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Agronomic implications of paraquat ban in Brazil

Abstract

Background

Paraquat is a broad spectrum herbicide used particularly in burndown, in pre-plant of row crops and in the pre-harvest desiccation of some crops. In Brazil, paraquat was re-evaluated by Anvisa, leading to a prohibition of production and sales on September 22, 2020, and used until July 31, 2021.

Objective

The objective of this review is to characterize the use of paraquat in Brazil and describe the status in other countries, particularly the agronomic implications of its ban, possible replacements, and scenarios.

Review

The use of paraquat is important for weed management in different production systems. Owing to its toxicity, its use has been re-evaluated in several countries. For pre-harvest desiccation of soybeans, diquat, glufosinate, and some combinations with Protox inhibitors are highlighted as alternatives to paraquat. For pre-harvest desiccation of common beans, diquat, saflufenacil, and glufosinate could be used; however, only glufosinate could be used for wheat. For managing broadleaves weeds, glufosinate, saflufenacil, carfentrazone, and diquat are effective alternatives. Diquat may be less effective in controlling Conyza spp. resistant to paraquat. For grasses control, glufosinate, in addition to ACCase inhibitors and possible mixtures, may be helpful. Although pre-emergent herbicides are not classified as desiccant herbicides, they contribute to weed management. The adoption of herbicide-tolerant crops, mechanical control, and cover crops can be added as agricultural practices for integrated weed management.

Conclusions

Due to the ban on paraquat, challenges arise, and the most often suggested replacements are glufosinate, diquat, and Protox inhibitors; however, grass control will be of greater concern.

Bipyridylium; weeds; pre-harvest; herbicides

1.Introduction

Paraquat is a non-selective, broad-spectrum, photosystem I electron diversion (group 22), which can be used in burndown applications (Zobiole et al., 2018Zobiole LHS, Krenchinski FH, Pereira GR, Rampazzo PE, Rubin RS, Lucio FR. Management programs to control Conyza spp. in pre-soybean sowing applications. Planta Daninha. 2018;36:1-8. Available from: https://doi.org/10.1590/S0100-83582018360100076
https://doi.org/10.1590/S0100-8358201836...
; Kalsing et al. 2020Kalsing A, Rossi CVS, Lucio FR, Minozzi GB, Goncalves FP, Valeriano R. Efficacy of control of glyphosate-tolerant species of the Rubiaceae family through double-knockdown applications. Planta Daninha. 2020;38:1-9. Available from: https://doi.org/10.1590/S0100-83582020380100023
https://doi.org/10.1590/S0100-8358202038...
), in the pre-harvest desiccation of some crops (Bellaloui et al., 2020Bellaloui N, Bruns HA, Abbas HK, Fisher DK, Mengistu A. Effects of harvest-aids on seed nutrition in soybean under midsouth USA conditions. Plants. 2020;9(8):1-16. Available from: https://doi.org/10.3390/plants9081007
https://doi.org/10.3390/plants9081007...
; Pereira et al., 2020Pereira IS, Soares LH, Cabral EMA, Fontana DC, Umburanas RC, Santos LLS et al. Harvest-aid herbicides influence soybean seed yield, quality and oxidative metabolism. Rev Bras Cienc Agrar. 2020;15(2):1-7. Available from: https://doi.org/10.5039/agraria.v15i2a7022
https://doi.org/10.5039/agraria.v15i2a70...
), in interrow application (Costa et al., 2013Costa NV, Neunfeld TH, Ohland T, Piano JT, Klein J. Directed-spray application of paraquat and diuron in physic nut plants. Planta Daninha 2013;31(4):987-96. Available from: https://doi.org/10.1590/S0100-83582013000400025
https://doi.org/10.1590/S0100-8358201300...
) and in non-agriculture areas (e.g., under electric transmission lines, railways, and roadsides). However, it has been banned in several countries (Camargo et al., 2020Camargo ER, Zapiola ML, Avila LA, Garcia MA, Plaza G, Gazziero DLP et al. Current situation regarding herbicide regulation and public perception in South America. Weed Sci. 2020;68(3):232-9. Available from: https://doi.org/10.1017/wsc.2020.14
https://doi.org/10.1017/wsc.2020.14...
; Kim, Kim, 2020; Tsai, 2020Tsai WT. Status of herbicide use, regulatory management and case study of paraquat in Taiwan. Environ Dev Sustain. 2020;22(3):2673-83. Available from: https://doi.org/10.1007/s10668-018-0293-x
https://doi.org/10.1007/s10668-018-0293-...
).

Paraquat is highly toxic to mammals (Baltazar et al., 2013a) and has moderate to high acute oral toxicity, high acute inhalation toxicity, and low dermal toxicity. Moreover, it has severe ocular and moderate skin irritant potential (Kim, Kim, 2020). Once ingested, paraquat causes highly acute toxicity in humans, and survival depends on the amount consumed and the time until treatment begins (Gil et al., 2008Gil HW, Kang MS, Yang JO, Lee EY, Hong SY. Association between plasma paraquat level and outcome of paraquat poisoning in 375 paraquat poisoning patients. Clin Toxicol. 2008;46(6):515-8. Available from: https://doi.org/10.1080/15563650701549403
https://doi.org/10.1080/1556365070154940...
). Studies have suggested an association between exposure to paraquat and Parkinson’s disease (Tamano et al., 2019Tamano H, Nishio R, Morioka H, Furuhata R, Komata Y, Takeda A. Paraquat as an environmental risk factor in Parkinson’s disease accelerates age-related degeneration via rapid influx of extracellular Zn 2+ into Nigral dopaminergic neurons. Mol Neurobiol. 2019;56(11):7789-99. Available from: https://doi.org/10.1007/s12035-019-01642-5
https://doi.org/10.1007/s12035-019-01642...
; Tangamornsuksan et al., 2019Tangamornsuksan W, Lohitnavy O, Sruamsiri R, Chaiyakunapruk N, Norman Scholfield C, Reisfeld B et al. Paraquat exposure and Parkinson’s disease: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Arch Environ Occup Health 2019;74(5):225-38. Available from: https://doi.org/10.1080/19338244.2018.1492894
https://doi.org/10.1080/19338244.2018.14...
). Given its toxicity, paraquat was used for suicide or attempted suicide in Asian countries such as South Korea and Taiwan. Due to the ban on the molecule in these countries, suicidal rates were reduced (Kim, Kim, 2020; Tsai, 2020Tsai WT. Status of herbicide use, regulatory management and case study of paraquat in Taiwan. Environ Dev Sustain. 2020;22(3):2673-83. Available from: https://doi.org/10.1007/s10668-018-0293-x
https://doi.org/10.1007/s10668-018-0293-...
). There is no specific antidote for paraquat poisoning (Kumar et al., 2016Kumar H, Singh VB, Meena BL, Gaur S, Singla R. Paraquat poisoning: a case report. J Clin Diagn Res. 2016;10(2):1-2. Available from: https://doi.org/10.7860/JCDR/2016/15858.7204
https://doi.org/10.7860/JCDR/2016/15858....
).

In Brazil, the Anvisa promote a re-evaluation of paraquat from 2008 to 2017 due to its high toxicity (Agência Nacional de Vigilância Sanitária, 2017Agência Nacional de Vigilância Sanitária - Anvisa. [Vote of the board of sanitary regulation No. 56, of September 19, 2017. Analyzes the toxicological reassessment of the active ingredient paraquat]. Brasília: Agência Nacional de Vigilância Sanitária; 2017. Portuguese). In 2017, after the review, paraquat was temporarily banned. Due to lack of alternatives for replacement of paraquat in the field, the decision was revised, and a usage restriction was issued from September 22, 2017, to September 22, 2020, when paraquat was permanently banned (Camargo et al., 2020Camargo ER, Zapiola ML, Avila LA, Garcia MA, Plaza G, Gazziero DLP et al. Current situation regarding herbicide regulation and public perception in South America. Weed Sci. 2020;68(3):232-9. Available from: https://doi.org/10.1017/wsc.2020.14
https://doi.org/10.1017/wsc.2020.14...
). However, although with several restrictions, stocked paraquat use was allowed in the 2020/21 growing season (until July 31, 2021) (Agência Nacional de Vigilância Sanitária, 2020a).

As of September 22, 2020, with the ban on the production, commercialization, and the use of paraquat as of 2021, Brazil is experiencing a substantial agronomic impact due to the extensive use of paraquat in the production systems. Thus, this study aims to characterize the previous use of paraquat in Brazil, the situation in other countries, and particularly the agronomic implications of its ban in the country, possible replacements, and impact.

2.Paraquat: mode of action and historical aspects

Paraquat and diquat are bipyridylium herbicides with photosystem I electron diversion mode of action. They have contact action, limited translocation and rapid leaf absorption, with a broad spectrum of weed control (Bromilow, 2004Bromilow RH. Paraquat and sustainable agriculture. Pest Manag Sci. 2004;60(4):340-9. Available from: https://doi.org/10.1002/ps.823
https://doi.org/10.1002/ps.823...
; Rodrigues, Almeida, 2018). Herbicides in this group act as false electron acceptors in photosystem I, producing reactive oxygen species. Plant death occurs due to the destruction of fatty acids in thylakoids and other membranes by producing free radicals, which cause, necrosis, and finally, plant death. Symptoms can be observed within a few hours after application, under bright light conditions, and plant death can occur in up to one day (Bromilow, 2004Bromilow RH. Paraquat and sustainable agriculture. Pest Manag Sci. 2004;60(4):340-9. Available from: https://doi.org/10.1002/ps.823
https://doi.org/10.1002/ps.823...
; Hawkes et al., 2014). Paraquat has a high sorption coefficient (Koc) (Amondham et al., 2006Amondham W, Parkpian P, Polprasert C, Delaune RD, Jugsujinda A. Paraquat adsorption, degradation, and remobilization in tropical soils of Thailand. J Environ Sci Health Part B. 2006;41(5):485-507. Available from: https://doi.org/10.1080/03601230600701635
https://doi.org/10.1080/0360123060070163...
; Muhamad et al., 2011Muhamad H, Ismail BS, Sameni M, Mat N. Adsorption study of 14 C-paraquat in two Malaysian agricultural soils. Environ Monit Assess. 2011;176(1-4):43-50. Available from: https://doi.org/10.1007/s10661-010-1565-6
https://doi.org/10.1007/s10661-010-1565-...
). This strong bond significantly limits its bioavailability in the soil; therefore, it is not toxic to plant roots under normal application conditions, that help explain lack of effectiveness on weeds at pre-emergence. Although it is not bioavailable for roots in the soil, due to its high Koc, paraquat has a half-life of approximately six years (Pateiro-Moure et al., 2009Pateiro-Moure M, Nóvoa-Muñoz JC, Arias-Estévez M, López-Periago E, Martínez-Carballo E, Simal-Gándara J. Quaternary herbicides retention by the amendment of acid soils with a bentonite-based waste from wineries. J Hazard Mat. 2009;164(2-3):769-75. Available from: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jhazmat.2008.08.071
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jhazmat.2008.0...
) and with low degradation by microorganisms (Roberts et al., 2002Roberts TR, Dyson JS, Lane MC. Deactivation of the biological activity of paraquat in the soil environment: a review of long-term environmental fate. J Agric Food Chem. 2002;50(13):3623-31. Available from: https://doi.org/10.1021/jf011323x
https://doi.org/10.1021/jf011323x...
). These aspects can prolong its persistence in the soil and contaminate other environments, such as water bodies (Huang et al., 2019Huang Y, Zhan H, Bhatt P, Chen S. Paraquat degradation from contaminated environments: Current achievements and perspectives. Front Microbiol. 2019;10:1-9. Available from: https://doi.org/10.3389/fmicb.2019.01754
https://doi.org/10.3389/fmicb.2019.01754...
). Regarding the vapor pressure, it has a negligible value at room temperature, practically non-volatile (Sartori, Vidrio, 2018).

Bipyridylium compounds were first recognized as herbicides in 1954 in the United Kingdom by the Imperial Chemical Industries (ICI) (Cronshey, 1961Cronshey JFH. A review of experimental work with diquat and related compounds. Weed Res. 1961;1(1):68-77. Available from: https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1365-3180.1961.tb00007.x
https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1365-3180.1961...
; Funderburk, Lawrence, 1964; Akhavein, Linscott, 1968). Diquat was the first to be discovered. In 1955, paraquat salts were also considered active. Paraquat, a known chemical since 1882, has been used since 1932 under the name of methyl viologen as an oxy-reduction indicator (Bromilow, 2004Bromilow RH. Paraquat and sustainable agriculture. Pest Manag Sci. 2004;60(4):340-9. Available from: https://doi.org/10.1002/ps.823
https://doi.org/10.1002/ps.823...
).

Paraquat was vital to establish the non-till system in agriculture, one of the primary conservation grain production systems. The non-till system was initially developed by ICI and partners, which involved paraquat and the use of special equipments to drill in non-tilled soils. No-till and paraquat were introduced in the United States in 1960, with the first reports of commercial use of no-till between 1962 and 1966 (Ekboir, 2003Ekboir JM. Research and technology policies in innovation systems: zero tillage in Brazil. Res Policy. 2003;32(4):573-86. Available from: https://doi.org/10.1016/S0048-7333(02)00058-6
https://doi.org/10.1016/S0048-7333(02)00...
). In Brazil, the technology began to be tested in the 1970s, with the first experiments carried out in Londrina (state of Paraná) and Passo Fundo (state of Rio Grande do Sul), between and 1972-1974, using paraquat (Wiles, Hayward, 1981). After the first studies, between the end of the 1970s and the beginning of the 1980s, other herbicides, mainly glyphosate, were used, and paraquat use declined in no-till (Ekboir, 2003Ekboir JM. Research and technology policies in innovation systems: zero tillage in Brazil. Res Policy. 2003;32(4):573-86. Available from: https://doi.org/10.1016/S0048-7333(02)00058-6
https://doi.org/10.1016/S0048-7333(02)00...
; Bolliger et al., 2006Bolliger A, Magid J, Amado JCT, Neto FS, Santos Ribeiro MF, Calegari A et al. Taking stock of the Brazilian “zero-till revolution”: a review of landmark research and farmers’ practice. Adv Agron. 2006;91:47-110. Available from: https://doi.org/10.1016/S0065-2113(06)91002-5
https://doi.org/10.1016/S0065-2113(06)91...
).

The development and adoption of the no-till system are essential for conserving soils in areas of grain crops in Brazil, generating agricultural, environmental, and social benefits (Freitas, Landers, 2014). Therefore, paraquat is of great importance to implement the system. In addition, the increase in the use of paraquat in pre-sown burndown application in the 1990s became one of the main uses of this herbicide. It is effective for weed control and desiccation of previous crops (Neves et al., 1999Neves R, Fleck NG, Vidal RA. [Establishment of corn seeding time interval after desiccation of oats with herbicides]. Cienc Rural. 1999;29(4):603-8. Portuguese. Available from: https://doi.org/10.1590/S0103-84781999000400005
https://doi.org/10.1590/S0103-8478199900...
; Argenta et al., 2001Argenta G, Silva PRF, Fleck NG, Bortolini CG, Neves R, Agostinetto D. [Effects of mechanical and chemical management of black oat on maize grown in succession and on alexandergrass control]. Pesq Agropec Bras. 2001;36(6):851-60. Portuguese. Available from: https://doi.org/10.1590/S0100-204X2001000600002
https://doi.org/10.1590/S0100-204X200100...
).

With the adoption of transgenic crops tolerant to glyphosate, the consequent increase in the use of this herbicide, and its application in post-emergence on these crops, glyphosate-resistant weed biotypes have been observed. Thus, other herbicides have become even more critical to reduce the selection pressure for new resistant biotypes and for their control. Therefore, paraquat use increased for pre-sowing burndown of soybeans and other crops, as an alternative or combined with glyphosate, to control grasses such as Digitaria insularis (Marochi et al., 2018Marochi A, Ferreira A, Takano HK, Oliveira Junior RS, Lopez-Ovejero RF. Managing glyphosate-resistant weeds with cover crop associated with herbicide rotation and mixture. Cienc Agrotecnol. 2018;42(4):381-94. Available from: https://doi.org/10.1590/1413-70542018424017918
https://doi.org/10.1590/1413-70542018424...
) and broadleaves such as Conyza spp. (Cesco et al., 2019Cesco VJS, Nardi R, Krenchinski FH, Albrecht AJP, Rodrigues DM, Albrecht LP. Management of resistant Conyza spp. during soybean pre-sowing. Planta Daninha 2019;37:1-9. Available from: https://doi.org/10.1590/S0100-83582019370100039
https://doi.org/10.1590/S0100-8358201937...
), both of which can be resistant to glyphosate.

3.Overview of paraquat use in Brazil and other countries

As previously mentioned, paraquat was banned on September 22, 2020; however, products in stock could be used in the 2020/21 growing season, with restrictions (Agência Nacional de Vigilância Sanitária, 2020a). A total ban was implemented on July 31, 2021, and paraquat could not be used in any crop or region in Brazil.

Nowadays, paraquat is banned in more than 50 countries worldwide, including China, South Korea, the European Union, and the United Kingdom. In other countries such as the United States, Australia, Colombia, Chile, Uruguay, and Japan, paraquat is under re-evaluation and/or use in strictly controlled use (Baltazar et al., 2013b; Camargo et al., 2020Camargo ER, Zapiola ML, Avila LA, Garcia MA, Plaza G, Gazziero DLP et al. Current situation regarding herbicide regulation and public perception in South America. Weed Sci. 2020;68(3):232-9. Available from: https://doi.org/10.1017/wsc.2020.14
https://doi.org/10.1017/wsc.2020.14...
; Kim, Kim, 2020; Tsai, 2020Tsai WT. Status of herbicide use, regulatory management and case study of paraquat in Taiwan. Environ Dev Sustain. 2020;22(3):2673-83. Available from: https://doi.org/10.1007/s10668-018-0293-x
https://doi.org/10.1007/s10668-018-0293-...
).

Paraquat was banned in South Korea in 2012. One of the reasons for the ban was many number of suicides by ingesting paraquat. The paraquat ban significantly impacted agricultural practices and was replaced mainly by glyphosate, glufosinate, and some Protox inhibitors. Although there was a reduction (46.1%) in the total number of suicides from pesticide ingestion (with the paraquat ban), there was an increase in suicide attempts with other pesticides (Kim, Kim, 2020) demonstrating the complexity of this topic.

In Sri Lanka, the most rigid restrictions on the use and import of paraquat were established in 2008, with a definitive ban in 2014 (Marambe, Herath, 2020). The decision to ban paraquat did not generate significant arguments because detailed studies were performed on its health risks, which led to this decision. Due to the restrictions, there has been a considerable increase in the use of glyphosate, which was banned in Sri Lanka in 2015. The ban on glyphosate in Sri Lanka has impacted agricultural practices and discussions. In contrast to paraquat, many researchers and farmers claim that the studies that led to the glyphosate ban were not scientifically proven and conclusive.

With the ban of paraquat in Brazil, it is necessary to understand the situations in which it is used, the implications of its prohibition, and alternatives to its use. In Brazil, paraquat is one of the most used pesticides. According to Instituto Brasileiro do Meio Ambiente e dos Recursos Naturais RenováveisIbama (2022)Instituto Brasileiro do Meio Ambiente e dos Recursos Naturais Renováveis - Ibama. [Pesticides marketing reports]. Brasília: Instituto Brasileiro do Meio Ambiente e dos Recursos Naturais Renováveis; 2022[access March 21, 2022]. Portuguese. Available from: http://ibama.gov.br/agrotoxicos/relatorios-de-comercializacao-de-agrotoxicos
http://ibama.gov.br/agrotoxicos/relatori...
, in 2019, paraquat was the seventh most commercialized pesticide (16,398.14 t active ingredient – a.i.) and the fourth most commercialized herbicide, behind atrazine, 2,4-D, and glyphosate, which was the most commercialized with 217,592.24. More than 10,000 tons of a.i. paraquat have been sold each year since 2015 until 2019, with an increase, particularly in recent years. In 2020, there was a lower sale of paraquat (8,120.21 t a.i.) since it was banned from 22 September. Further information on the pesticides sales in Brazil between 2011 and 2020, particularly paraquat, is presented in Table 1. These data reinforce the importance of paraquat in Brazilian agriculture; therefore, it becomes even more essential to characterize the use of paraquat in the country, the implications of its ban, and the alternatives for its replacement.

Table 1
Sales of pesticides, total of herbicide and paraquat in Brazil in the period 2011-2020.

4.Pre-harvest desiccation

Paraquat is widely used for pre-harvest desiccation in various crops, such as cotton, rice, potatoes, sugarcane, maize, and soybeans (Rodrigues, Almeida, 2018; Ministério da Agricultura, Pecuária e Abastecimento, 2022). A complete list of crops with herbicides registered for pre-harvest desiccation are presented in Table 2. In this method of use, paraquat was applied at the physiological maturity of the crops (Rodrigues, Almeida, 2018), as it is a contact herbicide with very limited translocation, application at the appropriate stage ensures non-accumulation in food. The maximum residue limits, in mg kg-1 of paraquat, was 0.5 for rice, 0.2 for cotton, potatoes, and 0.1 for sugarcane, maize, and soybeans, respectively (Agência Nacional de Vigilância Sanitária, 2020b).

Table 2
Herbicides registered in Brazil for application pre-harvest.

Pre-harvest desiccation of soybeans can standardize plant maturity, predict harvest, control weeds, and minimize the loss in grain quality (Boudreaux, Griffin, 2011; Toledo et al., 2012Toledo MZ, Cavariani C, França Neto JDB. [Physiological quality of soybean seeds harvested at two periods after glyphosate desiccation]. Rev Bras Sem. 2012;34(1):134-42. Available from: https://doi.org/10.1590/S0101-31222012000100017
https://doi.org/10.1590/S0101-3122201200...
; Lamego et al., 2013Lamego FP, Gallon M, Basso CJ, Kulczynski SM, Ruchel Q, Kaspary TE et al. Pre-harvest application and effects on yield and physiological quality of soybean seeds. Planta Daninha. 2013;31(4):929-38. Available from: https://doi.org/10.1590/S0100-83582013000400019
https://doi.org/10.1590/S0100-8358201300...
). In addition to paraquat, other herbicides have been used for this purpose. Some studies have reported the efficacy of glufosinate (Delgado et al., 2015Delgado CML, Coelho CMMD, Buba GP. Mobilization of reserves and vigor of soybean seeds under desiccation with glufosinate ammonium. J Seed Sci. 2015;37(2):154-61. Available from: https://doi.org/10.1590/2317-1545v37n2148445
https://doi.org/10.1590/2317-1545v37n214...
), diquat (Finoto et al., 2017Finoto EL, Sediyama T, Albuquerque J, Soares MBB, Galli JA, Cordeiro J et al. Anticipation and harvest delay in oil and protein contents of soybean seeds, grow crops Valiosa RR. Sci Agropecu. 2017;8(2):99-107. Available from: https://doi.org/10.17268/sci.agropecu.2017.02.02
https://doi.org/10.17268/sci.agropecu.20...
; Araújo et al. 2018Araújo DL, Lazzari MP, Dutra R, Lajus CR, Klein C, Cericato A, Sordi A et al. [Influence of soybean desiccation periods on its germination potential and yield components]. Rev Bras Cienc Agrar. 2018;13(4):1-6. Portuguese. Available from: https://doi.org/10.5039/agraria.v13i4a5584
https://doi.org/10.5039/agraria.v13i4a55...
), carfentrazone (Pereira et al., 2015Pereira T, Coelho CMM, Souza CA, Mantovani A, Mathias V. [Chemical desiccation for early harvest in soybean cultivars]. Semina Cienc Agrar. 2015;36(4):2383-94. Portuguese. Available from: https://doi.org/10.5433/1679-0359.2015v36n4p2383
https://doi.org/10.5433/1679-0359.2015v3...
), saflufenacil (Zuffo et al., 2020Zuffo A, Aguilera JG, Carvalho ER, Teodoro PE. Harvest times with chemical desiccation and the effects on the enzymatic expression and physiological quality of soybean seeds. Rev Caatinga. 2020;33(2):361-70. Available from: https://doi.org/10.1590/1983-21252020v33n209rc
https://doi.org/10.1590/1983-21252020v33...
) and flumioxazin (Carvalho, 2017Carvalho FT. Eficácia do flumioxazin aplicado na dessecação pré-colheita da soja e efeito residual no controle de plantas daninhas no milho safrinha. Cult Agron. 2017;26(4):683-93. Available from: https://doi.org/10.32929/2446-8355.2017v26n4p683-693
https://doi.org/10.32929/2446-8355.2017v...
). Zagonel (2005)Zagonel, J. Herbicide application timing in preharvest desiccation of soybean cultivars with different growth habits. J Environ Sci Health B. 2005;40(1):13-20. Available from: https://doi.org/10.1081/pfc-200034198.
https://doi.org/10.1081/pfc-200034198...
observed equivalent efficacies for the application of diquat (200 g a.i. ha-1), paraquat (200 g a.i. ha-1), and glufosinate (200 g a.i. ha-1) for the desiccation of soybean without reducing yield. In addition, some combinations of glufosinate with protox-inhibiting herbicides, such as carfentrazone, flumioxazin, and saflufenacil, can be promising for pre-harvest desiccation in soybeans. For the use of protox-inhibiting herbicides in this modality, attention must be paid to the moment/stage of application, considering the growth habit of soybeans, avoiding the anticipation of products with pronounced and rapid contact effects.

Although paraquat has no registry for pre-harvest bean desiccation in Brazil, this herbicide was occasionally used for this purpose by farmers. The effectiveness of paraquat in this modality has been highlighted in several studies (Pinto et al., 2014Pinto MAB, Basso CJ, Kulczynski SM, Bellé C. Productivity and physiological quality of seeds with burn down herbicides at the pre harvest of bean crops. J Seed Sci. 2014;36(4):384-91. Available from: https://doi.org/10.1590/2317-1545v36n4997
https://doi.org/10.1590/2317-1545v36n499...
; Goffnett et al., 2016Goffnett AM, Sprague CL, Mendoza F, Cichy KA. Preharvest herbicide treatments affect black bean desiccation, yield, and canned bean color. Crop Sci. 2016;56(4):1962-9. Available from: https://doi.org/10.2135/cropsci2015.08.0469
https://doi.org/10.2135/cropsci2015.08.0...
). Saflufenacil has been evaluated in some studies; in general, it is a good defoliant; however, it can interfere with the quality of seeds or bean yield (Goffnett et al., 2016Goffnett AM, Sprague CL, Mendoza F, Cichy KA. Preharvest herbicide treatments affect black bean desiccation, yield, and canned bean color. Crop Sci. 2016;56(4):1962-9. Available from: https://doi.org/10.2135/cropsci2015.08.0469
https://doi.org/10.2135/cropsci2015.08.0...
; Castoldi et al., 2019Castoldi C, Radunz L, Galon L, Aspiazú I, Forte C, Scariot M et al. Physiological quality of carioca bean seeds submitted to the application of desiccant herbicides in two periods. Planta Daninha 2019;37:1-3. Available from: https://doi.org/10.1590/S0100-83582019370100154
https://doi.org/10.1590/S0100-8358201937...
; Silva et al., 2020Silva JN, Costa EM, Pereira LS, Gonçalves ECZ, Zuchi J, Jakelaitis A. Cowpea yield and quality after application of desiccating herbicides. J Seed Sci. 2020;42:1-11. Available from: https://doi.org/10.1590/2317-1545v42228204
https://doi.org/10.1590/2317-1545v422282...
), requiring adequate positioning to achieve the expected performance. Other options for paraquat include glufosinate (Soltani et al., 2013Soltani N, Blackshaw RE, Gulden RH, Gillard CL, Shropshire C, Sikkema PH. Desiccation in dry edible beans with various herbicides. Can J Plant Sci. 2013;93(5):871-7. Available from: https://doi.org/10.4141/cjps2013-061
https://doi.org/10.4141/cjps2013-061...
; Goffnett et al., 2016Goffnett AM, Sprague CL, Mendoza F, Cichy KA. Preharvest herbicide treatments affect black bean desiccation, yield, and canned bean color. Crop Sci. 2016;56(4):1962-9. Available from: https://doi.org/10.2135/cropsci2015.08.0469
https://doi.org/10.2135/cropsci2015.08.0...
; Castoldi et al., 2019Castoldi C, Radunz L, Galon L, Aspiazú I, Forte C, Scariot M et al. Physiological quality of carioca bean seeds submitted to the application of desiccant herbicides in two periods. Planta Daninha 2019;37:1-3. Available from: https://doi.org/10.1590/S0100-83582019370100154
https://doi.org/10.1590/S0100-8358201937...
), diquat (Soltani et al., 2013Soltani N, Blackshaw RE, Gulden RH, Gillard CL, Shropshire C, Sikkema PH. Desiccation in dry edible beans with various herbicides. Can J Plant Sci. 2013;93(5):871-7. Available from: https://doi.org/10.4141/cjps2013-061
https://doi.org/10.4141/cjps2013-061...
; McNaughton et al., 2015McNaughton KE, Blackshaw RE, Waddell KA, Gulden RH, Sikkema PH, Gillard CL. Effect of five desiccants applied alone and in combination with glyphosate in dry edible bean (Phaseolus vulgaris L.). Can J Plant Sci. 2015;95(6):1235-42. Available from: https://doi.org/10.4141/cjps-2015-098
https://doi.org/10.4141/cjps-2015-098...
) and flumioxazin (Soltani et al., 2013Soltani N, Blackshaw RE, Gulden RH, Gillard CL, Shropshire C, Sikkema PH. Desiccation in dry edible beans with various herbicides. Can J Plant Sci. 2013;93(5):871-7. Available from: https://doi.org/10.4141/cjps2013-061
https://doi.org/10.4141/cjps2013-061...
). Therefore, diquat and glufosinate, particularly, should have increased in the pre-harvest desiccation of beans.

Paraquat has not been registered in Brazil for pre-harvest desiccation of wheat; however, the effectiveness of paraquat in pre-harvest desiccating of wheat has been observed in some studies (Krenchinski et al., 2017Krenchinski FH, Cesco VJS, Rodrigues DM, Pereira VGC, Albrecht AJP, Albrecht LP. Yield and physiological quality of wheat seeds after desiccation with different herbicides. J Seed Sci. 2017;39(3):254-61. Available from: https://doi.org/10.1590/2317-1545v39n3172506
https://doi.org/10.1590/2317-1545v39n317...
; Perboni et al., 2018Perboni LT, Agostinetto D, Vargas L, Cechin J, Zandoná RR, Farias HDS. Yield, germination and herbicide residue in seeds of preharvest desiccated wheat. J Seed Sci. 2018;40(3):304-12. Available from: https://doi.org/10.1590/2317-1545v40n3191284
https://doi.org/10.1590/2317-1545v40n319...
). However, desiccation in this crop is a very complex treatment. The efficiency, quality of seeds, and productivity can be affected by the stage of application, herbicide, and cultivar, among other elements. Krenchinski et al. (2017)Krenchinski FH, Cesco VJS, Rodrigues DM, Pereira VGC, Albrecht AJP, Albrecht LP. Yield and physiological quality of wheat seeds after desiccation with different herbicides. J Seed Sci. 2017;39(3):254-61. Available from: https://doi.org/10.1590/2317-1545v39n3172506
https://doi.org/10.1590/2317-1545v39n317...
reported that reductions in wheat yield were found for desiccation with glufosinate, paraquat, glyphosate, clethodim, and diquat; only the carfentrazone did not reduce yield in both locations of the experiments.

Only glufosinate at a dose of 350 g a.i. ha-1 has a registration for wheat desiccation (Rodrigues, Almeida, 2018; Ministério da Agricultura, Pecuária e Abastecimento, 2022). Other studies provide evidence of its potential safety. The application of glufosinate (400 g a.i. ha-1) pre-harvest, at the milky to soft dough grain, soft dough to hard dough grain, or hard grain did not reduce wheat yield, even without any residue in grains for application in the hard grain stage (Perboni et al., 2018Perboni LT, Agostinetto D, Vargas L, Cechin J, Zandoná RR, Farias HDS. Yield, germination and herbicide residue in seeds of preharvest desiccated wheat. J Seed Sci. 2018;40(3):304-12. Available from: https://doi.org/10.1590/2317-1545v40n3191284
https://doi.org/10.1590/2317-1545v40n319...
). Thus, this herbicide will continue to be used to manage pre-harvest desiccation in wheat to achieve standardization objectives, weed control, quality improvement, and reduction of yield losses.

Among the other crops in which pre-harvest desiccation is usual, the possible scenarios in potato crop (Solanum tuberosum) are worth mentioning. The herbicides glufosinate, saflufenacil, and diquat are effective for this purpose (Ferebee et al., 2019Ferebee JH, Cahoon CW, Flessner ML, Langston DB, Arancibia R, Hines TE et al. Comparison of diquat, glufosinate, and saflufenacil for desiccation of ‘Dark Red Norland’Potato. HortTech. 2019;29(5):643-8. Available from: https://doi.org/10.21273/HORTTECH04327-19
https://doi.org/10.21273/HORTTECH04327-1...
) and are registered in Brazil (Ministério da Agricultura, Pecuária e Abastecimento, 2022). These herbicides should be considered good alternatives to paraquat in the desiccation of potato plants.

5.Weed management

Paraquat is a contact herbicide that rapidly affects susceptible weeds and controls a broad spectrum of weeds. In the recent history of paraquat and Brazilian agriculture, the primary use of paraquat is in burndown on pre-sowing of several crops. In weed control, in advance of soybean, the main agricultural crop in Brazil, paraquat is predominantly used in applications immediately before or immediately after sowing soybeans. Paraquat is widely used in off-season management and is more used in the second or third sequential application. The last one before or immediately after sowing, it is used alone or combined with a pre-emergent herbicide (Figure 1). Table 3 presents the direct and possible substitutions in systems involving soybeans.

Figure 1
Exemplification of applications in burndown soybean pre-sowing.

Table 3
Herbicides for potential use in soybean pre-sowing burndown, to replace paraquat, for weeds that are difficult to control in Brazil.

Paraquat is widely used to control species such as Conyza spp., in Brazil and other countries, during the off-season and in pre-sowing, after the application of glyphosate plus other herbicides (Santos et al., 2015Santos FM, Vargas L, Christoffoleti PJ, Martin TN, Mariani F, Silva DRO.[ Alternative herbicides to control Conyza sumatrensis (Retz.) E. H. Walker resistant to and EPSPs inhibitors]. Rev Ceres. 2015;62(6):531-8. Portuguese. Available from: https://doi.org/10.1590/0034-737X201562060004
https://doi.org/10.1590/0034-737X2015620...
; Zobiole et al., 2018Zobiole LHS, Krenchinski FH, Pereira GR, Rampazzo PE, Rubin RS, Lucio FR. Management programs to control Conyza spp. in pre-soybean sowing applications. Planta Daninha. 2018;36:1-8. Available from: https://doi.org/10.1590/S0100-83582018360100076
https://doi.org/10.1590/S0100-8358201836...
; Cesco et al., 2019Cesco VJS, Nardi R, Krenchinski FH, Albrecht AJP, Rodrigues DM, Albrecht LP. Management of resistant Conyza spp. during soybean pre-sowing. Planta Daninha 2019;37:1-9. Available from: https://doi.org/10.1590/S0100-83582019370100039
https://doi.org/10.1590/S0100-8358201937...
; Flessner, Pittman, 2019; Soltani et al., 2020Soltani N, Shropshire C, Sikkema PH. Glyphosate-resistant Canada fleabane control with three-way herbicide tankmixes in soybean. Am J Plant Sci. 2020;11(9):1478-86. Available from: https://doi.org/10.4236/ajps.2020.119107
https://doi.org/10.4236/ajps.2020.119107...
). In recent years, there has been a reduction in the effectiveness of paraquat in controlling Conyza spp. in Brazil. Cases of Conyza sumatrensis biotypes resistant to paraquat have been reported, and some biotypes have multiple resistance to paraquat and other herbicides (Pinho et al., 2019Pinho CF, Leal JFL, Souza AS, Oliveira GFPB, Oliveira C, Langaro AC et al. First evidence of multiple resistance of Sumatran fleabane (Conyza sumatrensis (Retz.) E.Walker) to five-mode-of-action herbicides. Aust J Crop Sci. 2019;13(10):1688-97. Available from: https://doi.org/10.21475/ajcs.19.13.10.p1981
https://doi.org/10.21475/ajcs.19.13.10.p...
; Zobiole et al., 2019Zobiole LHS, Pereira VGC, Albrecht AJP, Rubin RS, Adegas FS, Albrecht LP. Paraquat resistance of Sumatran fleabane (Conyza sumatrensis). Planta Daninha. 2019;37:1-8. Available from: https://doi.org/10.1590/S0100-83582019370100018
https://doi.org/10.1590/S0100-8358201937...
; Albrecht et al., 2020a).

There are 72 cases of weed biotypes resistant to paraquat worldwide (Table 4), in which Conyza bonariensis, C. canadensis, and C. sumatrensis represent 21 cases of biotypes resistant to this herbicide (Heap, 2022Heap I. The international herbicide-resistant weed database. Weedscience. 2022[Access March 21, 2022]. Available at: http://www.weedscience.org/
http://www.weedscience.org/...
). In addition to the cases in Brazil, C. sumatrensis is reported to be resistant to paraquat and multiple herbicides in Paraguay (Albrecht et al., 2020b). These reports indicate that the performance of paraquat is decreasing because of its repeated use and increases selection pressure, highlighting the need for its replacement in the management of resistant weeds.

Table 4
Reported cases of weed species biotypes resistant to paraquat, diquat, and multiple, worldwide (March 2022).

Thus, for the management of Conyza spp., even without paraquat banning, it would be necessary to use alternative herbicides in the pre-sowing burndown of soybeans. The ban on paraquat reinforces the need for the characterization and configuration of new management. Therefore, glufosinate has been highlighted (Eubank et al., 2008Eubank TW, Poston DH, Nandula VK, Koger CH, Shaw DR, Reynolds DB. Glyphosate-resistant horseweed (Conyza canadensis) control using glyphosate-, paraquat-, and glufosinate-based herbicide programs. Weed Technol. 2008;22(1):16-21. Available from: https://doi.org/10.1614/WT-07-038.1
https://doi.org/10.1614/WT-07-038.1...
; Frene et al., 2018Frene RL, Simpson DM, Buchanan MB, Vega ET, Ravotti ME, Valverde PP. Enlist E3™ Soybean sensitivity and Enlist™ herbicide-based program control of Sumatran fleabane (Conyza sumatrensis). Weed Technol. 2018;32(4):416-23. Available from: https://doi.org/10.1017/wet.2018.29
https://doi.org/10.1017/wet.2018.29...
; Tahmasebi et al., 2018Tahmasebi BK, Alebrahim MT, Roldán-Gómez RA, Silveira HM, Carvalho LB, Alcántara-de la Cruz R et al. Effectiveness of alternative herbicides on three Conyza species from Europe with and without glyphosate resistance. Crop Prot. 2018;112:350-5. Available from: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cropro.2018.06.021
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cropro.2018.06...
; Albrecht et al., 2020c; Cantu et al., 2021Cantu RM, Albrecht LP, Albrecht AJP, Silva AFM, Danilussi MT, Lorenzetti JB. Herbicide alternative for Conyza sumatrensis control in pre-planting in no-till soybeans. Adv Weed Sci. 2021;39:1-9. Available from: https://doi.org/10.51694/AdvWeedSci/2021;39:000012
https://doi.org/10.51694/AdvWeedSci/2021...
). Saflufenacil can also be used as an alternative for the control of Conyza spp. (Zimmer et al., 2018Zimmer M, Young BG, Johnson WG. Herbicide programs utilizing halauxifen-methyl for glyphosate-resistant horseweed (Conyza canadensis) control in soybean. Weed Technol. 2018;32(6):659-64. Available from: https://doi.org/10.1017/wet.2018.60
https://doi.org/10.1017/wet.2018.60...
; Hedges et al., 2019Hedges BK, Soltani N, Robinson DE, Hooker DC, Sikkema PH. Control of glyphosate-resistant Canada fleabane in Ontario with multiple effective modes-of-action in glyphosate/dicamba-resistant soybean. Can J Plant Sci. 2019;99(1):78-83. Available from: https://doi.org/10.1139/cjps-2018-0067
https://doi.org/10.1139/cjps-2018-0067...
). Some studies have indicated a synergistic effect of combinations of saflufenacil and glyphosate in the control of Conyza spp. (Dalazen et al., 2015Dalazen G, Kruse ND, Machado SLO, Balbinot A. [Synergism of the glyphosate and saflufenacil combination for controlling hairy fleabane]. Pesq Agropec Trop. 2015;45(2):249-56. Portuguese. Available from: https://doi.org/10.1590/1983-40632015v4533708
https://doi.org/10.1590/1983-40632015v45...
; Piasecki et al., 2020Piasecki C, Carvalho IR, Avila LA, Agostinetto D, Vargas L. Glyphosate and saflufenacil: Elucidating their combined action on the control of glyphosate-resistant Conyza bonariensis. Agriculture. 2020;10(6):1-16. Available from: https://doi.org/10.3390/agriculture10060236
https://doi.org/10.3390/agriculture10060...
), or even combined with the glufosinate mentioned above, in the control of other species that are difficult to control, such as Amaranthus palmeri (Takano et al., 2020a). These and other studies indicate that glufosinate and saflufenacil are important alternatives to paraquat in pre-sowing burndown, in the managing Conyza spp. and other weeds, particularly broadleaves, including the combination of these molecules, is very effective.

The synergistic effect of mixtures, such as glufosinate and protox-inhibiting herbicides, such as saflufenacil and carfentrazone, is a possible replacement for paraquat. Due to the paraquat ban, mixture is necessary for weed resistance management. Weeds proved to be resistant, demand more sophistication in chemical control, and strategies for integrated weed management.

Another potential substitute for paraquat in pre-sowing burndown is diquat, mainly for the managing of broadleaf weeds (Travlos, Chachalis, 2010; Gitsopoulos et al., 2018Gitsopoulos TK, Damalas CA, Georgoulas I. Optimizing diquat efficacy with the use of adjuvants. Phytoparasitica. 2018;46(5):715-22. Available from: https://doi.org/10.1007/s12600-018-0698-y
https://doi.org/10.1007/s12600-018-0698-...
). However, to control Conyza spp., in plants with high resistance to paraquat, these herbicides have the same mechanism of action and the same chemical group (bipyridylium); therefore, the performance of the control was below the required level. For grasses such as Digitaria insularis, Eleusine indica, and Lolium multiflorum, diquat is not an excellent alternative for management. Generally, diquat has low efficacy but can be increased when combined with adjuvants; however, it still has unsatisfactory levels of control (Gitsopoulos et al., 2014Gitsopoulos TK, Damalas CA, Georgoulas I. Improving diquat efficacy on grasses by adding adjuvants to the spray solution before use. Planta Daninha. 2014;32(2):355-60. Available from: https://doi.org/10.1590/S0100-83582014000200013
https://doi.org/10.1590/S0100-8358201400...
). Its combination with ACCase-inhibiting graminicides and others still needs to be better elucidated for consistent application in the field.

Glufosinate, which can control Conyza spp. and other weeds, is also effective in the control of Digitaria sanguinalis (Aulakh, Jhala, 2015), D. insularis (Melo et al., 2012Melo MSC, Rosa LE, Brunharo CACG, Nicolai M, Christoffoleti PJ. [Chemical control alternatives for sourgrass (Digitaria insularis) resistant to glyphosate]. Rev Bras Herb. 2012;11(2):195-203. Portuguese. Available from: https://doi.org/10.7824/rbh.v11i2.145
https://doi.org/10.7824/rbh.v11i2.145...
; Gemelli et al., 2013Gemelli A, Oliveira Júnior RS, Constantin J, Braz GBP, Campos Jumes TM, Gheno EA et al. Estratégias para o controle de capim-amargoso (Digitaria insularis) resistente ao glyphosate na cultura milho safrinha. Rev Bras Herb. 2013;12(2):162-70. Available from: https://doi.org/10.7824/rbh.v12i2.201
https://doi.org/10.7824/rbh.v12i2.201...
), and L. multiflorum (Schneider et al., 2015Schneider T, Vargas L, Agostinetto D. Alternative control of ryegrass biotypes resistants to clethodim. Rev Bras Herb. 2015;14(3):243-7. Available from: https://doi.org/10.7824/rbh.v14i3.424
https://doi.org/10.7824/rbh.v14i3.424...
) and is promising for use in other grasses, when at an adequate stage for control or management in sequential applications. ACCase-inhibiting herbicides are prominent in managing these grasses (Correia et al., 2015Correia NM, Acra LT, Balieiro G. Chemical control of different Digitaria insularis populations and management of a glyphosate-resistant population. Planta Daninha. 2015;33(1):93-101. Available from: https://doi.org/10.1590/S0100-83582015000100011
https://doi.org/10.1590/S0100-8358201500...
; Vilela et al., 2019Vilela XS, Medeiros FCL, Gonçalves AH, Silva LC. Quizalofop-p-ethyl controlling sourgrass (Digitaria insularis) and goosegrass (Eleusine indica) in infested coffee areas. Coffee Sci. 2019;14(4):530-7.), in addition to ALS inhibitors and contact herbicides (Silva et al., 2017Silva WT, Karam D, Vargas L, Silva AF. Alternatives of chemical control for sourgrass (Digitaria insularis) on maize crop. Rev Bras Milho Sorgo. 2017;16(3):578-86. Available from: https://doi.org/10.18512/1980-6477/rbms.v16n3p578-586
https://doi.org/10.18512/1980-6477/rbms....
).

Paraquat is important for the control of grasses, particularly L. multiflorum (Pereira et al., 2017Pereira LV, Carvalho LB, Dal Magro T. [Chemical control of Lolium multiflorum: effect of biotype and time of spraying]. Rev Cienc Agrovet. 2017;16(3):338-41. Portuguese. Available from: https://doi.org/10.5965/223811711632017338
https://doi.org/10.5965/2238117116320173...
). However, when it was no longer an option, and considering the cases of resistance to glyphosate and ACCase inhibitors, in Brazil, of D. insularis (Carvalho et al., 2011Carvalho LB, Cruz-Hipolito H, González-Torralva F, Alves PLCA, Christoffoleti PJ, Prado R. Detection of sourgrass (Digitaria insularis) biotypes resistant to glyphosate in Brazil. Weed Sci. 2011;59(2):171-6. Available from: https://doi.org/10.1614/WS-D-10-00113.1
https://doi.org/10.1614/WS-D-10-00113.1...
; Takano et al., 2020b), E. indica (Vidal et al., 2006Vidal RA, Portes ES, Lamego FP, Trezzi MM. Eleusine indica resistance to ACCase inhibitors. Planta Daninha. 2006;24:163-71. Available from: https://doi.org/10.1590/S0100-83582006000100021
https://doi.org/10.1590/S0100-8358200600...
; Takano et al., 2017Takano HK, Oliveira Júnior RS, Constantin J, Braz GBP, Gheno EA. Goosegrass resistant to glyphosate in Brazil. Planta Daninha. 2017;35:1-9. Available from: https://doi.org/10.1590/S0100-83582017350100013
https://doi.org/10.1590/S0100-8358201735...
), and L. multiflorum (Roman et al., 2004Roman ES, Vargas L, Rizzardi MA, Mattei RW. [Resistance of italian ryegrass (Lolium multiflorum) to glyphosate]. Planta Daninha. 2004;22(2):301-6. Portuguese. Available from: https://doi.org/10.1590/S0100-83582004000200018
https://doi.org/10.1590/S0100-8358200400...
; Vargas et al., 2016Vargas L, Schneider T, Agostinetto D, Bianchi MA. Geographic distribution of ryegrass resistent to the clethodim herbicide in Rio Grande do Sul. Planta Daninha. 2016;34(2):365-76. Available from: https://doi.org/10.1590/S0100-83582016340200018
https://doi.org/10.1590/S0100-8358201634...
), the possibilities are becoming scarce. Therefore, combining herbicides and other tactics in grass management during pre-sowing is a requirement.

The combination of chemical control with mowing effectively controls D. insularis as an alternative, particularly for perennial plants (Correia et al., 2015Correia NM, Acra LT, Balieiro G. Chemical control of different Digitaria insularis populations and management of a glyphosate-resistant population. Planta Daninha. 2015;33(1):93-101. Available from: https://doi.org/10.1590/S0100-83582015000100011
https://doi.org/10.1590/S0100-8358201500...
; Raimondi et al., 2020Raimondi RT, Constantin J, Mendes RR, Oliveira Junior RS, Rios FA. Glyphosate-resistant sourgrass management programs associating mowing and herbicides. Planta Daninha. 2020;38:1-11. Available from: https://doi.org/10.1590/S0100-83582020380100033
https://doi.org/10.1590/S0100-8358202038...
). All possible control strategies must be used and associated with the diversification of production systems. Therefore, mechanical control practices, such as mowing or mechanical weeding, are potentially more requested in the field.

Diversifying tactics and observing the requirement for herbicide combinations within chemical control will demand greater technical accuracy applying such practices in the field. An example of these emerging challenges, whether in the replacement of paraquat or another herbicide due to resistance, is the need to avoid incompatible and antagonistic mixtures. The benefits of mixtures of herbicides can be significant and synergistic, which is desirable; however, problems can become more and reoccur. The low performance of combinations of herbicides with an immediate contact effect, such as diquat, with systemic herbicides, has been reported (Wehtje et al., 2008Wehtje G, Altland JE, Gilliam CH. Interaction of glyphosate and diquat in ready-to-use weed control products. Weed Technol. 2008;22(3):472-6. Available from: https://doi.org/10.1614/WT-07-181.1
https://doi.org/10.1614/WT-07-181.1...
). In addition, there is antagonism between ACCase inhibitors and synthetic auxins (Underwood et al., 2016Underwood MG, Soltani N, Hooker DC, Robinson DE, Vink JP, Swanton CJ et al. The addition of dicamba to POST applications of quizalofop-p-ethyl or clethodim antagonizes volunteer glyphosate-resistant corn control in dicamba-resistant soybean. Weed Technol. 2016;30(3):639-47. Available from: https://doi.org/10.1614/WT-D-16-00016.1
https://doi.org/10.1614/WT-D-16-00016.1...
; Webster et al., 2019Webster EP, Rustom SY, McKnight BM, Blouin DC, Teló GM. Quizalofop-p-ethyl mixed with synthetic auxin and ACCase-inhibiting herbicides for weed management in rice production. Int J Agron. 2019;2019:1-8. Available from: https://doi.org/10.1155/2019/6137318
https://doi.org/10.1155/2019/6137318...
; Bauer et al., 2021Bauer FE, Albrecht AJP, Albrecht LP, Silva AFM, Barroso AAM, Danilussi MTY. Digitaria insularis control by using herbicide mixtures application in soybean pre-emergence. Rev Fac Nac Agron Medellín. 2021;74(1):9403-11. Available from: https://doi.org/10.15446/rfnam.v74n1.89032
https://doi.org/10.15446/rfnam.v74n1.890...
) or between ACCase inhibitors and ALS inhibitors.

Although they are not classified as burndown herbicides, pre-emergent herbicides contribute to managing weeds, such as D. insularis and Conyza spp. The use of these herbicides has already been recommended even without the ban of paraquat. Due to the cases of resistance and its prohibition, pre-emergent herbicides have become more significant. Therefore, the pre-emergent herbicides are considerable in control, diminishing emergence flows from the soil seed bank, contributing to the prolongation of the period before interference in the crop and is essential in the management of resistance (by reducing the pressure of selection).

To control D. insularis and other grassy weeds, the herbicides s-metolachlor, flumioxazin, imazethapyr, sulfentrazone, clomazone can be used (Drehmer et al., 2015Drehmer MH, Zagonel J, Ferreira C, Senger M. [Herbicides efficacy applied in pre-emergency to control Digitaria insularis in bean]. Rev Bras Herb. 2015;14(2):141-7. Portuguese. Available from: https://doi.org/10.7824/rbh.v14i2.395
https://doi.org/10.7824/rbh.v14i2.395...
), with effective control in management systems with cover crops (Marochi et al., 2018Marochi A, Ferreira A, Takano HK, Oliveira Junior RS, Lopez-Ovejero RF. Managing glyphosate-resistant weeds with cover crop associated with herbicide rotation and mixture. Cienc Agrotecnol. 2018;42(4):381-94. Available from: https://doi.org/10.1590/1413-70542018424017918
https://doi.org/10.1590/1413-70542018424...
). In addition, the initial growth-inhibiting herbicides, such as pendimethalin and trifluralin, or commercial premixes, such as flumioxazin/imazethapyr, sulfentrazone/diuron, and imazapic/imazapyr, can be used for weed control. In the case of grasses, pre-emergent herbicides are essential alternatives in the rotation of mechanisms of action to avoid the possible selection pressure for resistance and to help preserve the few herbicide molecules still effective in the post-emergence of some species.

To manage Conyza spp. and other eudicot weeds, herbicides can be highlighted, either with action in pre- or post-emergence, ALS inhibitors (cloransulam, chlorimuron, diclosulam, imazethapyr, imazapic) (Braz et al., 2017Braz GBP, Oliveira Junior RS, Zobiole LHS, Rubin RS, Voglewede C, Constantin J et al. Sumatran fleabane (Conyza sumatrensis) control in no-tillage soybean with diclosulam plus halauxifen-methyl. Weed Technol. 2017;31(2):184-92. Available from: https://doi.org/10.1017/wet.2016.28
https://doi.org/10.1017/wet.2016.28...
; Cesco et al., 2019Cesco VJS, Nardi R, Krenchinski FH, Albrecht AJP, Rodrigues DM, Albrecht LP. Management of resistant Conyza spp. during soybean pre-sowing. Planta Daninha 2019;37:1-9. Available from: https://doi.org/10.1590/S0100-83582019370100039
https://doi.org/10.1590/S0100-8358201937...
). In addition, pre-emergent protox-inhibiting herbicides, such as flumioxazin and sulfentrazone (Zimmer et al., 2018Zimmer M, Young BG, Johnson WG. Herbicide programs utilizing halauxifen-methyl for glyphosate-resistant horseweed (Conyza canadensis) control in soybean. Weed Technol. 2018;32(6):659-64. Available from: https://doi.org/10.1017/wet.2018.60
https://doi.org/10.1017/wet.2018.60...
). Furthermore, some commercial premixes are already available to the producer or soon available, such as sulfentrazone/diuron, imazethapyr/flumioxazin, saflufenacil/imazethapyr, among others (Albrecht et al., 2020c). Moreover, non-chemical measures, such as cover crops and straw formation, should be highlighted for the management of Conyza spp. (Campiglia et al., 2015Campiglia E, Radicetti E, Mancinelli R. Cover crops and mulches influence weed management and weed flora composition in strip-tilled tomato (Solanum lycopersicum). Weed Res. 2015;55(4):416-25. Available from: https://doi.org/10.1111/wre.12156
https://doi.org/10.1111/wre.12156...
; Guareschi et al., 2020Guareschi A, Cechin J, Bianchi MA, Kruse ND, Piccinini F, Pinheiro RT et al. Cover plants as a suppression and increasing tool to hairy fleabane control. Rev Bras Cienc Agrar. 2020;15(2):1-8. Available from: https://doi.org/10.5039/agraria.v15i2a7522
https://doi.org/10.5039/agraria.v15i2a75...
), and other weeds.

New herbicide-resistant crops technologies must be included in the management strategy. The technologies Enlist E3™ (tolerance to 2,4-D, glyphosate, and glufosinate), Roundup Ready™ 2 Xtend™ (dicamba and glyphosate), Liberty Link® GT27™ (glufosinate, glyphosate, and isoxaflutole) will bring options for weed management in the pre- or post-emergence stages of the crop. For maize, combining technologies with the possibility of using glyphosate, glufosinate, haloxyfop, and 2,4-D will be useful. All these herbicides, in different situations, with various transgenic events (current and to come), can be used with other tools, providing alternative management in the absence of paraquat.

Therefore, replacing paraquat with another herbicide is not always possible, with equivalent results and similar costs. The use of herbicides that require more significant investment and the need for herbicide mixtures, with action in pre- or post-emergence, will be a routine in many scenarios, particularly in the absence of paraquat, single or multiple resistance to herbicides is identified in the target population. Possible increases in the cost of herbicides are justified because of potential losses due to weed interference. Herbicide-tolerant transgenic crops can be used as auxiliary tools, allowing the inclusion of new herbicides, including post-emergence of the crop, generating specific compensatory effects due to the lack of paraquat and resistance management. However, there will never be nor have there been single solutions, and it is increasingly necessary to include other controls, such as cultural and mechanical. In integrated weed management, the combination of control strategies within good agricultural practices is vital.

6.Conclusions

Paraquat has been widely used herbicide, with many notable advantages and benefits. Nevertheless, its banning forces new approaches, caused by necessary adjustments in the positioning of substitute herbicides in pre-harvest desiccation and weed management. The substitutes for pre-harvest desiccation of different crops are diquat, glufosinate, and protox-inhibiting herbicides. For weed management, there is higher diversity, including glufosinate, diquat, saflufenacil, and numerous possible mixtures. However, the most significant challenge is finding alternatives for grasses weed control.

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  • Funding
    This research received no external funding.

Edited by

Approved by:
Editor in Chief: Carol Ann Mallory-Smith
Associate Editor: Carlos Eduardo Schaedler

Publication Dates

  • Publication in this collection
    29 July 2022
  • Date of issue
    2022

History

  • Received
    12 May 2021
  • Accepted
    17 May 2022
Sociedade Brasileira da Ciência das Plantas Daninhas - SBCPD Rua Santa Catarina, 50, sala 1302 , 86010-470 - Londrina - Paraná / Brasil , +55 (51) 3308-6006 - Londrina - PR - Brazil
E-mail: sbcpd@sbcpd.org