Use of nuclear techniques in soil science: A literature review of the Brazilian contribution

Pires, Luiz Fernando; Cássaro, Fábio Augusto Meira; Correchel, Vladia

doi:10.36783/18069657rbcs20210089

Luiz Fernando Pires ^** Corresponding author: E-mail: lfpires@uepg.br

Universidade Estadual de Ponta Grossa, Departamento de Física, Ponta Grossa, Paraná, Brasil.

http://orcid.org/0000-0001-5073-5900

Fábio Augusto Meira Cássaro

Universidade Estadual de Ponta Grossa, Departamento de Física, Ponta Grossa, Paraná, Brasil.

http://orcid.org/0000-0002-7240-3947

Vladia Correchel

Universidade Federal de Goiás, Departamento de Solos, Goiânia, Goiás, Brasil.

http://orcid.org/0000-0001-7109-2588

* Corresponding author: E-mail: lfpires@uepg.br

Editors: José Miguel Reichert and João Tavares Filho.

AUTHOR CONTRIBUTIONS

Conceptualization: Luiz Fernando Pires (equal).

Methodology: Luiz Fernando Pires (equal), Fábio Augusto Meira Cássaro (equal) and Vladia Correchel (equal).

Formal analysis: Luiz Fernando Pires (equal) and Vladia Correchel (equal).

Writing – original draft: Luiz Fernando Pires (equal), Fábio Augusto Meira Cássaro (equal) and Vladia Correchel (equal).

Funding acquisition: Luiz Fernando Pires (lead).

Thumbnail

Figure 1
Total (T) mass attenuation coefficient (μ) variation with photon energy (E) for a representative sandy soil and the contributions of the photoelectric absorption (PA), coherent (CS) and incoherent (IS) scatterings, and pair production (PP).

Thumbnail

Figure 2
Distribution of 137Cs activities in the soil profile and 137Cs inventories from: samples collected in a reference area (ACs-ref) (a); in cultivated area with sediment redistribution process (b); in an area with loss process (c); and in an area with sediment deposition process (d).

Thumbnail

Figure 3
Different soil types based on their textural classes (clay, sand, silt loam) (a). Major oxide contents of the three contrasting soils (b). Contribution of the main radiation interaction processes (CS: coherent scattering; IS: incoherent scattering; PA: photoelectric absorption) as influenced by the differences in the soil texture and elemental compositions (c).

Thumbnail

Figure 4
Soil textural classes are classified according to the photon atomic cross-section (σa). . Adapted from Medhat and Pires (2016)Medhat ME, Pires LF. Importance of photo atomic cross section for studying physical properties of different types of soil. X-Ray Spectrom. 2016;45:202-6. https://doi.org/10.1002/xrs.2689
https://doi.org/10.1002/xrs.2689... .

Thumbnail

Figure 5
Schematic diagram of the gamma-ray attenuation system employed for soil mechanical analysis.

Thumbnail

Figure 6
Main components of the water balance. Adapted from Bacchi et al. (2002)Bacchi OOS, Reichardt K, Calvache M. Neutron and gamma probes: Their use in agronomy. Viena: International Atomic Energy Agency; 2002. (IAEA training course series No. 16)..

Thumbnail

Figure 7
Instant profiles and water storage variation approximation in a depth z from the soil surface (gray rectangle).

Thumbnail

Figure 8
Schematic representation of the depth neutron gauge, the access tube, the sphere of influence, and the depth of investigation.

Thumbnail

Figure 9
Schematic representation of the gauge calibration process. cpm: registered count per minute; θ: soil water content; a and b are the intercept and the slope of the linear regression model, respectively.

Thumbnail

Figure 10
Surface neutron-gamma gauge operating in the direct geometry (left) and backscatter geometry (right).

Thumbnail

Figure 11
Average values of 137Cs inventories of soils from the following Brazilian regions: North (purple), Northeast (red), Center-West (green), Southeast (yellow), and South (blue) (a) and 137Cs inventory average values distribution for different latitudes (b) published in the papers of Schuch et al. (1994)Schuch LA, Nordemann DJR, Zago A, Dallpal DL, Godoy JM, Pecequilo B. Correlation of natural and artificial radionuclides in soil with pedological, climatological and geographic parameters. J Radioanal Nucl Chem. 1994;177:101-6. https://doi.org/10.1007/BF02132414
https://doi.org/10.1007/BF02132414... , Bacchi et al. (2000)Bacchi OOS, Reichard K, Sparovek G, Ranieri SBL. Soil erosion evaluation in a small watershed in Brazil through 137Cs fallout redistribution analysis and conventional models. Acta Geol Hisp. 2000;35:251-9., Guimarães et al. (2003)Guimarães MF, Nascimento Filho VF, Ritchie J. Application of Cesium-137 in a study of soil erosion and deposition in Southeastern Brazil. Soil Sci. 2003;168:45-53. https://doi.org/10.1097/01.ss.0000049730.22043.ca
https://doi.org/10.1097/01.ss.0000049730... , Fraga and Salcedo (2004)Fraga VD, Salcedo IH. Declines of organic nutrient pools in tropical semi-arid soils under subsistence farming. Soil Sci Soc Am J. 2004;68215-24. https://doi.org/10.2136/sssaj2004.2150
https://doi.org/10.2136/sssaj2004.2150... , Correchel et al. (2005)Correchel V, Bacchi OOS, Reichardt K, De Maria IC. Random and systematic spatial variability of 137Cs inventories at reference sites in South-Central Brazil. Sci Agric. 2005;62:173-8. https://doi.org/10.1590/S0103-90162005000200013
https://doi.org/10.1590/S0103-9016200500... , Arthur et al. (2007)Arthur RCJ, Correchel V, Santos DS, Oliveira RAS, Bacchi OOS, Sparovek G. Erosion and sediment deposition evaluation in two slopes under different tillage systems using the 137Cs fallout technique. In: International Nuclear Atlantic Conference; 2007 Sep 30 to Oct 5; Santos, Brazil. Santos: Associação Brasileira de Energia Nuclear; 2007. p. 1-9. Available from: https://inis.iaea.org/collection/NCLCollectionStore/_Public/41/113/41113378.pdf
https://inis.iaea.org/collection/NCLColl... , Handl et al. (2008)Handl J, Sachse R, Jakob D, Michel R, Evangelista H, Gonçalves AC, Freitas AC. Accumulation of 137Cs in Brazilian soils and its transfer to plants under different climatic conditions. J Environ Radioact. 2008;99:271-87. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jenvrad.2007.07.017
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jenvrad.2007.0... , Andrello et al. (2009)Andrello AC, Appoloni CR, Araújo ES, Thomaz EL, Medeiros PHA, Macedo IL. Cesium-137 inventories in undisturbed areas in different regions of Brazil. In: Proceeding of the International Nuclear Atlantic Conference; Sep 27 to Oct 2, 2009; Rio de Janeiro, Brazil. Rio de Janeiro: Associação Brasileira de Energia Nuclear; 2009. p. 1-3. Available from: http://www.uel.br/grupos/gfna/E09_272.pdf
http://www.uel.br/grupos/gfna/E09_272.pd... , Pires et al. (2009b), Antunes et al. (2010)Antunes PD, Sampaio EVSB, Ferreira Junior ALG, Galindo ICL, Salcedo IH. Distribution of 137Cs in three representative soils of Pernambuco State, Brazil. Rev Bras Cienc Solo. 2010;34:935-43. https://doi.org/10.1590/S0100-06832010000300035
https://doi.org/10.1590/S0100-0683201000... , Santos and Sparovek (2011)Santos DSS, Sparovek G. Sediment retention in an agriculture field by riparian forest in Goiatuba, Goiás State (Brazil). Rev Bras Cienc Solo. 2011;35:1811-8. https://doi.org/10.1590/S0100-06832011000500035
https://doi.org/10.1590/S0100-0683201100... , Medeiros et al. (2014)Medeiros PHA, Araújo JC, Andrello AC. Uncertainties of the 137Cs technique for validation of soil redistribution modelling in a semiarid meso-scale watershed. Eng Agric. 2014;34:222-35. https://doi.org/10.1590/S0100-69162014000200004
https://doi.org/10.1590/S0100-6916201400... , Minella et al. (2014)Minella JPG, Walling DE, Merten GH. Establishing a sediment budget for a small agricultural catchment in Southern Brazil, to support the development of effective sediment management strategies. J Hydrol. 2014;519:2189-201. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jhydrol.2014.10.013
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jhydrol.2014.1... , Ribeiro et al. (2016)Ribeiro FCA, Lauria DC, Silva JIR, Lima ESA, Amaral Sobrinho NMB, Perez DV. Concentration of fallout Cesium-137 in soils of the Rio de Janeiro State, Brazil. Braz J Radiat Sci. 2016;4:1-20. https://doi.org/10.15392/BJRS.V4I2.236
https://doi.org/10.15392/BJRS.V4I2.236... , Didoné et al. (2019)Didoné EJ, Minella JPG, Schneider FJA, Londero AL, Lefèvre I, Evrard O. Quantifying the impact of no-tillage on soil redistribution in a cultivated catchment of Southern Brazil (1964–2016) with 137Cs inventory measurements. Agr Ecosyst Environ. 2019;284:106588. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.agee.2019.106588
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.agee.2019.1065... , Montes et al. (2019)Montes ML, Mercader RC, Barral UM, Silva AC, Fabris JD, Taylor MA. Natural and anthropogenic gamma ray emitters and iron bearing compounds distribution in peatlands of the Southern Espinhaço Mountain Chain, Brazil. Environ Earth Sci. 2019;78:573. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12665-019-8587-3
https://doi.org/10.1007/s12665-019-8587-... , and Ivanoff et al. (2020)Ivanoff MD, Toldo Junior EE, Figueira RCL, Ferreira PAL. Use of 210Pb and 137Cs in the assessment of recent sedimentation in Patos Lagoon, Southern Brazil. Geo-Mar Lett. 2020;40:1057-67. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00367-019-00633-8
https://doi.org/10.1007/s00367-019-00633... . N = 81.

Thumbnail

Table 1
Overview of some studies dealing with the application of the gamma-ray attenuation technique in soil science carried out by Brazilian scientists

Thumbnail

Table 2
Overview of some studies dealing with the application of the neutron depth and surface gauge technique in soil science carried out by Brazilian scientists

Thumbnail

Table 3
Overview of some studies dealing with the application of the 137Cs fallout redistribution technique in soil science carried out by Brazilian scientists

Eq. 1

Eq. 2

Eq. 3

Eq. 4

Eq. 5

Eq. 6

Eq. 7

Eq. 8

Eq. 9

Eq. 10

Eq. 11

Eq. 12

Eq. 13

Eq. 14

Eq. 15

Eq. 16

Eq. 17

Eq. 18

Eq. 19

Eq. 20

Eq. 22

Eq. 23

Eq. 24

Eq. 25

Eq. 26

Eq. 27

Figure 11 Average values of 137Cs inventories of soils from the following Brazilian regions: North (purple), Northeast (red), Center-West (green), Southeast (yellow), and South (blue) (a) and 137Cs inventory average values distribution for different latitudes (b) published in the papers of Schuch et al. (1994)Schuch LA, Nordemann DJR, Zago A, Dallpal DL, Godoy JM, Pecequilo B. Correlation of natural and artificial radionuclides in soil with pedological, climatological and geographic parameters. J Radioanal Nucl Chem. 1994;177:101-6. https://doi.org/10.1007/BF02132414
https://doi.org/10.1007/BF02132414... , Bacchi et al. (2000)Bacchi OOS, Reichard K, Sparovek G, Ranieri SBL. Soil erosion evaluation in a small watershed in Brazil through 137Cs fallout redistribution analysis and conventional models. Acta Geol Hisp. 2000;35:251-9., Guimarães et al. (2003)Guimarães MF, Nascimento Filho VF, Ritchie J. Application of Cesium-137 in a study of soil erosion and deposition in Southeastern Brazil. Soil Sci. 2003;168:45-53. https://doi.org/10.1097/01.ss.0000049730.22043.ca
https://doi.org/10.1097/01.ss.0000049730... , Fraga and Salcedo (2004)Fraga VD, Salcedo IH. Declines of organic nutrient pools in tropical semi-arid soils under subsistence farming. Soil Sci Soc Am J. 2004;68215-24. https://doi.org/10.2136/sssaj2004.2150
https://doi.org/10.2136/sssaj2004.2150... , Correchel et al. (2005)Correchel V, Bacchi OOS, Reichardt K, De Maria IC. Random and systematic spatial variability of 137Cs inventories at reference sites in South-Central Brazil. Sci Agric. 2005;62:173-8. https://doi.org/10.1590/S0103-90162005000200013
https://doi.org/10.1590/S0103-9016200500... , Arthur et al. (2007)Arthur RCJ, Correchel V, Santos DS, Oliveira RAS, Bacchi OOS, Sparovek G. Erosion and sediment deposition evaluation in two slopes under different tillage systems using the 137Cs fallout technique. In: International Nuclear Atlantic Conference; 2007 Sep 30 to Oct 5; Santos, Brazil. Santos: Associação Brasileira de Energia Nuclear; 2007. p. 1-9. Available from: https://inis.iaea.org/collection/NCLCollectionStore/_Public/41/113/41113378.pdf
https://inis.iaea.org/collection/NCLColl... , Handl et al. (2008)Handl J, Sachse R, Jakob D, Michel R, Evangelista H, Gonçalves AC, Freitas AC. Accumulation of 137Cs in Brazilian soils and its transfer to plants under different climatic conditions. J Environ Radioact. 2008;99:271-87. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jenvrad.2007.07.017
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jenvrad.2007.0... , Andrello et al. (2009)Andrello AC, Appoloni CR, Araújo ES, Thomaz EL, Medeiros PHA, Macedo IL. Cesium-137 inventories in undisturbed areas in different regions of Brazil. In: Proceeding of the International Nuclear Atlantic Conference; Sep 27 to Oct 2, 2009; Rio de Janeiro, Brazil. Rio de Janeiro: Associação Brasileira de Energia Nuclear; 2009. p. 1-3. Available from: http://www.uel.br/grupos/gfna/E09_272.pdf
http://www.uel.br/grupos/gfna/E09_272.pd... , Pires et al. (2009b), Antunes et al. (2010)Antunes PD, Sampaio EVSB, Ferreira Junior ALG, Galindo ICL, Salcedo IH. Distribution of 137Cs in three representative soils of Pernambuco State, Brazil. Rev Bras Cienc Solo. 2010;34:935-43. https://doi.org/10.1590/S0100-06832010000300035
https://doi.org/10.1590/S0100-0683201000... , Santos and Sparovek (2011)Santos DSS, Sparovek G. Sediment retention in an agriculture field by riparian forest in Goiatuba, Goiás State (Brazil). Rev Bras Cienc Solo. 2011;35:1811-8. https://doi.org/10.1590/S0100-06832011000500035
https://doi.org/10.1590/S0100-0683201100... , Medeiros et al. (2014)Medeiros PHA, Araújo JC, Andrello AC. Uncertainties of the 137Cs technique for validation of soil redistribution modelling in a semiarid meso-scale watershed. Eng Agric. 2014;34:222-35. https://doi.org/10.1590/S0100-69162014000200004
https://doi.org/10.1590/S0100-6916201400... , Minella et al. (2014)Minella JPG, Walling DE, Merten GH. Establishing a sediment budget for a small agricultural catchment in Southern Brazil, to support the development of effective sediment management strategies. J Hydrol. 2014;519:2189-201. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jhydrol.2014.10.013
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jhydrol.2014.1... , Ribeiro et al. (2016)Ribeiro FCA, Lauria DC, Silva JIR, Lima ESA, Amaral Sobrinho NMB, Perez DV. Concentration of fallout Cesium-137 in soils of the Rio de Janeiro State, Brazil. Braz J Radiat Sci. 2016;4:1-20. https://doi.org/10.15392/BJRS.V4I2.236
https://doi.org/10.15392/BJRS.V4I2.236... , Didoné et al. (2019)Didoné EJ, Minella JPG, Schneider FJA, Londero AL, Lefèvre I, Evrard O. Quantifying the impact of no-tillage on soil redistribution in a cultivated catchment of Southern Brazil (1964–2016) with 137Cs inventory measurements. Agr Ecosyst Environ. 2019;284:106588. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.agee.2019.106588
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.agee.2019.1065... , Montes et al. (2019)Montes ML, Mercader RC, Barral UM, Silva AC, Fabris JD, Taylor MA. Natural and anthropogenic gamma ray emitters and iron bearing compounds distribution in peatlands of the Southern Espinhaço Mountain Chain, Brazil. Environ Earth Sci. 2019;78:573. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12665-019-8587-3
https://doi.org/10.1007/s12665-019-8587-... , and Ivanoff et al. (2020)Ivanoff MD, Toldo Junior EE, Figueira RCL, Ferreira PAL. Use of 210Pb and 137Cs in the assessment of recent sedimentation in Patos Lagoon, Southern Brazil. Geo-Mar Lett. 2020;40:1057-67. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00367-019-00633-8
https://doi.org/10.1007/s00367-019-00633... . N = 81.

Type of study	Objectives	Methods	Reference
Laboratory	Determination of the soil bulk density and soil water content for three contrasting soil types	Experimental measurement of the soil mass attenuation coefficient, soil bulk density, and soil water content using collimated radiation beams (radioactive source of ¹³⁴Cs)	Reichardt (1965)Reichardt K. Uso da radiação gama na determinação da densidade aparente e da umidade do solo [thesis]. Piracicaba: Universidade de São Paulo; 1965.
Laboratory/Field	General review of gamma-ray attenuation methods for determining soil water content and bulk density	Experimental measurement of the soil bulk density and soil water content using single- and dual-energy setups (radioactive sources of ²⁴¹Am and ¹³⁷Cs)	Ferraz and Mansell (1979)Ferraz ESB, Mansell RS. Determining water content and bulk density of soil by gamma-ray attenuation technique. Florida: University of Florida; 1979. (Technical Bulletin, 807).
Laboratory	Proposal for a new method of soil mechanical analysis and continuous measurements of soil particle concentration	Experimental measurement of the soil particle size distribution and their fractions in soil suspensions under sedimentation using collimated radiation beams (radioactive source of ²⁴¹Am)	Vaz et al. (1992)Vaz CMP, Oliveira JCM, Reichardt K, Crestana S, Cruvinel PE, Bacchi OOS. Soil mechanical analysis through gamma ray attenuation. Soil Technol. 1992;5:319-25.
Laboratory/Simulation	Detailed analysis of the mass attenuation coefficient dependence with energy and soil composition	Experimental measurements of the mass attenuation coefficient using collimated radiation beams (radioactive sources of ²⁴¹Am, ¹⁵²Eu, ¹³³Ba, ¹³⁷Cs, ⁵⁴Mn, and ⁶⁰Co) and calculations made using the XCOM	Appoloni and Rios (1994)Appoloni CR, Rios EA. Mass attenuation coefficients of Brazilian soils in the range 10-1450 keV. Appl Radiat Isotopes. 1994;45:287-91. https://doi.org/10.1016/0969-8043(94)90041-8 https://doi.org/10.1016/0969-8043(94)900...
Laboratory	Proposal for a new method of soil water retention curve evaluation using gamma-ray attenuation	Presentation of an experimental methodology for the use of the gamma-ray attenuation as an auxiliary technique for the evaluation of the water retention curve	Bacchi et al. (1998)Bacchi OOS, Reichardt K, Oliveira JCM, Nielsen DR. Gamma-ray beam attenuation as an auxiliary technique for the evaluation of the soil water retention curve. Sci Agric. 1998;55:499-502. https://doi.org/10.1590/S0103-90161998000300019 https://doi.org/10.1590/S0103-9016199800...
Laboratory	Measurement of soil pore size distributions and the proposal of calibration equations for monitoring changes in soil pore space	Experimental measurements of the total, intra-aggregate, and inter-aggregate porosities of dry soil clods using collimated radiation beams (radioactive source of ²⁴¹Am)	Oliveira et al. (1998)Oliveira JCM, Appoloni CR, Coimbra MM, Reichardt K, Bacchi OOS, Ferraz E, Silva SC, Galvão Filho W. Soil structure evaluated by gamma-ray attenuation. Soil Till Res. 1998;48:127-33. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0167-1987(98)00130-5 https://doi.org/10.1016/S0167-1987(98)00...
Laboratory	Measurement of the soil water content and determination of the soil hydraulic conductivity	Experimental measurement of the soil water content, for different depths and times, in soil columns during water vertical infiltration experiments using collimated radiation beams (radioactive source of ²⁴¹Am)	Moreira et al. (2001)Moreira AC, Cavalcante FHM, Rocha MC, Portezan O, Coimbra MM, Quiñones FRE, Appoloni CR. Hydraulic conductivity of undeformed soil columns by gamma ray transmission. Radiat Phys Chem. 2001;61:693-5. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0969-806X(01)00377-2 https://doi.org/10.1016/S0969-806X(01)00...
Laboratory	Analysis of soil surface sealing induced by the application of sewage sludge at the topsoil	Experimental analysis of density increments of thin soil layers using gamma-ray computed tomography and gamma-ray attenuation (radioactive source of ¹³⁷Cs)	Pires et al. (2002)Pires LF, de Macedo JR, Souza MD, Bacchi OOS, Reichardt K. Gamma-ray computed tomography to characterize soil surface sealing. Appl Radiat Isotopes. 2002;57:375-80. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0969-8043(02)00098-2 https://doi.org/10.1016/S0969-8043(02)00...
Laboratory	Definition of optimal thicknesses for measurements of soil mass attenuation coefficients and their influence in determinations of soil physical properties	Experimental measurements of the mass attenuation coefficient of soil samples with different thicknesses using collimated radiation beams (radioactive sources of ²⁴¹Am and ¹³⁷Cs) and of the soil bulk density through gamma-ray computed tomography (radioactive source of ²⁴¹Am)	Borges et al. (2014a)
Laboratory/ Simulation	Evaluation of the influence of different methods to determine the mass attenuation coefficient	Experimental measurement of the mass attenuation coefficient using collimated radiation beams (radioactive sources of ²⁴¹Am) and computer-based-simulations (XCOM, GEANT4, Fluka, and MCNP)	Pires and Medhat (2016)Pires LF, Medhat ME. Different methods of mass attenuation coefficient evaluation: Influences in the measurement of some soil physical properties. Appl Radiat Isot. 2016;111:66-74. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.apradiso.2016.02.012 https://doi.org/10.1016/j.apradiso.2016....
Laboratory/ Simulation	Analyses of radiation interaction parameters based on information of X-ray diffraction data and Rietveld Method	Experimental measurement of the soil elemental composition through X-ray diffraction and X-ray fluorescence and simulation of the mass attenuation coefficient through XCOM	Pires et al. (2019)Pires LF, Leite WC, Brinatti AM, Saab SC. Radiation attenuation properties based on the quantification of soil components using the Rietveld Method. Results Phys. 2019;12:2009-11. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.rinp.2019.02.036 https://doi.org/10.1016/j.rinp.2019.02.0...

Type of study	Objectives	Methods	Reference
Field	Determination of the water soil content in the field	Experimental measurement of the soil water content at the field level using depth neutron gauges, tensiometers, and resistant blocks	Kirda and Reichardt (1992)Kirda C, Reichardt K. Comparison of neutron moisture gauges with nonnuclear methods to measure field soil water status. Sci Agric. 1992;49:111-21. https://doi.org/10.1590/S0103-90161992000400015 https://doi.org/10.1590/S0103-9016199200...
Field	Determination of the soil water content in the field, near the soil surface	Experimental measurement for evaluating the sphere of influence of the neutrons produced by depth neutron gauges near the surface	Falleiros et al. (1993)Falleiros MC, Sanchez AR, Souza DM, Bacchi OOS, Pilotto JE, Reichardt K. Neutron probe measurement of soil water content close to soil surface. Sci Agric. 1993;50:333-37. https://doi.org/10.1590/S0103-90161993000300002 https://doi.org/10.1590/S0103-9016199300...
Field	Calibration procedures for improving the determination of soil water content in the field	Experimental procedures for improving the calibration of depth neutron gauges for soil water content measurements	Reichardt et al. (1997)Reichardt K, Portezan O, Bacchi OOS, Oliveira JCM, Dourado-Neto D, Pilotto JE, Calvache M. Neutron probe calibration correction by temporal stability of soil water content probability distribution. Sci Agric. 1997;54:17-21. https://doi.org/10.1590/S0103-90161997000300003 https://doi.org/10.1590/S0103-9016199700...
Field	Determination of hydraulic conductivity in the field	Experimental procedures for determining the soil hydraulic conductivity using depth neutron gauge and tensiometers	Timm et al. (2000)
Laboratory/Field	Training course for gamma and neutron techniques usage and description of the methods	IAEA training course series: gamma and neutron techniques for determining soil physical properties and soil water content	Bacchi et al. (2002)Bacchi OOS, Reichardt K, Calvache M. Neutron and gamma probes: Their use in agronomy. Viena: International Atomic Energy Agency; 2002. (IAEA training course series No. 16).
Laboratory/Field	Use of surface neutron gamma gauges for determining soil surface water content and bulk density	Experimental results for determining soil water contents at the soil surface and detection of denser layers at the soil profile	Tominaga et al. (2002)Tominaga TT, Cássaro FAM, Reichardt K, Bacchi OOS, Oliveira JCM, Timm LC. On the use of surface neutron-gamma gauges to estimate soil water content. Appl Radiat Isotopes. 2002;57:369-74. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0969-8043(02)00097-0 https://doi.org/10.1016/S0969-8043(02)00...
Theoretical/ Field	Theoretical prevision of the calibration curve for a wide range of soil water contents	Theoretical calibration curve compared to the obtained in field conditions for the same soil	Crispino et al. (2004)Crispino ML, Carneiro CJG, Antonino ACD, Lira CABO, Dallolio A. Influência das seções macroscópicas de choque dos elementos químicos de um solo na curva de calibração de sondas de nêutrons. Rev Fis Aplic Instrumen. 2004;17:81-5.
Laboratory/Field	Use of surface neutron gauges for determining soil bulk density	Experimental measurements of the soil bulk density using surface neutron gauges in the field and the comparison of the results with traditional non-radioactive methods	Timm et al. (2005)Timm LC, Pires LF, Reichardt K, Roveratti R, Oliveira JCM, Bacchi OOS. Soil bulk density evaluation by conventional and nuclear methods. Aust J Soil Res. 2005;43:97-103. https://doi.org/10.1071/SR04054 https://doi.org/10.1071/SR04054...
Field	Use of surface neutron gauges for determining the water balance in coffee crops	Experimental results investigating the water balance component variabilities	Silva et al. (2006)Silva AL, Roveratti R, Reichardt K, Bacchi OOS, Timm LC, Bruno IP, Oliveira JCM, Dourado-Neto D. Variability of water balance components in a coffee crop grown in Brazil. Sci Agric. 2006;63:105-14. https://doi.org/10.1590/S0103-90162006000200001 https://doi.org/10.1590/S0103-9016200600...
Field	Use of cosmic-ray neutrons for soil water content measurements at the landscape scale	Experiments using Cosmic-Ray Neutron Sensing for Hydrological Applications at the landscape level	Franz et al. (2020)Franz TE, Ammar W, Zhang J, Vreugdenhi M, Heng L, Dercon G, Strauss P, Brocca L, Wagner W. Practical data products from cosmic-ray neutron sensing for hydrological applications. Front Water. 2020;2:9. https://doi.org/10.3389/frwa.2020.00009 https://doi.org/10.3389/frwa.2020.00009...
Field	Development of detection technology	Experimental developments of nuclear density gauges that use extremely low-activity radioisotope sources	Dep et al. (2021)Dep L, Troxler R, Sawyer J, Mwimba S. A New low-activity nuclear density gauge for soil density measurements. J Test Eval. 2021;50:e20200483. https://doi.org/10.1520/JTE20200483 https://doi.org/10.1520/JTE20200483...

Type of study	Objectives	Methods	Reference
Laboratory/Field	Temporal analysis of ¹³⁷Cs, ²³²Th, ²²⁶Ra, and ⁴⁰K activities from soils of the state of Paraná, Southern of Brazil	Analyses using gamma spectrometry	Schuch et al. (1994)Schuch LA, Nordemann DJR, Zago A, Dallpal DL, Godoy JM, Pecequilo B. Correlation of natural and artificial radionuclides in soil with pedological, climatological and geographic parameters. J Radioanal Nucl Chem. 1994;177:101-6. https://doi.org/10.1007/BF02132414 https://doi.org/10.1007/BF02132414...
Laboratory/Field	Analysis of the spatial distribution of sediment redistribution rates in watersheds cultivated with pasture and sugarcane using the ¹³⁷Cs technique, USLE, and WEPP models	Analyses using gamma spectrometry, Universal Soil Losses Equation (USLE), and Water Erosion Prediction Project (WEPP)	Bacchi et al. (2003)Bacchi OOS, Reichardt K, Sparovek G. Sediment spatial distribution evaluated by three methods and its relation to some soil properties. Soil Till Res. 2003;69:117-25. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0167-1987(02)00133-2 https://doi.org/10.1016/S0167-1987(02)00...
Laboratory/Field	Study of the organic nutrient pools declining in Semi-Arid tropical soils under subsistence farming, using the ¹³⁷Cs technique to estimate the soil erosion and land degradation effects	Analyses using gamma spectrometry	Fraga and Salcedo (2004)Fraga VD, Salcedo IH. Declines of organic nutrient pools in tropical semi-arid soils under subsistence farming. Soil Sci Soc Am J. 2004;68215-24. https://doi.org/10.2136/sssaj2004.2150 https://doi.org/10.2136/sssaj2004.2150...
Laboratory/Field	Comparison of soil erosion rates obtained by the ¹³⁷Cs technique through direct measurements in runoff plots	Analyses using gamma spectrometry and runoff plots	Correchel et al. (2005)Correchel V, Bacchi OOS, Reichardt K, De Maria IC. Random and systematic spatial variability of 137Cs inventories at reference sites in South-Central Brazil. Sci Agric. 2005;62:173-8. https://doi.org/10.1590/S0103-90162005000200013 https://doi.org/10.1590/S0103-9016200500...
Laboratory/Field	Evaluation of random and systematic spatial variabilities of ¹³⁷Cs inventories at reference sites in South-Central region of Brazil	Analyses using gamma spectrometry	Correchel et al. (2006)Correchel V, Bacchi OOS, De Maria IC, Dechen SF, Reichardt K. Soil erosion rates evaluated by the 137Cs technique and direct measurements on long-term runoff plots. Soil Till Res. 2006;86:199-208. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.still.2005.02.021 https://doi.org/10.1016/j.still.2005.02....
Laboratory/Field	The use of ¹³⁷Cs and soil carbon isotopic ratios (δ¹³C) techniques to investigate the sediment deposition and erosion rates on a slope transect cultivated with sugarcane followed by a secondary riparian forest zone	Analyses using gamma spectrometry and soil carbon isotopic ratio (δ¹³C)	Pires et al. (2009b)
Laboratory/Field	Study of the effectiveness of riparian zones on sediment retention in Brazilian sugarcane fields by the ¹³⁷Cs technique and WEPP model	Analyses using gamma spectrometry and Water Erosion Prediction Project (WEPP)	Bacchi et al. (2011)Bacchi OOS, Sparovek G, Cooper M, Ranieri SBL, Correchel V. Assessing the impacts of riparian zones on sediment retention in Brazilian sugarcane fields by the Caesium-137 technique and WEPP modeling. Viena: IAEA/TECDOC 1665; 2011. Available from: https://inis.iaea.org/collection/NCLCollectionStore/_Public/43/009/43009302.pdf?r=1&r=1 https://inis.iaea.org/collection/NCLColl...
Laboratory/Field	Analysis of the efficiency of riparian forests on the retention of sediments from annual crop lands using the ¹³⁷Cs technique	Analyses using gamma spectrometry	Santos and Sparovek (2011)Santos DSS, Sparovek G. Sediment retention in an agriculture field by riparian forest in Goiatuba, Goiás State (Brazil). Rev Bras Cienc Solo. 2011;35:1811-8. https://doi.org/10.1590/S0100-06832011000500035 https://doi.org/10.1590/S0100-0683201100...
Laboratory/Field	Quantification of the impact of the no-tillage system on soil redistribution in a cultivated catchment from the Southern region of Brazil employing ¹³⁷Cs inventory measurements	Analyses using gamma spectrometry	Didoné et al. (2019)Didoné EJ, Minella JPG, Schneider FJA, Londero AL, Lefèvre I, Evrard O. Quantifying the impact of no-tillage on soil redistribution in a cultivated catchment of Southern Brazil (1964–2016) with 137Cs inventory measurements. Agr Ecosyst Environ. 2019;284:106588. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.agee.2019.106588 https://doi.org/10.1016/j.agee.2019.1065...

[1] * Corresponding author: E-mail: lfpires@uepg.br

Brasil

Brasil

Use of nuclear techniques in soil science: A literature review of the Brazilian contribution

ABSTRACT