Static and cyclic behaviour of fibre-reinforced pavement concrete with copper slag as fine aggregate

ABSTRACT

The objective of this research was to assess the performance of pavement-quality concrete having 100% copper slag as fine aggregate in the presence of steel fibre. In this research, the crimped steel fibre of two lengths (30 mm and 50 mm) and different dosages such as 0.5%, 1.0%, 1.5%, and 2.0% by weight of concrete are included in the concrete having 100% copper slag as fine aggregate and compared with the concrete having river sand and copper slag as fine aggregate without fibre. The mechanical characteristics that are being examined include fatigue performance, bond strength, impact strength, flexural strength, stress-strain behaviour, abrasion resistance, and slabs exposed to both static and cyclic loading. According to the experimental findings, pavement concrete that contains 100% copper slag as fine aggregate and 1% crimped steel fibre in both 30 and 50 mm diameters performs better and is more optimal. An inventive way to manage copper slag waste and create durable, stiff pavement construction is with copper slag in concrete road construction. Utilising copper slag in concrete road construction offers a novel approach to waste management and the creation of environmentally friendly concrete road construction.

Keywords
Pavement; Slag; Fibre; Sustainable; Fatigue; Cyclic loading

1. INTRODUCTION

The world’s primary building material in the middle of the 20th and 21st centuries, concrete depletes naturally occurring resources by using river sand, shattered stones, and cement made from naturally occurring limestone’s. One major area where the building sector has arisen as a hazard to the environment is the road infrastructure. As a result, scientists concentrated on creating ecologically friendly concrete by using industrial waste to replace the coarse and fine aggregate used in traditional concrete. People are moving from one place to another in response to demands as a result of population growth and economic activity. Improved road connection inevitably results in the needed global development of roads, which uses more natural resources [¹,²,³,⁴,⁵,⁶]. Conversely, a rise in economic activity causes a global increase in the production of solid wastes like slag, which includes copper, steel, and foundry slag [⁷]. The use of solid waste from industries like blast furnace slag, steel slag, fly ash, municipal solid waste, roofing single waste, broken glass, foundry waste, kiln dust waste, construction demolition waste and copper slag in the construction of highways can help to slow down the depletion of natural resources [⁸,⁹,¹⁰,¹¹,¹²]. Because of its properties that are similar to those of traditional fine aggregate, copper slag from the copper industry found to discovered to be a viable substitute for conventional natural sand used concrete roads [¹³]. For the manufacturing of one tone of copper, about 2.2 tonnes of copper slag were produced. Approximately 63,980,000 metric tonnes of slag were projected produced worldwide. Because concrete road building uses the most natural resources of all the industries in the construction business, it was important to investigate ways to dispose of the created copper slag [¹⁴–¹⁵]. Because it possesses properties similar to traditional fine aggregate (river sand), such as being black in colour and having an angular, irregular, and multidimensional form, copper slag may be used in a wide range of rigid pavement building applications. It noted that the surface texture is rough, grainy, and glassy. Even though the copper slag discovered to have coarse grains, the distribution of particle sizes was determined to be outside the bounds of the typical aggregate gradation used in the production of pavement concrete. Therefore, copper slag may be used to make concrete because it has cementation properties similar to the summation of SiO₂ + Al₂O₃+Fe₂O₃, which exceeds 70% of the class F-fly ash regulations [¹⁶,¹⁷,¹⁸,¹⁹,²⁰,²¹,²²].

After 28 days of curing, it was discovered that the use of copper slag as a partial substitute for fine particles in concrete decreased the concrete’s compressive strength by 8% and its water absorption was significantly lower than that of ordinary concrete. Its results demonstrate that when the amount of copper slag increases and the minimum cement index is reached, less cement is needed. Cement hydration was 11 kg/m-3 MPa-1, while the series with 30% copper slag added obtained 12 kg/m-3 MPa-1. This is just 9% more than the series without any copper slag consumption, demonstrating the excellent performance of the copper slag in this cementations matrix [²³].

To be successful in solid waste management, standard concepts and procedures for repurposing industrial waste—such as copper slag, tile waste, steel slag, etc.—obtained from the industries must devised. This refers to the potential for recycling solid waste and using it as a component, either whole or partially, in the composition of concrete used in the building industry. Studies involving this kind of trash are crucial since, in addition to recycling garbage, using it to make concretes might save other raw resources were needed to formulate them [²⁴].

When making high strength concrete, which requires less water content material, copper slag used as fine or coarse aggregate since it has been discovered to have the same or superior physical properties, such as low water absorption. The concrete used to create pavement is known as pavement quality concrete. It must meet certain requirements, including a minimum flexural strength of 4.5N/mm², a minimum grade of M40 concrete, and a minimum slump of 20 ± 5 mm. When compared to normal concrete, it found that the partial substitution of a fine aggregate with copper slag boosted the split tensile strength, flexural strength, and compressive strength because of the copper’s natural pozzolanic ability [²⁵,²⁶,²⁷]. The crystalline form of copper slag, which gives the transition zone more density and strength, is another factor contributing to the rise in mechanical property strength. The pavement quality concrete (PQC) using copper slag as fine aggregate demonstrated increased surface texture, segregation, cohesion, and abrasion resistance—all essential components of PQC. Flexural strength is crucial in the case of PQC in order to resist warping stresses brought on by temperature changes and slab bending brought on by axle load. The addition of fibre, which is advised in pavement quality to increase the concrete’s inherent flexural strength and thereby extend pavement life by reducing plastic shrinkage and slowing the spread of cracks, results in an increase in toughness, fatigue endurance, shear strength residual strength and post crack ductility. Typically, the dose of steel fibre advised was 40–120 kg/m³, or 0.5%–2.0% by weight of concrete [²⁸,²⁹,³⁰,³¹].

While adding fibre to concrete used to build roads improves its mechanical qualities (split tensile strength, compressive strength, and flexural strength), it also makes the concrete less workable. On the other hand, adding water reducers to the concrete increased its workability without changing its mechanical properties [³²–³³]. Compared to typical concrete without fibre, the flexural strength is boosted by a factor of two when steel fibre is added [³⁴]. The concrete used for road construction with fibres are reliable to the slip resistance providing good bond strength at the interface of steel rod and concrete [³⁵, ³⁶]. In thin concrete over-lay with fibre, the age of the pavement concrete get improved due to the increased residual deflection increases the fracture energy [³⁷, ³⁸]

2. PAVEMENT QUALITY CONCRETE

Pavement Quality Concrete (PQC) is the term used to describe the concrete used in the construction of concrete roads. PQC designed in a somewhat different way than other types of concrete. PQC does not fail normally in compression, as the legal axle load permitted on the road is 100kN only. The stresses induced in PQC are mainly flexural. The maximum flexural stress likely to occur on the road pavement due to permitted legal axle load of 10.2 tones and stresses due to temperature variation in India is 4.5 MPa. Hence, Indian Roads Congress has recommended a minimum flexural strength of 4.5 MPa, thus minimum M40 grade or more for PQC are required to achieve required flexural strength and a minimum 20 ± 5 mm slump value to achive workability requirement for the fresh concrete to construct concrete road in field condition. Depending upon the field condition, higher slump value permitted. Hence, the slump requirement was minimum 15 mm [²⁴] (IRC:15–2011). The grading as per IS 383 [³⁹] recommended for fine and coarse aggregates.

3. MATERIALS AND METHODS

In this experimental study, The investigation used locally accessible harmful free river sand that complies with IS 383 [³⁹] and common Portland cement that is readily accessible locally OPC grade 53 was used. In the laboratory, the cement’s physical and chemical characteristics were verified in accordance with IS 4031-1988 [⁴⁰, ⁴¹]. Table 1 displayed the physical attributes of traditional fine aggregate. After carrying out the particle size distribution test in accordance with IS 2386 [⁴²] and comparing the gradation with IS 383–1970, zone 2 was determined, as seen in Figure 1.

Table 1
Physical properties of the conventional fine aggregate (river sand, Zone II).

SL. NO.	PHYSICAL PROPERTY	VALUE
1	Specific gravity	2.62
2	Fineness modulus	2.74
3	Water absorption (%)	1.24
4	Bulk density (g/cc)	1.48

Figure 1
Conventional fine aggregate (River sand) fractional distribution.

The Figure 2 shows that, the raw copper slag obtained from the industry does not fall on any zone prescribed in codes IS; 383 [³⁹] with fines modulus of 3.86 not suitable for concrete manufacturing. Hence in order to overcome this problem, the copper slag is segregated into individual sizes such as 4.75 mm, 2.18 mm, 1.18 mm, 600μm and 300μm and mixed together at certain proportions to obtained copper slag that falls on zone 2 according to the code IS 383 [³⁹] as shown in Figure 3 and with fineness modulus of 2.75, satisfying the code ASTM C33 [⁴³]. The graded copper slag found to have a uniformity graded to manufacture a quality concrete. The locally available broken stones of maximum size 20 mm used in this experimental study conforming to code IS 383 [³⁹]. The physical properties required for coarse aggregate according to the code IS 383 [³⁹], MORTH specification and IS 2386-1963 [⁴²] was ensured in laboratory and shown in the Table 2. The crimped steel fibre length 30 mm and 50 mm of width of 2.5 mm and thickness 1mm having tensile strength of 1150Mpa shown in Figure 4 utilized in this research. The water confirming to IS 456 [⁴⁴] was utilized in this research. The super plasticizer of 0.6% of binder content (cement) satisfy the requirement according to IS 9103 [⁴⁵] utilized in all the mixes.

Figure 2
Particle size distribution of raw copper slag.

Figure 3
Particle size distributions combined graded copper slag confirmingto zone II according to IS 383 [³⁹].

Table 2
Physical properties of conventional coarse aggregate.

SL. NO.	PROPERTY	TEST RESULT	REQUIREMENT*
1	Specific gravity	2.75	–
2	Water absorption (wt.%)	0.8	< 2%
3	Deleterious material (wt.% by volume)	Nil	< 5%
4	Bulk density (kg/m3)	1895	–
5	Crushing value of shattered stones (wt %)	20.6	–
6	Aggregate impact value (wt.%)	12.9	–
7	Los Angeles abrasion value (wt.%)	17.3	< 35%
8	Flakiness index (wt.%)	8	Combined< 35%
9	Elongation index (wt.%)	11

• *as per MORTH (India) specifications.

Figure 4
Crimped steel fibre of width 2.5mm and 1mm thickness.

3.1. Mix proportion and specimen details

IRC: 58 [³⁰] recommends minimum M40 grade concrete for concrete pavement construction. Hence, the concrete confirming to the M40 grade analyzed. Two reference mix proportion proposed, the first proportion 1:1.88:2.94:0.4 (Cement: sand: coarse aggregate: water-cement ratio) with conventional fine aggregate (river sand) and the later 1:2.75:2.94:0.4 (Cement: copper slag: coarse aggregate: water-cement ratio) with 100 percentage copper slag as fine aggregate with inclusion of 0.6% superplasticizer by weight of cement used in all mixes. In the copper slag contained concrete reference mix, the steel fibre dosage included and compared with the reference mixes and the specimen details shown in Table 3.

Table 3
Experimental concrete specimen details.

SL. NO.	SPECIMEN REFERENCE	LENGTH OF FIBRE (mm)	STEEL FIBRE % BY VOLUME OF CONCRETE	REMARKS
1	RF0	–	–	Reference mix with conventional fine aggregate (riversand) without fibre
2	CF0	–	–	Reference mix with copper slag as fine aggregate (Industry waste) with out fibre
3	CF30-0.5	30	0.5	Specimens with 100% graded copper slag as fine aggregate and 30mm steel fibres
4	CF30-1.0	30	1.0
5	CF30-1.5	30	1.5
6	CF30-2.0	30	2.0
7	CF50-0.5	50	0.5	Specimens with 100% graded copper slag as fine aggregate and 50mm steel fibres
8	CF50-1.0	50	1.0
9	CF50-1.5	50	1.5
10	CF50-2.0	50	2.0

4. EXPERIMENTAL DETAILS

In this experimental program the modulus of rupture, compressive strength and modulus of elasticity according to IS: 516 [⁴⁶] was determined in the laboratory. The resistance to the impact was determined confirming to ACI 544.2R-89 [⁴⁷]. The fatigue life of concrete determined by casting the beam of size 500mm × 100mm × 100mm subjected to 50% of the ultimate flexural strength maintaining the haiver sine wave loading frequency of 4Hertz. The static vertical load carrying capacity of concrete specimen was determined by casting the slab specimen of size 600 mm × 600 mm size with 60 mm. The load applied with uniform increment unit the slab fails and the corresponding deformation recorded and test setup shown in Figure 5. The hysteresis behavior of concrete pavement slab was determined by applying the load on slab size 600 mm × 600 mm size with 60 mm, with uniform increment and after each increment, the applied force brought zero load condition before applying the next incremental load.

Figure 5
Staic and cyclic loading setup on the concrete slab specimen.

5. RESULT AND DISCUSSION

5.1. Compressive and flexural strength

From Figure 6, the compressive strengths found to increase with increase in dosage of crimped steel fibre up to dosage of 1% for both 30mm and 50mm fibre resembles with the results TIXIER et al. [⁴⁸]., beyond that the compressive strength tends to decrease for both the fibre. However, 30mm length fibre at dosage of 1% found to be optimum with increase in 30% compressive strength when compared to the reference mix CF0. The findings of compressive strength result resembles with the findings of YAZICI et al. [⁴⁹]. Increase in the compressive strength due to the rough texture of copper slag used in the concrete and enhanced bonding between the concrete ingredients and the steel fibre. It is also noted that, the concrete mix MC have lower compressive strength than the RF0 mix, it is due to the presence of excessive water content due low water absorption of copper slag in the CF0 mix having 100% copper slag tends and Ettringite formation in the copper slag contained concrete. From Figure 7, the flexural strengths found to increase with increase in dosage of crimped steel fibre up to dosage of 1% for both 30 mm and 50 mm fibre due to bridging of fibre at crack and act as crack arrestors and increase in resistance to pulling resistance due to the presence of fibre [⁵⁰]. Beyond 1% dosage of steel fibre, the Flexural strength tends to decreases due to the presence of extra fibres start to interfere with each other and within the concrete matrix. The 30 mm length fibre at dosage of 1% found to be optimum with an increase of flexural strength by 2 times when compared to the reference mixes. It is also noted that, the concrete mix MC have lower flexural strength than the MR mix due to the presence of excessive water content due low water absorption of copper slag in the MC mix having 100% copper slag.

Figure 6
Variation of compressive strength.

Figure 7
Variation of flexural strength.

5.2. Static and cyclic vertical loads resistance of concrete pavement slab

From Figure 8 and 9, static vertical load carrying capacity of slab found to increase with increase in dosage of crimped steel fibre up to dosage of 1% for both 30 mm and 50 mm fibre. The increase in load carrying capacity of the concrete slab with steel fibre due to fibres bridge the cracks that form in concrete under loading, preventing them from widening, thus it can continue to carry load even after it has cracked, which significantly increases its load carrying capacity [⁵¹]. It observed that 30 mm and 50 mm length crimped steel fibre with 1% dosage contained slab has 73.72% and 60.28% ultimate vertical load carrying capacity respectively. Beyond 1% dosage of steel fibre, ultimate load carrying capacity tends to decreases for both 30 mm and 50 mm crimped steel fibre. Thus, steel fibre reinforced concrete slabs have advantages over plain concrete slab such as high load carrying capacity, ductility, and tensile strength. These advantages make FRC slabs a good choice for concrete pavement construction. The cyclic load carying capacity of the slab found to increase with increase in dosage of crimped steel fibre up to dosage of 1% for both 30 mm and 50 mm fibre, beyond that decrease in trend is observed from the result shown in the Figure 10.

Figure 8
Load–Deflection behavior of static loaded concrete slab (30 mm fibre).

Figure 9
Load–Deflection behavior of static loaded concrete slab (50 mm fibre).

Figure 10
Peak load of concrete slabs subjected to cyclic loading.

Figure 11 illustrates the cyclic behaviour of the concrete slab (RF0). A maximum vertical deflection of 3.69 mm was recorded in accordance with the peak load of 27.95 kN. The energy dissipation (area under the load deflection curve) and stiffness of the concrete slab were determined based on load-deflection. The concrete slab has a 14.70kN/mm initial stiffness. It’s evident that with each repetition, the stiffness consistently reduces. Six repetitions result in a reduction in stiffness from 14.71kN/mm to 7.55kN/mm. However, in the scenario of energy disintegration, it continues to rise with each cycle. The loss of energy rose after six repetitions, between 0.12kN-mm to 32.32kN-mm. There was 51.52kN-mm of total accumulated loss of energy observed.The cyclic behaviour of the concrete slab (CF0) is seen in Figure 12. Peak load observed was 26.49kN, while peak deflection was 3.65 mm. The early stiffness of concrete slab (CF0) is 9.01 kN/mm, which is around 38.75% less than that of concrete slab (RF0). It is clear that the stiffness gradually decreases with each cycle. The stiffness decreases from 9.01kN/mm to 7.26kN/mm after six sessions. Nevertheless, the energy dissipation increases with the number of cycles. The energy loss increased from 0.11kN-mm to 22.40kN-mm after six sessions. Ultimately, a cumulative energy loss of 46.70kN-mm was noted, which is over 9.35% lower than that of the reference concrete slab (RF0).

Figure 11
Hysteresis behaviour of concrete slab for Peak Load (RF0).

Figure 12
Hysteresis behaviour of concrete slab for Peak Load (CF0).

The cyclic hysteresis behaviour of the concrete slab having 30 mm and 50 mm crimped steel fibre with 1% dosage shown in the Figure 13 and 14 respectively. It is observed that for both the 30 mm and 50 mm length crimped steel fibre of dosage 1% contained concrete slab the stiffness decreases at the end of each cycle. Both the slab sustained 5 cycles of loading. For 30 mm length steel fibre the stiffness reduced from 6.67kN/mm at first cycle to 4.78kN/mm at the end of 5th cycles and for 30 mm length steel fibre the stiffness reduced from 7.58kN/mm to 5.83kN/mm at the end of 5th cycle. From Figure 15 and 16, it observed that the reference concrete slabs sustained very less number of loading cycle when compared to the steel fibre reinforced concrete slab. For both the 30 mm and 50 mm length steel fibre the optimum dosage found to be 1% dosage, at this dosage both, the fibre reinforced slab sustained maximum of 5 cycle. However, the energy dissipated for the 30 mm length fibre contained concrete slag has maximum energy dissipation of 206.71KN-mm compared to 50 mm length of fibre of contained concrete slag energy dissipation of 158.47 KN-mm. Both the fibre length (30 mm and 50 mm) at dosage of 1% weight of concrete, the number of cycle to failure remains same (Nine) to get failure, but the 30 mm contained slab having higher energy dissipation.

Figure 13
Hysteresis behaviour of slab for Peak Load (CF30–1.0).

Figure 14
Hysteresis behaviour of slab for Peak Load (CF50–1.0).

Figure 15
Variation of loading cycles and Energy dissipated for slab (30 mm length fibre).

Figure 16
Variation of loading cycles and Energy dissipated for slab (50 mm length fibre).

6. LIMITATION OF THIS RESEARCH

Only laboratory tests with flat crimped steel fibres are conducted in this research. The theoretical Fatigue relations were not derived using empirical and analytical approach. Additionally, there was no investigation or comparison between the conventional concrete (RF0) with 100% river sand as fine aggregate the concrete with 100% copper slag as fine aggregate in the presence of crimped steel fibre.

7. SCOPE OF FUTURE WORK

Future research can expand on this work by investigating dynamic loading, varying axle loading on the pavement slab, numerical analysis using fine-tuning element analysis, and experimental studies involving the manipulation of other industrial waste materials, different fibre types available in the market, different fibre aspect ratios, and slab dimensions. The reliability of the research can be tested by constructing the test track before the real time field application.

8. CONCLUSION

The copper slag can be utilized as the fine aggregate to meet the objectives of the circular economy, pavement grade concrete that contains crimped steel fibre and copper slag as fine aggregate would significantly improve the mechanical characteristics of the concrete. The research leads to the following findings. The graded copper slag confirming to IS 383 can be 100% replaced by the conventional fine aggregate which does not affect the rheological and mechanical properties of the concrete

• Because there is more water in the CF0 mix (which contains 100% copper slag) than in the RF0 mix, the CF0 mix’s compressive and flexural strengths are lower than those of the RF0 mix.

• The ultimate vertical load bearing capability of the slabs including 30 mm and 50 mm length crimped steel fibre with 1% dosage and copper slag as fine aggregate is 60.28% and 73.72%, respectively, for the static load carrying capacity. For both 30 mm and 50 mm crimped steel fibre, the final load bearing capability tends to decline above 1% of the steel fibre dose.

• The ideal dosage of 1% was determined to be the most effective for both 30 mm and 50 mm length steel fibre in the slab’s cyclic load bearing capability. At this dosage, the fiber-reinforced slab was able to withstand a maximum of 5 cycles. However, compared to a 50 mm length of fibre of contained concrete slag, which had an energy dissipation of 158.47 KN-mm, the 30 mm length fibre contained concrete slag had a maximum energy dissipation of 206.71 KN-mm.

• The best crimped fibre dose for both lengths—30 and 50 millimeters—was determined to be 1% of the concrete’s weight. Nonetheless, compared to the 50 mm length fibre, the 30 mm length fibre offers better performance.

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Publication Dates

• Publication in this collection
  08 Mar 2024
• Date of issue
  2024

History

• Received
  19 Nov 2023
• Accepted
  30 Jan 2024