Effect of Sodium Chloride Replacement with Potassium Chloride on Quality Traits of Bicarbonate-Marinated Turkey Breast Meat

ABSTRACT

This study aims to evaluate the possibility to formulate low-sodium bicarbonate-marinated turkey breast meat. In total, 60 meat cuts (100 × 50 × 30mm) were divided into four treatments: B1 (0.5% sodium bicarbonate and 0% sodium chloride replacement), B2 (0.5% sodium bicarbonate and 15% sodium chloride replacement), B3 (0.5% sodium bicarbonate and 30% sodium chloride replacement), and B4 (0.5% sodium bicarbonate and 45% sodium chloride replacement). The results showed that sodium replacement up to 45% had no impact on texture (as represented by Allo-Kramer shear values) and water activity. After cooking, Group B1 exhibited the highest L* value (72.1) and the lowest b* (6.6) when compared to other groups. In conclusion, replacing sodium chloride with potassium chloride up to 45% in the presence of sodium bicarbonate did not affect negatively several quality traits (sensory traits, composition, and texture, etc.).

Keywords:
Chemical composition; water activity; texture; sensory.

INTRODUCTION

In the past few decades, there was a growing trend in meat industries to formulate free phosphate and low-sodium meat products due to increasing the consumer awareness about the adverse health implications of phosphates and excess sodium dietary intake. Sodium chloride is habitually used in meat products for several purposes such as improving water holding/binding capacity (WHC/WBC), imparting the flavor, and increase microbiological stability (Aksu et al., 2003, Newson et al., 2013, U-chupaj et al., 2017). Excess sodium dietary intake is considered one of the significant risk factors for hypertension and cardiovascular diseases. Recent data showed that dietary sodium intake is still exceeding the recommended dietary allowance (Newson et al., 2013). Different strategies have been adopted to reduce sodium chloride in meat products (Doyle & Glass, 2010). Using salt replacers (such as potassium, magnesium and calcium chloride) is considered one of the most common strategies. Potassium chloride has been intensively studied, and it was effective as a salt replacer in different meat products (Doyle & Glass, 2010, Lee et al., 2012, Petracci et al., 2012).

In this context, phosphates in combination with sodium chloride habitually used to improve the water binding capacity of meat products. Different studies showed that excess dietary intake of phosphates have several adverse health implications such as Attention Deficit Disorder as well as allergic reaction in children (Hafer, 2002), increase the risk of osteoporosis (Anderson, 1996), disorder and damage in the kidney (Dikeman et al., 2003), and diarrhea (Berner & Shike, 1988). Accordingly, the usage of phosphates has been reduced in some countries while in other countries; they have been banned (Sebranek et al., 2010).

Several components have been suggested to replace phosphates in processed meat products. Recent studies showed that sodium bicarbonate might be considered as a promising component to replace phosphates. It was found that the adverse effect of Pale Soft Exudates (PSE) on the quality traits of pork and poultry meat has been alleviated by the addition of sodium bicarbonate. Moreover, several authors showed that bicarbonates could improve the product yield and tenderness (low shear force values) of pork meat (Sen et al., 2005; Sheard & Tali, 2010). The effect of sodium bicarbonate on the quality traits of meat may be explained by the buffering capacity and ionic strength which was higher when compared to phosphates. A synergistic effect was found between sodium bicarbonate and phosphate where marinade performance and cooking yield were higher in comparison to using them separately (Petracci et al., 2012). In addition, bicarbonate increased water binding capacity in marinated meat (Saleem et al., 2014). Another study showed that sodium bicarbonate exhibited a similar effect on the quality traits of meat to phosphate treated meat (Sen et al., 2005)

All previous studies investigated the possibility to reduce sodium chloride in the presence of phosphates or other similar components. Until now, there are no available studies that examined the effect of replacing sodium chloride by potassium chloride in bicarbonate-treated meat products. This research aims to evaluate the impact of replacing sodium chloride by potassium chloride on the quality traits of bicarbonate-marinated turkey breast meat.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

Samples collection and preparation: 60 boneless, skinless turkey Pectoralis major muscles were collected from the same flock of 20-week old tom turkey from a local slaughterhouse in two replications. The meat was frozen for commercial use, and it was defrosted under commercial conditions using water spray nozzles. From each fillet, about 100 g of a parallelepiped meat cut (dimensions: 100 × 50 × 30mm) has been excised in the same direction of muscle fibers from the cranial part.

Marination process: the samples were divided into four different groups (n=15) and marinated by using solutions described in Table 1. All meat samples in each group were marinated and tumbled (in continuous mode) by using a small-scale vacuum tumbler for 25 min (speed 20 rpm, 500 rounds) at pressure -0.95 bar.

Table
1 Marination conditions at 25% target level of marination. The added marinade solution was calculated based on 25% of the weight of meat for each group.

	Treatment groups
Ingredients	B1	B2	B3	B4
% sodium chloride*	1.8	1.53	1.26	0.9
% replacement by potassium chloride*	0	0.27	0.54	0.9
% sodium bicarbonate	0.5	0.5	0.5	0.5

• *The percentage of sodium and potassium chloride was 1.8%, to achieve replacements 0, 15, 30, and 50% of sodium chloride by potassium chloride for B1, B2, B3, and B4 respectively.

Analysis of quality traits: For each raw sample, before marination: pH, color values (L*a*b*), and proximate composition (moisture, protein, fat, and collagen) have been measured. While after marination: marinade uptake, purge loss, and color values were determined. Finally, after cooking: cooking loss, cooking yield, Allo-Kramer shear force, water activity, pH, color values (L*, a*, b*), proximate composition (moisture, protein, fat, salt, and collagen), and sensory analysis (juiciness, saltiness, degree of fatness, texture, and overall acceptance) were assessed.

Minolta Chroma Meter (CR-410) was used to measure color values (L*, a*, b*) based on the Commission International de l’Eclairage (CIE) system with one dimension for luminance (L*-lightness) and two for color (a*-green to red; b*-blue to yellow). Three color measurements were carried out on the surface of each sample using a head with a 8 mm measuring window, where the mean value of three measures was calculated.

For raw meat samples, pH was measured for a cut of meat adjacent to meat cut that was used for marination by, CA using hand-held pH/temperature meter (ISFET, Model # IQ150, IQ Scientific Instruments, San Diego, USA). After cooking, the pH was measured by using a hand-held pH/temperature meter.

Marinated meat samples were packed under vacuum and cooked in a water bath at 80°C for about 80 min until core temperature arrived at 78°C and then samples were cooled in a refrigerated water bath.

The weight of each sample as raw (W1), after marination (W2), after 24 h of refrigerated storage (W3), and after cooking (W4) were recorded to calculate the following parameters in Table 2.

Table 2
Quality parameters that were employed to evaluate marination performances.

No	Parameters	Formula
1.	Marinade uptake (%)	$=\frac{(W2-W1)}{W1}*100$
2.	Purge loss (%)	$=\frac{(W2-W3)}{W2}*100$
3.	Cooking loss (%)	$=\frac{(W3-W4)}{W3}*100$
4.	Cooking yield (%)	$=\frac{W4}{W1}*100$

Chemical composition (moisture, protein and lipid contents) of breast meat was assessed using official methods of AOAC (AOAC, 1999). The percentage of moisture content was determined. About five grams minced meat sample was dried in a conventional oven at 105°C for 16 h. Crude protein content was estimated by the Kjeldahl method, while the intramuscular fat content was assessed by petroleum ether extraction using soxhlet method. Hydroxylproline was determined as a measure of collagen content using a colorimetric method (Kolar, 1990). About 4 g of finely minced meat was hydrolyzed with sulphuric acid in an air oven at 105°C for 16 h. The colored compound of hydrolyzed hydroxylproline was formed by the interaction with chloramine and 4-dimethylaminobenzaldehyde. The absorbance was measured by UV-Visible Spectrophotometer (UV-1601; Shimadzu, Tokyo, Japan) at 558 nm.

Cooked meat samples cut (40 × 20 × 10 mm) were used to measure Allo-Kramer Shear force using TA-Hdi Texture Analyzer (Stable Micro Systems Ltd., Godalming, Surrey, UK) equipped with load cell set 25 kg load cell and cross-head speed was 50 cm/min. The samples were sheared perpendicularly by ten blades set of Allo-Kramer to muscle fibers direction. Shear force was defined as kilograms shear per gram of sample (Bianchi et al., 2007).

Water activity (a_w) was isothermally measured (25 ± 1°C) by a water activity meter mod Aqualab (Decagon Devices Inc., Pullman, WA) that bases its measure on the chilled-mirror dew-point technique.

Sensory analysis was evaluated by 40 untrained panelists demographically characterized as follows: 45 and 55% were males and females, respectively; 80% were from 20 to 30 years old, 15% were 30 to 40 years old, and 5% were older than 40 years. Four cooked meat samples (samples dimension: 20 × 20 × 10 mm, about 30 g in weight) at room temperature were offered for each panelist according to a randomized block design. All samples had the same fiber directions. Each sample was scored by perceived saltiness, ranging from one (extremely unsalted) to seven (extremely salted). Also, juiciness, the degree of fatness, texture, and overall acceptance scored from one (extremely disliking) to seven (extremely liking).

Statistical analysis

Results about chemical composition and technological quality traits were analyzed by using two-way ANOVA taking into consideration treatments, replication and their interactions as principal effects. Sensory results were evaluated using a two-way ANOVA, treating a marination type as a fixed effect, while panelist and panelist by marination-type interactions (if any) as random effects. The differences between means were assessed by Duncan post hoc test at a significance level of 0.05.

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

The effect of different levels of sodium replacement by potassium chloride on chemical composition is shown in Table 3. The proximate composition did not show any significant differences between the groups. This result may indicate that sodium reduction in the presence of sodium bicarbonate did not affect the behavior of water evaporation, loss of soluble proteins, and fat melting during cooking.

Table 3
Proximate chemical composition (mean ± standard error) for all treatments after cooking (n=15 for each group).

Level of substitution (NaCl: KCl ratio)
B4 (55:45) Mean± SEM	B3(70:30) Mean± SEM	B2 (85:15) Mean± SEM	B1(100:0) Mean± SEM*		p-value
0.91±0.04	0.95±0.08	0.94±0.06	0.92±0.05	Collagen (%)	0.31
2.02±0.47	1.49±0.53	3.42±0.41	2.35±0.31	Fat (%)	0.43
71.45±0.73	71.89±0.54	70.25±0.62	71.27±0.49	Moisture (%)	0.25
26.11±0.69	26.37±0.81	25.81±0.64	25.99±0.73	Protein (%)	0.73

• *Standard Error of Mean.

Sensory attributes (juiciness, saltiness, the degree of fatness, texture, and overall acceptance) are shown in Table 4. Overall, there were no significant differences in all sensory attributes between the groups. The juiciness and texture are considered the most important quality traits of meat products. The texture is usually affected by several factors such as the composition of the product, pH, temperature, and protein dissolution. Moreover, moisture and fat contents may change juiciness and texture (Xiong et al., 2006). Our results showed no significant difference in moisture and fat contents which may explain the absence of differences in juiciness and texture between the groups. The results of perceived saltiness and overall acceptance agreed with some previous studies (La Croix et al., 2015). Total acceptance of products is profoundly affected by salt perception (Tobin et al., 2012). In this context, it was found by several researchers that the reduction of sodium chloride may reduce consumer acceptance of meat products (Sofos 1983, Tobin et al., 2012).

Table 4
Impact of different levels of NaCl replacement with KCl on sensory traits (mean ± standard error) of marinated turkey breast meat (n. of panelists = 40).

Level of substitution (NaCl: KCl ratio)
B4 (55:45) Mean± SEM	B3(70:30) Mean± SEM	B2 (85:15) Mean± SEM	B1(100:0) Mean± SEM		p-value
3.40 ±0.51	3.60±0.52	5.00±0.84	5.20 ± 1.31	Juiciness	0.11
4.60±0.68	5.00±1.05	5.40±0.81	5.00 ± 0.71	Saltiness	0.65
4.00±0.77	3.2 ±0.97	2.8 ±0.91	3.2 ±1.2	Degree of fatness	0.33
5.50±0.37	5.20±0.66	5.20 ±0.66	6.8 ±0.58	Texture	0.13
4.55±0.45	4.20±0.92	5.40±1.03	4.6 ± 1.03	Overall acceptance	0.42

The main technological traits are shown in Table 5. The variation in color values between the samples were in agreements with previous studies (Fletcher, 1999). Several researchers have found that there was a correlation between pH and the color of meat and both characteristics affect the different quality traits of meat (Fletcher, 1999). Therefore, to minimize the effect of pH and color from the treatment effect, the samples were redistributed before treatments into four different groups to have no significant difference in pH values and color values (L*, a*, b*). The lightness (L*) range of raw meat samples was 55.58-59.78, which was in agreement with lightness values from previous studies (L* 38-57) (Barbut, 1998), (L* 41-63) (Owens, 2000), and (L* 35-55) (Petracci et al., 2012).

Table 5
Effect of different levels of NaCl replacement with KCl (100:0, 85:15, 70:30, and 55:45 NaCl: KCl ratio) on marination performances and quality traits (mean ± standard error) of marinated turkey breast meat (n=20/group).

Level of substitution (NaCl: KCl ratio)
B4 (55:45) Mean± SEM	B3(70:30) Mean± SEM	B2 (85:15) Mean± SEM	B1(100:0) Mean± SEM	Parameters	p-value
			Lightness index
57.54±0.46	55.58±0.57	59.49±0.82	59.78±0.67	Lr	0.075
53.27a±0.55	51.9ab±0.52	50.8ab±0.47	48.95b±0.46	Lm	0.051
72.13a±0.67	70.78ab±0.75	69.77bc±0.72	68.42c±0.66	Lc	0.001
			Yellowness index
2.81±0.15	2.96±0.32	2.49±0.25	2.95±0.21	ar	0.523
2.22±0.19	2.48±0.28	2.83±0.23	3.2±0.18	am	0.082
4.4±0.33	4.55±0.29	5.01±0.33	4.78±0.32	ac	0.392
			Redness index
3.81±0.35	4.04±0.19	2.51±0.26	1.99±0.15	by	0.123
1.64±0.34	1.67±0.16	2.45±0.21	1.92±0.15	bm	0.918
6.6c±0.38	7.51bc±0.56	8.57ab±0.51	9.61a±0.46	bc	0.001
5.66±0.01	5.66±0.01	5.66±0.02	5.66±0.01	pHr	0.947
6.29±0.02	6.31±0.03	6.26±0.04	6.25±0.03	pHc	0.385
19.19±0.61	18.64±0.54	16.46±0.32	18.39±0.25	Marinade uptake %	0.647
1.52c±0.10	4.01b±0.18	5.72a±0.11	6.06a±0.21	Purge loss %	<0.001
17.83a±0.18	16.15b±0.21	15.46b±0.33	16.4ab±0.54	Cooking loss %	0.005
96.34±0.33	95.44±0.53	93.33±0.44	92.93±0.41	Yield %	0.144
2.97±0.33	3.11±0.40	2.78±0.27	2.66±0.19	Shear force (kg/g)	0.759
0.9862±0.001	0.9858±0.001	0.985±0.001	0.9842±0.001	Water activity	0.738

• ^a
  ^-c Means within a row followed by different superscript letters differ significantly (p<0.05). Lowercase letters in color indexes described as r: raw, m: marinated, and c: cooked.

Our findings showed that the obtained range of lightness and pH values for meat samples were classified as Pale Soft Exudative (meat is considered PSE when L*>53). The pH for raw meat in all groups was 5.66 which is less than the suggested borderline of PSE meat (pH<5.7). Low pH is responsible for the increase of light scattering which leads to more pale flesh (Barbut, 1998), and average low measured pH values were linked with high lightness value.

After marination, L* range was 48.95-53.27 which is very close to normal meat range (48 < L* < 53) (Qiao et al., 2002). This result can be justified due to the addition of sodium bicarbonate at level 0.5% which is generally caused by about 0.3, an increase in pH value (Mudalal et al., 2013). Bicarbonates have high buffering capacity and ionic strength. The lightness of marinated meat samples in group B1 was significantly lower than group B4 (48.95 vs. 53.27) while group B2 and B3 showed intermediate values. There were no significant differences between different marinated groups in a* (redness) and b* (yellowness) values. After cooking, group B1 showed significantly lightness value higher than B3 and B4 (68.42 vs. 70.78 and 72.13, p<0.05) respectively, while group B2 and B3 showed intermediate values. The different trends in L* values between groups after marination was similar after cooking. Cooked samples from different groups did not show any significant difference in a* values. There was a significant difference in b* values after cooking between the groups. Group B4 had lower b* value than B1 and B2 (6.60 vs. 9.61 and 8.57, p<0.05) respectively but group B2 and B3 exhibited intermediate values when compared with other groups.

After cooking, there were no significant differences in pH between groups. This result may be explained by the absence of any significant differences in marinade uptake, which means that the quantity of sodium bicarbonate (the dominant effect on pH) that was absorbed by each group was similar. It was found that replacing sodium chloride by potassium chloride had a significant impact on purge loss. Marinade uptake, purge loss, cooking loss, and cooking yield were used as an indicator for water hold capacity (WHC). WHC can be defined as the ability of raw and processed meat to hold either natural or added water (Hamm 1986). Group B4 exhibited the lowest value of purge loss when compared to other groups. Purge loss in group B4 and B3 were significantly lower in comparison to group B2 and B1 (1.52 and 4.00% vs. 5.72 and 6.06%, p<0.005), respectively. Our results show that purge loss decreased by replacing sodium chloride with potassium chloride. In general, drip loss is affected by changes in fiber structure and myofilament organization as well as permeability of cell member. Drip loss increases by myofilament shrinkage and reduction in extracellular spaces (Huff-Lonergan et al., 2005). In our study, it is not well known why replacing sodium chloride with potassium chloride led to a reduction in purge loss.

Samples from group B4 exhibited significantly higher cooking loss when compared with group B3 and B4 while the other groups showed intermediate values if compared with group B1. Even though there were significant differences in the cooking loss, cooking yield did not show any significant differences. Cooking loss (which is usually water and soluble matter) induced by protein denaturation and breakdown during cooking which reduces capillary forces (Huff-Lonergan et al., 2005). Replacing sodium chloride with potassium chloride at different levels (up to 45%) in the presence of sodium bicarbonate did not show any effect on texture (as represented by Allo-Kramer shear force values) and water activity. This can be explained due to the absence of any differences in marinade uptake and moisture content which affects sharply fiber density and quantity of free water.

In general, replacing sodium chloride with potassium chloride up to 45% did not affect negatively the main technological properties (such as pH, marinade uptake, purge loss, cooking yield, shear force, water activity, b* and a* values). The effect was just confined to lightness and cooking loss. Therefore, replacing sodium chloride with potassium chloride in the presence of sodium bicarbonate showed better performance than in the presence of phosphates if compared to previous studies (Xiong, 1999, Petracci et al., 2012). Sodium chloride usually dissociates into sodium and chloride ions when added to meat. It is well known that chloride ions interact with myosin stronger than sodium ions which explains why it is possible to replace sodium chloride by potassium chloride without impairing the technological properties. But this replacement was limited to certain levels (30%) in the presence of phosphate as mentioned by several previous studies (Lee et al., 2012, Jin et al., 2013). On the contrary, our findings showed that it was possible to replace up to 45% in the presence of sodium bicarbonate.

This high performance of sodium bicarbonate may be explained due to differences in buffering capacity and ionic strength. These findings were proven from previous studies where the addition of bicarbonate lead to a higher increase in pH (0.7 vs. 0.3 pH units) when compared with phosphates at the same level. In our findings, bicarbonate was able to increase the pH of meat by 0.65 unit which was in agreement with previous studies (Petracci et al., 2012). Moreover, the addition of sodium bicarbonate may induce more the effect of capillary forces because it was found that carbon dioxide was generated during cooking which imparted more porosity to the microstructure of meat (Garcia et al., 2002).

The range of marinade uptake (16.46-19.19%), cooking loss (15.46-17.83%), and cooking yield (92.93-96.34%) which were obtained in this study; were in agreement with previous studies (Sheard & Tali 2010, Petracci et al., 2012). Replacing of sodium chloride by potassium chloride up to 45% had no significant impact on water activity. These results were in agreement with Garcia et al. (2002). It means that potassium chloride had a similar effect on water activity as well as sodium chloride. The amount of solutes in water is the main factor that affects water activity.

Measuring the effect of treatment on color properties is very important; because color can affect consumer preferences and acceptance of poultry meat (Qiao et al., 2002). By pooling the results considering the effect of marination and cooking in color values Table 6, it was found that a* values after cooking significantly increased (4.68 vs. 2.80 and 2.68) in comparison to raw and marinated meat. There were no significant differences in a*-values between raw and marinated chicken. This result may be explained due to the increase in pH as result of sodium bicarbonate addition which reduces myoglobin denaturation during cooking (Trout, 1989). Cooked meat samples had significantly higher values of L* and b* than raw and marinated meat samples. L* and b* have been significantly decreased after marination if compared with raw meat samples while a*-value did not change.

Table 6
Effect of the process and different levels of NaCl replacement with KCl (100:0, 85:15, 70:30, and 55:45 NaCl:KCl ratio) on color indexes (mean ± standard error) of marinated turkey breast meat.

Color indexes
		L*	a*	b*
Process	Raw	58.10b±0.51	2.80b±0.13	3.09b±0.36
	Marinated	51.22c±0.51	2.68b±0.13	1.92c±0.36
	Cokeed	70.30a±0.52	4.68a±0.14	8.05a±0.37
	Probability	<0.005	<0.005	<0.005
Treatment	B1	58.83±0.60	3.61±0.16	4.39±0.43
	B2	60.01±0.59	3.44±0.15	4.50±0.42
	B3	59.41±0.59	3.33±0.15	4.41±0.42
	B4	60.98±0.57	3.14±0.14	4.02±0.42
	Probability	0.146	0.819	0.114

• Means with different letters (a-c) within in the same column indicate significant differences (p<0.05).

The reduction in yellowness (b*) may be due to the dilution effect by the absorption of marinade solution. In addition, by the absorption of marinade solution and shift pH to higher value led to lower fiber density; therefore light scattering decreases leading to low L* values. The effect of the marination process on color values was generally in agreement with previous studies (Fletcher, 1999, Petracci et al., 2012)

Finally, there was no significant effect of different bicarbonate/sodium chloride treatments on color values (L*, a*, b*).

CONCLUSION

In conclusion, our study showed that there is a possibility to formulate no-added phosphate and low sodium marinated turkey breast products up to a certain level without impairing the quality traits. Replacing sodium chloride with potassium chloride up to 30% had no adverse effect on any quality traits.

ACKNOWLEDGMENT

This work has been financed from the Deanship of Scientific Research at An-Najah National University under project number ANNU-MoHE-1819-Sc012.

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Publication Dates

• Publication in this collection
  25 Nov 2019
• Date of issue
  2019

History

• Received
  15 Jan 2019
• Accepted
  25 Mar 2019