Sex of children and family structure in Brazil: father &amp; grandmother bias?

O Brasil tem um alto índice de mulheres vivendo sozinhas com seus filhos e de domicílios intergeracionais, nos quais há presença de pais e avós. A estrutura domiciliar pode influenciar o desenvolvimento infantil. Apesar de o Brasil não apresentar evidências de aborto seletivo por sexo, a preferência por gênero ainda pode estar sutilmente presente. Testamos se a corresidência com o pai, a corresidência com a avó e o nascimento de um próximo filho estão associados com o sexo das crianças no Brasil. Usando uma amostra representativa nacionalmente, foram realizadas regressões OLS, considerando o sexo do primeiro e do segundo filho como variáveis exógenas. Mulheres com filhas em menor ordem de nascimento são mais propensas a serem solteiras. Encontraram-se evidências de que as avós maternas são mais propensas a viver com netas do que com netos, o que pode amenizar as perdas econômicas da falta da presença do pai no domicílio. As mulheres com filhas em menor ordem de nascimento são mais propensas a terem filhos adicionais, sugerindo a preferência por filho homem. A literatura anterior tem um enfoque na presença do pai. Aqui inclui-se a avó para aumentar a perspectiva feminina. Estes dados contribuem para a literatura em relação à preferência pelo sexo das crianças, que se concentra na análise da figura masculina (pais); analisamos dados sobre as avós para incluir mulheres.

Palavras-chave
Viés de gênero; Composição do domicílio; Avós; Brasil

Variables	Sex of first born child
	Girl		Boy
	Mean	SD	Mean	SD	Pr > t
N	104,317	110,430
Woman's age	29.42	6.40	29.40	6.40	0.380
Child's age	6.60	3.96	6.58	3.95	0.270
Years of education	8.61	3.79	8.64	3.77	0.037
Mother is alive	0.88	0.32	0.88	0.32	0.789
North	0.14	0.35	0.14	0.35	0.058
Northeast	0.31	0.46	0.31	0.46	0.948
South	0.28	0.45	0.28	0.45	0.960
Southeast	0.15	0.35	0.15	0.35	0.702
Central-west	0.11	0.32	0.11	0.32	0.135
Rural	0.14	0.35	0.14	0.35	0.125

	Outcome variable	Living in union			Lives with mother (women whose mother is alive)
	weights	n	y	y	n	y	y
	controls	n	n	y	n	n	y
Entire sample – first child	First son	0.0042*	0.0027	0.0027	0.0007	0.0011	0.0005
		(0.0017)	(0.0019)	(0.0019)	(0.0016)	(0.0017)	(0.0017)
	Girl baseline	0.8150	0.8210	0.8214	0.1223	0.1197	0.1201
	Boy baseline	0.8192	0.8238	0.8241	0.1230	0.1208	0.1206
	Percent effect (%)	0.5	0.3	0.3	0.6	0.9	0.4
	Observations	198470	198470	196464	173644	173644	172303
Vulnerable sample – first child	First son	0.0111**	0.0103*	0.0098*	-0.0033	-0.0025	-0.0029
		(0.0039)	(0.0043)	(0.0042)	(0.0036)	(0.0039)	(0.0038)
	Girl baseline	0.8114	0.8160	0.8163	0.1342	0.1305	0.1307
	Boy baseline	0.8225	0.8263	0.8262	0.1309	0.1279	0.1277
	Percent effect (%)	1.4	1.3	1.2	-2.5	-2.0	-2.3
	Observations	38710	38710	38594	34837	34837	34837
Entire sample – first two children	Two girls	-0.0051+	-0.0055+	-0.0059+	0.0009	0.0025	0.0029
		(0.0028)	(0.0030)	(0.0030)	(0.0023)	(0.0025)	(0.0025)
	Two boys	0.0020	0.0015	0.0012	-0.0004	0.0005	-0.0001
		(0.0027)	(0.0029)	(0.0029)	(0.0022)	(0.0024)	(0.0024)
	p-value	0.024	0.041	0.040	0.625	0.494	0.293
	Girl baseline	0.8576	0.8621	0.8623	0.0786	0.0772	0.0778
	Boy baseline	0.8647	0.8690	0.8693	0.0773	0.0752	0.0748
	Percent effect (%)	0.8	0.8	0.8	-1.7	-2.6	-3.9
	Observations	96719	96719	95594	83193	83193	82459
Vulnerable sample – first two children	Two girls	-0.0114*	-0.0150*	-0.0154*	0.0052	0.0095+	0.0098+
		(0.0056)	(0.0062)	(0.0061)	(0.0049)	(0.0053)	(0.0053)
	Two boys	0.0010	-0.0050	-0.0070	-0.0031	-0.0005	-0.0000
		(0.0054)	(0.0059)	(0.0059)	(0.0046)	(0.0050)	(0.0049)
	p-value	0.052	0.156	0.226	0.132	0.098	0.097
	Girl baseline	0.8401	0.8410	0.8414	0.0979	0.0981	0.0982
	Boy baseline	0.8525	0.8510	0.8499	0.0897	0.0882	0.0884
	Percent effect (%)	1.5	1.2	1.0	-8.4	-10.1	-9.8
	Observations	25474	25474	25391	22557	22557	22557
Twin Sample – first two children	Two girls	-0.0168	-0.0201	0.0035	0.0115	0.0111	0.0130
		(0.0271)	(0.0296)	(0.0298)	(0.0269)	(0.0306)	(0.0314)
	Two boys	-0.0220	-0.0221	-0.0105	-0.0442+	-0.0431	-0.0409
		(0.0278)	(0.0302)	(0.0303)	(0.0256)	(0.0294)	(0.0293)
	p-value	0.834	0.942	0.607	0.012	0.032	0.034
	Girl baseline	0.8144	0.8142	0.8255	0.1538	0.1563	0.1571
	Boy baseline	0.8092	0.8122	0.8115	0.0981	0.1021	0.1032
	Percent effect (%)	-0.6	-0.3	-1.9	-36.2	-34.7	-35.5
	Observations	1319	1319	1305	1170	1170	1160

		Married women whose mother and mother-in-law are both alive
		Lives with mother			Lives with mother-in-law
	Outcome variable weights	n	y	y	n	y	y
	controls	n	n	y	n	n	y
Entire sample – first child	First son	0.0024*	0.0026*	0.0026*	-0.0008	-0.0010	-0.0007
		(0.0012)	(0.0013)	(0.0013)	(0.0012)	(0.0012)	(0.0012)
	Girl baseline	0.0452	0.0428	0.0430	0.0427	0.0408	0.0406
	Boy baseline	0.0476	0.0454	0.0455	0.0419	0.0398	0.0399
	Percent effect (%)	5.3	6.1	6.0	-1.9	-2.5	-1.7
	Observations	119293	119293	118403	119293	119293	118403
Vulnerable sample – first child	First son	0.0039	0.0033	0.0028	0.0064*	0.0071*	0.0064*
		(0.0027)	(0.0029)	(0.0029)	(0.0029)	(0.0031)	(0.0031)
	Girl baseline	0.0459	0.0444	0.0447	0.0512	0.0491	0.0494
	Boy baseline	0.0498	0.0477	0.0475	0.0576	0.0562	0.0559
	Percent effect	8.5%	7.4%	6.5%	12.5%	14.5%	13.2%
	Observations	24156	24156	24156	24156	24156	24156
Entire sample – first two children	Two girls	-0.0017	-0.0012	-0.0010	-0.0016	-0.0014	-0.0016
		(0.0019)	(0.0020)	(0.0020)	(0.0017)	(0.0018)	(0.0018)
	Two boys	0.0007	0.0012	0.0009	-0.0006	-0.0005	-0.0005
		(0.0018)	(0.0020)	(0.0020)	(0.0016)	(0.0018)	(0.0018)
	p-value	0.258	0.302	0.424	0.589	0.653	0.609
	Girl baseline	0.0341	0.0324	0.0328	0.0273	0.0266	0.0264
	Boy baseline	0.0366	0.0348	0.0347	0.0283	0.0276	0.0275
	Percent effect (%)	8.5	7.4	6.5	12.5	14.5	13.2
	Observations	59010	59010	58505	59010	59010	58505
Vulnerable sample – first two children	Two girls	-0.0017	-0.0010	-0.0003	-0.0051	-0.0083*	-0.0077*
		(0.0038)	(0.0040)	(0.0040)	(0.0035)	(0.0038)	(0.0037)
	Two boys	0.0008	0.0013	0.0017	-0.0005	0.0005	0.0008
		(0.0037)	(0.0040)	(0.0039)	(0.0035)	(0.0041)	(0.0040)
	p-value	0.560	0.627	0.661	0.248	0.044	0.049
	Girl baseline	0.0378	0.0362	0.0366	0.0312	0.0288	0.0292
	Boy baseline	0.0403	0.0384	0.0386	0.0359	0.0377	0.0378
	Percent effect (%)	7.3	7.4	5.5	3.7	3.8	3.8
	Observations	15975	15975	15975	15975	15975	15975
Twin sample - first two children	Two girls	-0.0023	0.0018	0.0066	0.0148	0.0079	0.0008
		(0.0250)	(0.0247)	(0.0262)	(0.0176)	(0.0189)	(0.0193)
	Two boys	-0.0486*	-0.0346	-0.0311	-0.0038	-0.0076	-0.0088
		(0.0226)	(0.0233)	(0.0241)	(0.0163)	(0.0185)	(0.0181)
	p-value	0.012	0.064	0.058	0.231	0.335	0.564
	Girl baseline	0.0784	0.0714	0.0734	0.0470	0.0421	0.0386
	Boy baseline	0.0320	0.0351	0.0357	0.0285	0.0267	0.0291
	Percent effect (%)	-59.2	-50.8	-55.4	-39.4	-36.6	-25.1
	Observations	786	786	780	786	786	780

	Outcome variable	More children
	weights	n	y	y
	controls	n	n	y
Entire sample – thfirst child	First son	0.0048*	0.0053*	0.0069**
		(0.0022)	(0.0024)	(0.0020)
	Girl baseline	0.4727	0.4690	0.4677
	Boy baseline	0.4775	0.4743	0.4743
	Percent effect (%)	1.0	1.1	1.4
	Observations	214747	214747	212549
Vulnerable sample – thfirst child	First son	-0.0025	-0.0037	0.0012
		(0.0047)	(0.0051)	(0.0043)
	Girl baseline	0.6416	0.6422	0.6395
	Boy baseline	0.6391	0.6386	0.6407
	Percent effect (%)	-0.4	-0.6	0.1
	Observations	42548	42548	42424
Entire sample – thfirst two children	Two girls	0.0381**	0.0376**	0.0352**
		(0.0036)	(0.0039)	(0.0037)
	Two boys	0.0249**	0.0245**	0.0286**
		(0.0034)	(0.0038)	(0.0035)
	p-value	0.001	0.004	12.9
	Girl baseline	0.3113	0.3064	30.3
	Boy baseline	0.2981	0.2933	0.2965
	Percent effect (%)	-4.2	-4.3	-2.1
	Observations	101296	101296	100116

Vulnerable sample – thfirst two children	Two girls	0.0394**	0.0340**	0.0344**
		(0.0075)	(0.0082)	(0.0077)
	Two boys	0.0311**	0.0278**	0.0302**
		(0.0073)	(0.0080)	(0.0075)
	p-value	0.329	0.507	0.628
	Girl baseline	0.4528	0.4492	0.4488
	Boy baseline	0.4445	0.4430	0.4446
	Percent effect (%)	-1.8	-1.4	-0.9
	Observations	27099	27099	27014
Twin sample – thfirst two children	Two girls	0.0739*	0.0863**	0.0385
		(0.0308)	(0.0334)	(0.0309)
	Two boys	0.0108	0.0051	-0.0198
		(0.0306)	(0.0327)	(0.0300)
	p-value	0.023	0.007	0.040
	Girl baseline	0.3209	0.3230	0.3040
	Boy baseline	0.2578	0.2418	0.2457
	Percent effect (%)	-19.7	-25.1	-19.2
	Observations	1405	1405	1391

	Outcome variable	Per capita HH income			Next child attends preschool
	weights	n	y	y	n	y	y
	controls	n	n	y	n	n	y
Entire sample – first child	First son	4.2880	3.1788	0.2732	0.0119	0.0155+	0.0130+
		-2.9410	-3.3755	-3.0161	-0.0072	-0.0080	-0.0076
	Girl baseline	420.1353	433.5012	436.4606	0.4768	0.4848	0.4863
	Boy baseline	424.4233	436.6800	436.7337	0.4887	0.5003	0.4993
	Percent effect (%)	1.0	0.7	0.1	2.5	3.2	2.7
	Observations	210100	210100	207941	19161	19161	18933
Vulnerable sample – first child	First son	2.3491	2.0614	1.3293	0.0280*	0.0253+	0.0301*
		-1.8795	-2.1774	-1.9984	-0.0135	-0.0151	-0.0146
	Girl baseline	187.9399	194.1274	194.5374	0.3678	0.3822	0.3795
	Boy baseline	190.2891	196.1889	195.8667	0.3958	0.4075	0.4096
	Percent effect (%)	1.2	1.1	0.7	7.6	6.6	7.9
	Observations	41928	41928	41807	5148	5148	5134
Entire sample – first two children	Two girls	-10.2359*	-10.0462*	-6.3380	0.0105	0.0156	0.0079
		-4.1000	-4.6115	-4.0404	-0.0146	-0.0165	-0.0160
	Two boys	5.4918	6.3232	0.3051	0.0266+	0.0226	0.0129
		-4.2285	-4.7136	-4.1498	-0.0145	-0.0163	-0.0157
	p-value	0.1	0.2	15.3	32.7	70.6	78.0
	Girl baseline	31300.1	32289.7	32850.2	38.4	40.7	40.4
	Boy baseline	328.7287	339.2662	335.1448	0.3998	0.4135	0.4093
	Percent effect (%)	5.0	5.1	2.0	4.2	1.7	1.2
	Observations	99412	99412	98252	6604	6604	6514
Vulnerable sample – first two children	Two girls	2.9363	1.6151	3.0897	0.0201	0.0242	0.0243
		-2.6869	-3.1900	-2.9657	-0.0227	-0.0257	-0.0249
	Two boys	0.0739	-1.3116	-1.4614	0.0111	0.0025	0.0013
		-236.9	-278.4	-257.7	-2.2	-2.5	-2.5
	p-value	34.1	41.4	17.1	72.6	45.5	41.4
	Girl baseline	163.9668	167.9298	169.0853	0.3524	0.3753	0.3765
	Boy baseline	161.1044	165.0031	164.5342	0.3433	0.3536	0.3535
	Percent effect (%)	-1.7	-1.7	-2.7	-2.6	-5.8	-6.1
	Observations	26742	26742	26659	2648	2648	2638
Twin sample – first two children	Two girls	-117.0055+	-114.8341+	-16.9779	-0.2297	-0.1812	-0.2396
		-62.6757	-66.7496	-56.6750	-0.1474	-0.1593	-0.1752
	Two boys	-61.6203	-30.6237	4.9514	-0.0484	-0.0130	-0.1002
		-64.3266	-69.0485	-57.3404	-0.1565	-0.1675	-0.1806
	p-value	28.5	10.0	61.6	12.7	20.6	30.9
	Girl baseline	457.8814	455.0927	501.6848	0.2703	0.3054	0.3029
	Boy baseline	513.2665	539.3031	523.6141	0.4516	0.4736	0.4424
	Percent effect	12.1	18.5	4.4	67.1	55.1	46.1
	Observations	1374	1374	1360	84	84	84
	Outcome variable	Next child attends school			Mothers hours of work/chores
	weights	n	y	y	n	y	y
	controls	n	n	y	n	n	y
Entire sample – first child	First son	0.0015	0.0003	-0.0003	-0.3025*	-0.2576	-0.2934+
		-0.0015	-0.0015	-0.0015	-0.1488	-0.1658	-0.1607
	Girl baseline	0.9742	0.9777	0.9781	61.7460	62.5703	62.6023
	Boy baseline	0.9756	0.9780	0.9778	61.4435	62.3127	62.3090
	Percent effect (%)	0.1	0.0	0.0	-0.5	-0.4	-0.5
	Observations	44568	44568	43938	197178	197178	195145
Vulnerable sample – first child	First son	0.0049	0.0029	0.0022	-0.5495+	-0.6520+	-0.5708+
		-0.0034	-0.0034	-0.0034	-0.3156	-0.3502	-0.3401
	Girl baseline	0.9614	0.9668	0.9674	53.7751	54.5956	54.5557
	Boy baseline	0.9664	0.9697	0.9696	53.2256	53.9437	53.9848
	Percent effect (%)	0.5	0.3	0.2	-1.0	-1.2	-1.0
	Observations	12091	12091	12047	39788	39788	39671
Entire sample – first two children	Two girls	0.0018	0.0025	0.0005	0.0685	0.0872	0.1445
		-0.0060	-0.0061	-0.0061	-0.2586	-0.2873	-0.2806
	Two boys	0.0103+	0.0137*	0.0124*	-0.5202*	-0.6278*	-0.7260**
		-0.0055	-0.0054	-0.0054	-0.2482	-0.2764	-0.2700
	p-value	18.9	7.3	5.8	4.4	2.8	0.6
	Girl baseline	94.5	95.1	94.9	6118.7	6190.5	6196.1
	Boy baseline	0.9530	0.9617	0.9612	60.5987	61.1904	61.0905
	Percent effect (%)	0.9	1.2	1.2	-1.0	-1.2	-1.4
	Observations	9066	9066	8896	93007	93007	91908
Vulnerable sample – first two children	Two girls	-0.0001	0.0023	0.0007	0.1079	0.2648	0.2760
		-0.0106	-0.0110	-0.0108	-0.4764	-0.5263	-0.5143
	Two boys	0.0194*	0.0268**	0.0258**	-0.0380	0.2557	0.2240
		-0.9	-0.9	-0.9	-46.1	-51.2	-50.2
	p-value	8.2	2.3	1.8	78.6	98.8	92.9
	Girl baseline	0.9294	0.9360	0.9357	55.1957	55.9408	55.9522
	Boy baseline	0.9489	0.9605	0.9608	55.0498	55.9317	55.9003
	Percent effect (%)	2.1	2.6	2.7	-0.3	0.0	-0.1
	Observations	3552	3552	3536	25293	25293	25214
Twin sample – first two children	Two girls	-0.0235	0.0129	-0.0016	-0.4317	1.8414	2.8088
		-0.0374	-0.0465	-0.0373	-2.3411	-2.6255	-2.5676
	Two boys	0.0093	0.0348	0.0026	-0.4716	1.0222	1.5057
		-0.0333	-0.0445	-0.0350	-2.3630	-2.6466	-2.5665
	p-value	29.6	25.7	78.3	98.5	72.2	55.7
	Girl baseline	0.9487	0.9687	0.9705	63.4081	65.0894	65.3996
	Boy baseline	0.9815	0.9905	0.9747	63.3683	64.2701	64.0964
	Percent effect	3.5	2.3	0.4	-0.1	-1.3	-2.0
	Observations	168	168	165	1290	1290	1279

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