC for 7 days. Fungus identification was confirmed through macro and microscopic features.
Plant collection and identification
C. arvense was collected from barren land and fields at the University of the Punjab, Lahore, Pakistan during March and April, 2014. Taxonomic identification of the plant was confirmed by Dr. Arshad Javaid at the Institute of Agricultural Sciences (IAGS), in the University of the Punjab, Lahore.
Different plant parts i.e., leave, stems, roots and inflorescence, were isolated and washed thoroughly with water, shade dried, ground to coarse powder, and stored in polythene bags at room temperature.
Methanolic extract preparation
Methanol (2 L) was used for soaking 200 g of each of the four parts of dried plant. After 14 days, soaked materials were filtered through muslin cloth, and double filtered with filter paper, to make it dust free. The methanolic filtrate was evaporated on rotary evaporator at 45 oC to remove methanol, and the dark brown gummy mass was obtained. To completely remove methanol, the gummy materials were taken in pre-weighed beakers and incubated at 45 oC. Finally, the amount of extract was measured for the stems (14.5 g), leaves (15 g), roots (10.78 g) and inflorescences (11.8 g). Afterwards, it was stored in cool and dry place for further use.
Antifungal assays
Stock solutions of methanolic extracts were made by dissolving 9.0 g of each of the extracts of leaf, stem, root and inflorescence in 5 mL dimethyl sulphoxide (DMSO), followed by the addition of sterilized distilled water to make volume up to 15 mL. Control solution was prepared by mixing DMSO and water in 5:10. Pre-sterilized malt extract broth (55 mL) was supplemented with antibacterial chloromycetein (25 mg 100 mL-1). Five concentrations viz. 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5 g 100 mL-1 were prepared in each 250 mL flasks by adding measured quantities of stock and control solutions to achieve a 60 mL final volume of the medium. Medium was divided into three equal portions. Flasks were inoculated with mycelial plugs (5 mm diameter) from a 7 day old colony of M. phaseolina and incubated for one week. Thereafter, fungal biomass was filtered, dried at 70 oC in an oven, and weighed (Javaid and Iqbal, 2014Javaid A., Iqbal D. Management of collar rot of bell pepper (Capsicum annuum L.) by extracts and dry biomass of Coronopus didymus shoot. Biol Agric Hortic. 2014;30:164-72.). The experiment was carried out using completely randomized design.
GC-MS of methanolic fraction
Methanolic root extract of C. arvense was filtered through Millipore filter paper with the help of filter assembly to remove any kind of suspended particles. Samples were analyzed by GC-MS for identification of various chemical constituents on Agilant technologies model GC 7890A coupled with MS 5975C mass spectrometer.
Statistical analysis
Acquired experimental data were assessed by analysis of variance. Means were sorted through the LSD method at 5% level of significance, using the Statistix 8.1 software. The relationship between extract concentrations and fungal biomass was calculated using MS Excel.
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
The analysis of variance showed significant (P?0.001) effect of plant parts, extract concentrations, as well as their interaction for fungal biomass (Table 1). Among different plant parts, methanolic leaf extract of C. arvense showed the highest antifungal activity. Fungal biomass significantly dropped by 10-74%, due to various concentrations of this extract over control (Figure 1A and 2). There was a linear relationship between extract concentrations and fungal biomass with R2 = 0.9297 (Figure 3A). The highest antifungal activity in leaf extract could be due to the presence of the highest content of polyphenol and flavonoid as compared to the other plant parts (Mihaela, 2014Mihaela R.F. Chemical studies on plants of Cirsium arvense species [thesis] Craiova: University of Medicine and Pharmacy of Craiova, 2014.). It has been documented that flavonoid content of leaves is enough to exhibit antifungal property compared to other plant parts. So far, flavonoid has been enlisted amongst the most diverse and widespread groups of natural compounds with greater antimicrobial and radical scavenging properties (Karasakal et al., 2015Karasakal A. et al. Antioxidant, antimicrobial activities and total flavonoid contents of Cirsium bulgaricum DC. leaf extracts. Marmara Pharm J. 2015:19:43-51.).
Effects of different concentrations of Cirsium arvense methanol extracts on the biomass of Macrophomina phaseolina.
Percentage decrease in the biomass of Macrophomina phaseolina due to different concentrations of Cirsium arvense methanolic leaf, stem, root and inflorescence extracts over control.
Similar to those of the leaf extract, all the concentrations of methanolic stem extract showed significant inhibitory effects on fungal growth. However, the stem extract was found to be comparatively less inhibitory to fungal growth than the leaf extract (Figure 1B). There was 6-57% suppression in fungal biomass due to different concentrations of the stem extract compared to control (Figure 2). The relationship between the concentrations of stem extract and fungal biomass was linear with R2 = 0.935 (Figure 3B). Although all concentrations of methanolic root extract of C. arvense significantly reduced fungal growth over control, however, this extract was found comparatively less toxic against M. phaseolina than leaf and stem extracts (Figure 1C). There was significant decline of 11-39% in the target pathogen biomass due to various concentrations of this extract over control (Figure 2). Extract concentrations showed a linear relationship with the fungal biomass with R2 = 0.9776 (Figure 3B). Inflorescence extract of C. arvense showed the least antifungal activity. The lowest concentration of 1% presented an insignificant effect on the growth of the target fungal pathogen. However, further increase in extract concentration significantly and gradually decreased fungal biomass, showing a linear relationship with R2 = 0.9555 (Figure 3D). There was 2-30% reduction in fungal biomass due to different concentrations of the extract over control (Figure 2). Variation in antifungal activity in different parts of plants has also been reported in previous studies (Banaras et al., 2015Banaras S., Javaid A., Iqbal S.M. Use of methanolic extracts of an asteraceous weed Eclipta alba for control of Macrophomina phaseolina. Pak J Weed Sci Res. 2015;21:101-10.; Javaid et al., 2015Javaid A. et al. Management of Macrophomina phaseolina by extracts of an allelopathic grass Imperata cylindrica. Pak J Agric Sci. 2015;15:37-41.). This variation may be associated with the presence of different types or amounts of natural antifungal constituents in different parts of a plant species. Khan et al. (2011Khan A. et al. In vitro screening of Cirsium arvense for potential antibacterial and antifungal activities. Pak J Pharm Sci. 2011a;24:519-22.a) have previously reported antifungal activity of C. arvense against Aspergillus niger. It has been documented that polyacetylenic nature of compounds present in C. arvense along with tannin, gallic acid, taraxasterol, aplotaxene and their derivatives probably bestowed it with strong antifungal potential (Donald, 1994Donald W.W. The biology of Canada Thistle (Cirsium arvense). Rev Weed Sci. 1994;6:77-101.; Norton, 2005). Khan et al. (2011Khan Z.U.H. et al. Phytochemical study on the constituents from Cirsium arvense. Mediter J Chem. 2011b;2:64-9.b) isolated ciryneol C. scopoletin, pectolinarigenin-7-O-glucopyranoside and acacetin from chloroform soluble fraction of C. arvense whole plant. All of these compounds showed variable antifungal activities against Candida albicans, Aspergillus flavus, Microsporum canis, Candida glaberata and Fusarium solani. Conversely, Borchardt et al. (2008Borchardt J.R. et al. Antimicrobial activity of native and naturalized plants of Minnesota and Wisconsin. J Med Plants Res. 2008;2:98-110.) reported the absence of any antimicrobial activity in all parts of C. arvense. This contradiction could be explained by geographical differences that may contribute to such different plant traits (Wright and Tinker, 2012Wright B.R., Tinker D.B. Canada thistle (Cirsium arvense (L.) Scop.) dynamics in young, postfire forests in Yellowstone National Park, Northwestern Wyoming. Plant Ecol. 2012;213:613-24.).
Regression analysis of the effects of different concentrations of Cirsium arvense methanolic leaf, stem, root and inflorescence extracts on the biomass of Macrophomina phaseolina.
The GC-MS analysis of C. arvense methanolic leaf extract showed the presence of 10 phytochemical constituents (Figure 4). Table 2 shows the active constituents and their retention time, molecular formula, molecular weight, and percentage peak area. Four of the compounds found were fatty acid methyl esters, 2 were ketones, one of coumarin, diterpene, alkaloids and dicarboxylic ester. The compounds found included 10-octadecenoic acid, methyl ester (26.442%), 2H-1,benzopyran, 6,7-dimethoxy-2, 2-dimethyl- (20.195%), hexadecanoic acid, methyl ester (15.752%), 9,12- octadecadienoic acid (Z,Z)-, methyl ester (26.442%), 1,2-benzenedicarboxylic acid, mono (2-ethylhexyl) ester (7.420%), ergoline 8-carboxylic acid, 10-methoxy-6-methyl-, methyl ester (4.150%), phytol (4.048%), heptadecanoic acid, 16-methyl,- methyl ester (3.541%), 3,5-di-tert-butyl-4-hydtoxyacetophenone (2.858%), 2H-1-benzopyran, 6,7-dimethoxy-2, 2-dimethyl- (2.858%). Figure 5 shows the structures of the isolated compounds. The most frequently occurring compound 10-octadecanoic acid, methyl ester is known to have antimicrobial activity (Zheng et al., 2005Zheng C.J. et al. Fatty acid synthesis is a target for antibacterial activity of unsaturated fatty acids. FEBS Lett. 2005;579:5157-62). Among others, 2H-1-benzopyran, 6,7-dimethoxy-2-2-dimethyl; hexadecanoic acid, methyl ester; 9,12-octadecadienoic acid (Z,Z)-, methyl ester; phytol and 1,2-Benzenedicarboxylic acid, mono (2-ethylhexyl) ester are known to have antifungal and antimicrobial activities, as shown in Table 3.
Compound structures in Cirsium arvense methanolic leaf extract identified through GC-MS analysis.
Nature and properties of compounds found from the methanolic leaf extract of Cirsium arvense through GC-MS analysis
The present study concludes that all parts of C. arvense have antifungal potential against M. phaseolina. The leaf extract showed the highest antifungal activity, followed by the stem extract.
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*
Significant at P?0.001.
Publication Dates
-
Publication in this collection
2017
History
-
Received
19 Apr 2016 -
Accepted
25 May 2016