Abstract
Ferns are often used by indigenous people in Khyber Pakhtunkhwa, Pakistan. This study was designed to collect the ethnomedicinal and traditional knowledge of these locals about this group of vascular plants. Forty taxa belong to nineteen genera and ten families are used in the treatment of different diseases. The Pteridaceae was the most representative family with twelve taxa (30%), followed by Athyriaceae and Dryopteridaceae with six taxa each (30%), and Thelypteridaceae with five taxa (12.5%). Regarding the genera, Adiantum, Asplenium and Dryopteris ranked first with four taxa each (30%), followed by Aleuritopteris, Diplazium, Pteris and Equisetum with three taxa each (30%), followed by Athyrium, Oeosporangium, Polystichum and Pseudophegopteris with two taxa each (20%). These taxa were commonly used in the treatment of respiratory disorders i.e. asthma, bronchitis, emphysema, pneumonia; intestinal ulcer, stomach, urinary ailments and skin disorders by the methods of decoction and infusion. Traditional knowledge about ethnomedicinal plants is a valuable and essential source for the discovery of allopathic, herbal and homeopathic medicines.
Keywords:
ethnomedicinal; ferns; Khyber Pakhtunkhwa; Pakistan; traditional
Resumo
As samambaias são frequentemente usadas pelos indígenas em Khyber Pakhtunkhwa, Paquistão. Este estudo foi desenhado para coletar o conhecimento etnomedicinal e tradicional desses moradores sobre este grupo de plantas vasculares. Quarenta táxons pertencem a dezenove gêneros, e dez famílias são utilizadas no tratamento de diferentes doenças. Pteridaceae foi a família mais representativa com doze táxons (30%), seguida por Athyriaceae e Dryopteridaceae com seis táxons cada (30%), e Thelypteridaceae com cinco táxons (12,5%). Em relação aos gêneros, Adiantum, Asplenium e Dryopteris ficaram em primeiro lugar com quatro táxons cada (30%), seguidos por Aleuritopteris, Diplazium, Pteris e Equisetum com três táxons cada (30%), e Athyrium, Oeosporangium, Polystichum e Pseudophegopteris com dois táxons cada (20%). Estes táxons foram comumente usados no tratamento de distúrbios respiratórios, isto é, asma, bronquite, enfisema, pneumonia; úlcera intestinal, estômago, doenças urinárias e doenças da pele pelos métodos de decocção e infusão. O conhecimento tradicional sobre plantas etnomedicinais é uma fonte valiosa e essencial para a descoberta de medicamentos alopáticos, fitoterápicos e homeopáticos.
Palavras-chave:
etnomedicinal; ferns; Khyber Pakhtunkhwa; Paquistão; tradicional
1. Introduction
All living organisms depend upon food and medicines (Irfan et al., 2017aIRFAN, M., AHMAD, I. and SAEED, S.H., 2017a. Traditional medicinal plant knowledge of some spermatophytes of Samar Bagh Valley, Lower Dir district, Pakistan. Plant Science Today, vol. 4, no. 4, pp. 151-153. http://dx.doi.org/10.14719/pst.2017.4.4.334.
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, bIRFAN, M., KHAN, I., ALI, A., KHAN, R., ALI, A. and JAN, G., 2017b. Ethnomedicinal Uses of the Plants of Tehsil Laalqilla, District Lower Dir, Khyber Pakhtunkhwa, Pakistan. Journal of Applied Environmental & Biological Sciences, vol. 8, no. 6, pp. 61-66.). Plants are ethnomedicinally used in different communities of the world since centuries ago (Irfan et al., 2018aIRFAN, M., ALI, D., JAN, G. and MURAD, W., 2018a. Ethnobotanical Survey of the Flora of Tehsil Balakot, District Mansehra, Khyber Pakhtunkhwa, Pakistan. Science Arena Publications Specialty Journal of Biological Sciences, vol. 4, no. 3, pp. 7-14.; Ullah et al., 2018ULLAH, S., KHAN, W., ALI, W., KHAN, M.S., SAJAD, M.A., NABEELA, and IRFAN, M., 2018. Antibacterial and antifungal potentials of the various solvents extracts of Quercus incana fruits. International Journal of Biosciences, vol. 13, no. 5, pp. 438-447. http://dx.doi.org/10.12692/ijb/13.5.438-447.
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). Now a day’s modern medicines are replacing the ethnomedicinal uses of the plants around the world (Iftikhar et al., 2019IFTIKHAR, S., ALI, W., ULLAH, S., KHAN, W. and IRFAN, M., 2019. Comparative antibacterial potential of methanolic extract of the leaves of wild and cultivated Ficus carica L. International Journal of Botany Studies, vol. 4, no. 4, pp. 139-143.; Irfan et al., 2018bIRFAN, M., ALI, I. and KASHIF, R.A., 2018b. Ethnobotanical survey of the flora of Maidan Valley, Lower Dir District, Khyber Pakhtunkhwa Province, Pakistan. Plant Science Today, vol. 5, no. 2, pp. 68-71. http://dx.doi.org/10.14719/pst.2018.5.2.379.
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, 2019IRFAN, M., NABEELA, KHAN, H. and KHAN, S., 2019. A review of different phytochemicals and pharmacological activities evaluations of Morus alba L. Specialty Journal of Chemistry, vol. 4, no. 2, pp. 1-9.). Until now 70% inhabitants around the world depends upon the ethnomedicinal uses of plants (Irfan et al., 2018cIRFAN, M., NABEELA, Kamil, M., KHAN, N.A., ALI, A., ULLAH, Z., ILYAS, M., AHMAD, I., ALI, A., ULLAH, S., SUBHAN, F. and KHAN, U., 2018c. Ethnomedicinal applications of plant taxa by the local communities of Tehsil Adenzai, District Lower Dir, Khyber Pakhtunkhwa, Pakistan. International Journal of Biosciences, vol. 13, no. 5, pp. 40-49. http://dx.doi.org/10.12692/ijb/13.5.40-49.
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). Most of the population of poor and developing countries relies upon traditional medicines (Attaullah et al., 2017ATTAULLAH, KHAN, Z-U.D. and MIDRARULLAH, 2017. Taxonomic and ethnobotanic study of pteridophytes of Miandam valley, District Swat, Khyber Pakhtunkhwa, Pakistan. International Journal of Biosciences, vol. 10, no. 3, pp.72-79.; Irfan et al., 2018dIRFAN, M., NABEELA, KAMIL, M., KHAN, N.A., ILYAS, M., ALI, A., ULLAH, S., SHAH, M., JAN, G. and MURAD, W., 2018d. Ethomedicinal and traditional knowledge of phanerogames of Tehsil Munda, district Lower Dir, Khyber Pakhtunkhwa, Pakistan. International Journal of Biosciences, vol. 13, no. 4, pp. 208-218. http://dx.doi.org/10.12692/ijb/13.4.208-218.
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; Singh and Upadhyay, 2014SINGH, B.P. and UPADHYAY, R., 2014. Medicinal Pteridophytes of Madhya Pradesh. Journal of medicinal plants studies, vol. 2, no. 4, pp. 65-68.). In Pakistan about 700 plant species are medicinally used in rural and tribal areas due to high cost on modern medicines and poverty (Ahmad et al., 2016AHMAD, I., IRFAN, M., ALI, I., KHAN, J., SAEED, S.H. and GULFARAZ, A., 2016. Checklist of some medicinal plants of district Lower Dir, Pakistan. IASET: Journal of Agricultural and Bio-Chemical Science, vol. 1, pp. 15-22.; Irfan et al., 2018e IRFAN, M., NABEELA, KAMIL, M., KHAN, N.A., KHAN, H., KHALIL, S., ULLAH, S., SHAH, M., JAN, G. and MURAD, W., 2018e. Ethnomedicinal plants uses of tehsil Khall, district Lower Dir, Khyber Pakhtunkhwa, Pakistan. International Journal of Biosciences, vol. 13, no. 4, pp. 219-229. http://dx.doi.org/10.12692/ijb/13.4.219-229.
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).
Worldwide there are about 11916 taxa with 337 genera, 51 families, 14 orders and two classes of ferns and lycophytes (PPG-I, 2016). A total of 168 taxa with 45 genera and 19 families are currently reported from Pakistan with greater wealth in Azad Jammu and Kashmir, Khyber Pakhtunkhwa and Gilgit-Baltistan, Pakistan (Fraser-Jenkins et al., 2016FRASER-JENKINS, C.R., GANDHI, K.N., KHOLIA, B.S. and BENNIAMIN, A., 2016. An annotated checklist of Indian Pteridophytes, Part–I (Lycopodiaceae to Thelypteridace). Dehradun: Bisen Singh Mahendra Pal Singh, pp. 562., 2018FRASER-JENKINS, C.R., GANDHI, K.N. and KHOLIA, B.S. 2018. An Annotated Checklist of Indian Pteridophytes, Part-II, Woodsiaceae to Dryopteridaceae. Dehradun: Bisen Singh Mahendra Pal Singh, pp. 573., 2020FRASER-JENKINS, C.R., GANDHI, K.N., KHOLIA, B.S. and KANDEL, D.R., 2020. An Annotated Checklist of Indian Pteridophytes, Part-III, Lomariopsidaceae to Salviniaceae. Dehradun: Bisen Singh Mahendra Pal Singh, pp. 420.; Irfan et al., 2021dIRFAN, M., JAN, G., JAN, F.G. and MURAD, W., 2021d. Floristic diversity and chorotype analysis of the pteridophytes of Pakistan. The Journal of Animal and Plant Sciences, vol. 32, no. 1, pp. 1-14. http://dx.doi.org/10.36899/JAPS.2022.1.0395.
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).
Ferns have been used as prophylactic measure in different respiratory, urinary and skin disorders (Mannan et al., 2008MANNAN, M.M., MARIDASS, M. and VICTOR, B., 2008. A review on the potential uses of Ferns. Ethnobotanical Leaflets, vol. 12, pp. 281-285.; Nair, 1959NAIR, B.K., 1959. Medicinal Ferns of India. Bulletin of National Botanical Garden Lucknow, vol. 29, pp. 1-36.; Kaushik and Dhiman, 1995KAUSHIK, P. and DHIMAN, K., 1995. Common medicinal Pteridophytes. Indian Fern Journal, vol. 12, pp. 139-145.; Gul et al., 2016bGUL, A., ALAM, J., AHMAD, H., SHAH, G.M., HUSSAIN, M., DOGAN, Y. and RAHMAN, K.U., 2016b. Traditional medicinal and food uses of Pteridophytes of district Mansehra and their some adjacent areas. International Journal of Biosciences, vol. 9, no. 5, pp. 116-133. http://dx.doi.org/10.12692/ijb/9.5.116–133.
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). New plant taxa have been added to the Flora of Pakistan having great medicinal importance (Ali et al., 2017ALI, A., RASHID, M., SULTAN, A. and IRFAN, M., 2017. Anisochilus carnosus (L. f.) Wall. ex Benth. (Lamiaceae) A new generic record for Pakistan. Plant Science Today, vol. 4, no. 3, pp. 102-105. http://dx.doi.org/10.14719/pst.2017.4.3.316.
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). First time ethnomedicinal uses of ferns were reported in Jammu and Kashmir, India (May, 1978MAY, L.W., 1978. The economic uses and associated folklore of ferns and famallies. Botanical Review, vol. 44, no. 4, pp. 491-528. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/BF02860848.
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). Sixty-six species representatives of this group of vascular plants were reported from India for the treatment of various ailments (Kumar et al., 2003KUMAR, M., REMESH, M. and SEQUIERA, S., 2003. Medicinal pteridophytes of Kerala, South India. Indian Fern Journal, vol. 20, pp. 1-28.). Ferns were ethnomedicinally used for the treatment of various diseases, such as ulcer, urinary infections, vomiting, hair fall, sterility, dysentery and healing of wounds (Keller et al., 2011KELLER, H.A., TORRES, E.I.M. and PRANCE, G.T., 2011. Ethnopteridology of the Guaranís of Misiones Province, Argentina. American Fern Journal, vol. 101, no. 3, pp. 193-204. http://dx.doi.org/10.1640/0002-8444-101.3.193.
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; Keller and Prance, 2015KELLER, H.A. and PRANCE, G.T., 2015. The ethnobotany of Ferns and Lycophytes. The Fern Gazette, vol. 20, pp. 1-13.; Liu et al., 2012LIU, Y., WUJISGULENG, W. and LONG, C., 2012. Food uses of ferns in China: a review. Acta Societatis Botanicorum Poloniae, vol. 81, no. 4, pp. 263-270. http://dx.doi.org/10.5586/asbp.2012.046.
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; Oloyede et al., 2008OLOYEDE, F.A., ALAFE, B.O. and OLOYEDE, F.M., 2008. Nutrient evaluation of Nephrolepis bisserata (Nephrolepidiaceae, Pteridophyta). Botanica Lithuanica, vol. 14, no. 4, pp. 207-210.; Ranil and Bussmann, 2021RANIL, R.H.G. and BUSSMANN, R.W., 2021. Potential uses of Lycophytes and Ferns in Sri Lanka: an ethnopteridological perspective. Ethnobotany Research and Applications, vol. 21, no. 36, pp. 1-11. http://dx.doi.org/10.32859/era.21.36.1-11.
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). Ethnomedicinal uses of different ferns species have been documented by many workers, from Western Ghats, India (Benjamin and Manickkam, 2007BENJAMIN, A. and MANICKKAM, V.S., 2007. Medicinal Pteridophytes from Western Ghats. Indian Journal of Traditional Knowledge, vol. 6, no. 4, pp. 611-618.); Arunachal Pradesh, North Eastern, India (Benniamin, 2011BENNIAMIN, A., 2011. Medicinal ferns of North Eastern India with special reference to Arunachal Pradesh. Indian Journal of Traditional Knowledge, vol. 10, no. 3, pp. 516-522.); Kumaun Himalaya, Uttarakhand, India (Upreti et al., 2009UPRETI, K., JALAL, J.S., TEWARI, L.M., JOSHI, G.C., PANGTEY, Y.P.S. and TEWARI, G., 2009. Ethnomedicinal uses of Pteridophytes of Kumaun Himalaya, Uttarakhand, India. The Journal of American Science, vol. 5, no. 4, pp. 167-170.); Vindhyan Region (M.P.), India (Pathak et al., 2011PATHAK, A., SINGH, A. and Singh, A.P., 2011. Ethnomedicinal uses of pteridophytes of Vindhyan Region (M.P.). International Journal of Pharmacy and Life Sciences, vol. 1, no. 2, pp. 496-498.); Kolli hills, Namakkal District, Tamil Nadu, India (Perumal, 2010PERUMAL, G., 2010. Ethnomedicinal Use of Pteridophyte from Kolli Hills, Namakkal District, Tamil Nadu,India. Ethnobotanical Leaflets, vol. 14, pp. 161-172.); Similipal biosphere reserve, Orissa, India (Rout et al., 2009ROUT, S.D., PANDA, T. and MISHRA, N., 2009. Ethnomedicinal studies on some pteridophytes of similipal biosphere reserve, Orissa, India. International Journal of Medicine and Medical Sciences, vol. 1, no. 5, pp. 192-197.); Kerala, South India (Kumar et al., 2003KUMAR, M., REMESH, M. and SEQUIERA, S., 2003. Medicinal pteridophytes of Kerala, South India. Indian Fern Journal, vol. 20, pp. 1-28.); Rajasthan, India (Parihar and Parihar, 2006PARIHAR, P. and PARIHAR, L., 2006. Some Pteridophytes of medicinal importance from Rajasthan, India. Natural Product Radiance, vol. 5, no. 4, pp. 297-301.); Banajalaya conserved forest area of Shimoga District, Karnataka, India (Deepa et al., 2014DEEPA, J., ASHWINI, S. and PARASHURAMA, T.R., 2014. Enumeration of pteridophytes in Banajalaya conserved forest area of Shimoga District, Karnataka. Asian Pacific Journal of Health Sciences, vol. 1, no. 4, pp. 448-450. http://dx.doi.org/10.21276/apjhs.2014.1.4.23.
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) and from others mainland of India (Singh and Viswanathan, 1996SINGH, H.B. and VISWANATHAN, M.V., 1996. Useful Pteridophytes of India: a gift of nature to human beings. Journal of Economic and Taxonomic Botany, vol. 12, pp. 24-36.; Vasudev, 1999VASUDEV, S.M., 1999. Economic importance of Pteridophytes. Indian Fern Journal, vol. 16, no. 2, pp. 130-152.). Ferns are used as a source of food, fibers, fuel (Biplab and Subir, 2007BIPLAB, P. and SUBIR, B., 2007. Herbivore Damage to Ferns Caused by a Chrysomelid Beetle from Lower Gangetic Plains of West Bengal, India. American Fern Journal, vol. 97, no. 1, pp. 19-29. http://dx.doi.org/10.1640/0002-8444(2007)97[19:HDTFCB]2.0.CO;2.
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); screen heavy metals from the soil (Deepa et al., 2014DEEPA, J., ASHWINI, S. and PARASHURAMA, T.R., 2014. Enumeration of pteridophytes in Banajalaya conserved forest area of Shimoga District, Karnataka. Asian Pacific Journal of Health Sciences, vol. 1, no. 4, pp. 448-450. http://dx.doi.org/10.21276/apjhs.2014.1.4.23.
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); enhance environmental beauty and reduces pollution (Ranil et al., 2015RANIL, R.H.G., BENERAGAMA, C.K., PUSHPAKUMARA, D.K.N.G. and WIJESUNDARA, D.S.A., 2015. Ornamental Pteridophytes: an underexploited opportunity for the Sri Lankan floriculture industry. Journal of the National Science Foundation of Sri Lanka, vol. 43, no. 4, pp. 293-301. http://dx.doi.org/10.4038/jnsfsr.v43i4.7964.
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; Gul et al., 2016bGUL, A., ALAM, J., AHMAD, H., SHAH, G.M., HUSSAIN, M., DOGAN, Y. and RAHMAN, K.U., 2016b. Traditional medicinal and food uses of Pteridophytes of district Mansehra and their some adjacent areas. International Journal of Biosciences, vol. 9, no. 5, pp. 116-133. http://dx.doi.org/10.12692/ijb/9.5.116–133.
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); adds pleasant scenery of gardens, parks and houses (Manickam and Irudayaraj, 2003MANICKAM, V.S. and IRUDAYARAJ, V., 2003. Pteridophyte Flora of Nilgiris, South India. Dehradun: Bisen Singh Mahendra Pal Singh.); improves environmental beauty of offices, schools and hospitals (Mittal and Bir, 2006MITTAL, T.C. and BIR, S.S., 2006. The Indian substitutes of Male Fem Dryopteris filix-mas (L.) Schott Taxonomy and drug macroscopy. Indian Fern Journal, vol. 23, pp. 133-187.; Pande, 1991PANDE, P.C., 1991. An Illustrated Fern Flora of Kumaun Himalaya. Dehradun: Bisen Singh Mahendra Pal Singh. Vol. 1, 2.).
The major ferns genera dominated in Khyber Pakhtunkhwa, Pakistan are Asplenium, Dryopteris, Polystichum, Athyrium, Pteris, Adiantum, Aleuritopteris, Cystopteris, Selaginella, Diplazium, Equisetum, Oeosporangium, Onychium, Cryptogramma, Notholaena, Hypodematium, Pteridium, Marsilea, Anogramma, Actiniopteris, Dennstaedtia and Gymnocarpium (Fraser-Jenkins, 1992FRASER-JENKINS, C.R., 1992. The ferns and allies of the far west Himalaya. Pakistan Systematics, vol. 5, pp. 85-120., 2014FRASER-JENKINS, C.R., 2014. Ferns and Allies of the far-west Indo-Himalaya (Afghanistan, Pakistan and Kashmir) and Iran-revised checklists, classification and phytogeography. Indian Fern Journal, vol. 30, pp. 161-191.; Gul et al., 2016aGUL, A., ALAM, J., AHMAD, H. and IRFAN, M., 2016a. An updated checklist of Pteridophytes of district Mansehra, Khyber Pukhtunkhwa-Pakistan. Plant Science Today, vol. 3, no. 2, pp. 237-247. http://dx.doi.org/10.14719/pst.2016.3.2.220.
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). Due to variable climatic, topographic, edaphic and physiographic features with highest humidity and precipitation in higher elevations Khyber Pakhtunkhwa occupies greater wealth of lycophytes and ferns (Irfan et al., 2021aIRFAN, M., JAN, G., JAN, F.G. and MURAD, W., 2021a. A taxonomic revision of the genus Selaginella (Selaginellaceae: Lycopodiopsida) from Pakistan. The Journal of Animal and Plant Sciences, vol. 31, no. 3, pp. 888-893. http://dx.doi.org/10.36899/JAPS.2021.3.0277.
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, bIRFAN, M., JAN, G., JAN, F.G. and MURAD, W., 2021b. Taxonomy and spore morphology of genus Adiantum (Vittarioideae; Pteridaceae) from Pakistan. Microscopy Research and Technique, vol. 84, no. 11, pp. 2727-2736. http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/jemt.23835. PMid:34051004.
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, cIRFAN, M., JAN, G., JAN, F.G. and MURAD, W., 2021c. Taxonomy and spore morphology of selected taxa of Cheilanthoideae and Pteridoideae (Pteridaceae) from Pakistan. Microscopy Research and Technique, vol. 84, no. 12, pp. 2867-2882. http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/jemt.23845. PMid:34121271.
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).
2. Materials and Methods
Ethnomedical and traditional uses of the ferns in Khyber Pakhtunkhwa were investigated through questionnaire method from the local inhabitants; herbal practitioners, Hakeem’s, medicinal plants traders, wound healers and aged women from March 2018 to August 2019. A total of 150 questionnaires were conducted from informers at different districts of Khyber Pakhtunkhwa, Pakistan, i.e. Abbottabad, Buner, Chitral, Dir Lower, Dir Upper, Khyber, Kurram, Malakand, Mansehra, Swabi, Swat, Shangla and Torghar. During field trips the potential indigenous knowledge about its use were documented. Plant specimens were collected, photographed, tagged, pressed, preserved and mounted on exsiccates and later deposited at the herbarium of Abdul Wali Khan University, Mardan, Khyber Pakhtunkhwa, Pakistan. Plant specimens were identified by Mr. C. R. Fraser-Jenkins and were classified according to (PPG-I, 2016).
Fidelity level (FL) was calculated according to Equation 1 (Alexiades, 1996ALEXIADES, M.N., 1996. Collecting ethnobotanical data: an introduction to basic concepts and techniques. In: M.N. ALEXIADES, editor. Advances in economic botany. New York: The New York Botanical Garden Press, vol. 10, pp. 53-94.).
The fidelity level is the percentage of respondents mentioning the uses of a specific plant to treat particular disease. Ip is the number of informants independently suggested the use of various taxa for a specific disorder, while Iu is the total number of informants suggested various taxa for the ethnomedicinal purpose.
Use value (UV) was calculated according to Equation 2 (Phillips et al., 1994PHILLIPS, O.L., HALL, P., GENTRY, A.H., SAWYER, S.A. and VASQUEZ, R., 1994. Dynamics and species richness of tropical forests. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America, vol. 91, no. 7, pp. 2805-2809. http://dx.doi.org/10.1073/pnas.91.7.2805. PMid:11607468.
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).
Use value (UV) is a numerical method that proves the relative importance regarding medicinal uses of plant species; UV is the number of individual use species, Ui is the number of uses recorded for each species and Ni is the total number of informants. Use value reflects the relative importance of reported plant species in an area. High use value shows that plant species have many use reports and is important in the region, whereas low use value (approach to 0) shows that species have few use reports related to its use. However, use report is not meaningful to differentiate whether a plant species is used for single or manifold purposes (Kayani et al., 2014KAYANI, S., AHMAD, M., ZAFAR, M., SULTANA, S., KHAN, M.P.Z., ASHRAF, M.A., HUSSAIN, J. and YASEEN, G., 2014. Ethnobotanical uses of medicinal plants for respiratory disorders among the inhabitants of Gallies–Abbottabad, Northern Pakistan. Journal of Ethnopharmacology, vol. 156, pp. 47–60.).
Relative frequency was calculated according to Equation 3 (Ali-Shtayeh et al., 2016ALI-SHTAYEH, M.S., JAMOUS, R.M. and JAMOUS, R.M., 2016. Traditional Arabic Palestinian ethnoveterinary practices in animal health care: a field survey in the West Bank (Palestine). Journal of Ethnopharmacology, vol. 182, pp. 35-49. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jep.2016.02.005. PMid:26869545.
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).
Relative frequency of citation (RFC) presents the local importance of each species in a study area. To calculate RFC, number of respondents citing a useful species (FC) is divided by total number of respondents in the field survey (N). RFC value varies from 1 (when all the respondents refer to a plant as a useful one) to 0 (when nobody refers to a plant as a valuable species). FC is the number of informants using the plant species, N is the total number of informants (Ahmad et al., 2014AHMAD, M., SULTANA, S., FAZL-I-HADI, S., BEN-HADDA, T., RASHID, S., ZAFAR, M., KHAN, M.A., KHAN, M.P.Z. and YASEEN, G., 2014. An ethnobotanical study of medicinal plants in high mountainous region of Chail valley (District swat, Pakistan). Journal of Ehnobiology and Ethnomedicine, vol. 10, no. 36, pp. 1-18. https://doi.org/10.1186/1746-4269-10-36.).
Jaccard index (JI) was calculated according to Equation 4 (González-Tejero et al., 2008GONZÁLEZ-TEJERO, M.R., CASARES-PORCEL, M., SÁNCHEZ-ROJAS, C.P., RAMIRO-GUTIÉRREZ, J.M., MOLERO-MESA, J., PIERONI, A., GIUSTI, M.E., CENSORII, E., DE PASQUALE, C., DELLA, A., PARASKEVA-HADIJCHAMBI, D., HADJICHAMBIS, A., HOUMANI, Z., EL-DEMERDASH, M., EL-ZAYAT, M., HMAMOUCHI, M. and ELJOHRIG, S., 2008. Medicinal plants in the Mediterranean area: synthesis of the results of the project Rubia. Journal of Ethnopharmacology, vol. 116, no. 2, pp. 341-357. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jep.2007.11.045. PMid:18242025.
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).
“a” is the total number of taxa used in Khyber Pakhtunkhwa, Pakistan, “b” is the total number of taxa previously published in each article from India, while “c” is the total number of taxa common to both A and B.
The similarity of knowledge between different communities was determined by comparing the findings of the current study with already published articles from India by applying Jaccard index. The studies conducted on the areas with similar, vegetation, climatic condition, and culture was considered for comparison.
3. Results
The current research found 40 taxa of ferns belongs to 19 genera and 10 families with ethnomedicinal and traditional used in the prophylaxis of different ailments (Table 1). Amongst 10 ferns plant families Pteridaceae was largest with 12 taxa (30%), followed by Athyriaceae and Dryopteridaceae with 6 taxa each (30%), Thelypteridaceae with five (12.5%), followed by Aspleniaceae presenting 4 (10%) and Equisetaceae with 3 taxa (7.5%). Blechnaceae, Hypodematiaceae, Marsileaceae and Woodsiaceae presented 1 taxon each (10%) (Figure 1, Table 1). Adiantun, Asplenium and Dryopteris were the most representative genera with 4 taxa each (30%), followed by Aleuritopteris, Diplazium, Pteris and Equisetum were second with 3 taxa each (30%), Athyrium, Oeosporangium, Polystichum and Pseudophegopteris with 2 taxa each (20%), and Ampelopteris, Christella, Cystopteris, Hypodematium, Marsilea, Phegopteris, Woodsia and Woodwardia with 1 taxon each (20%) (Figure 2, Table 1). All of these taxa were used in the treatment of different diseases, i.e. healing of wounds, general tonic, asthma, bronchitis, pneumonia, skin infections, ulcer, sterility in women, diabetes, hepatitis, gonorrhea, common cold, as an anthelmintic, rheumatism, epilepsy and osteoporosis while two taxa of Diplazium were used as a vegetable. Different parts of ferns were used by local inhabitants, i.e. young leaves of twenty one taxa (52.5%), rhizome of nine taxa (22.5%), young frond of seven taxa (17.5%), cones of two taxa (5%), while whole plant of only one taxa (2.5%) were used. Seven taxa was used for skin infections (17.5%), followed by female sterility and general tonic with 4 taxa each (20%), followed by intestinal disorders and wound healings with 3 taxa each (15%), lungs, bones, stomach disorders have 2 taxa each (15%), while remaining disorders, i.e. antivenom, rheumatism, migraine, diabetes, epilepsy and as an expectorant etc have only 1 taxon each (32.5%) were used for treating them (Table 1). The effectiveness of the treatments described has not been tested, as the present study aimed to rescue and record the knowledge contained in traditional populations regarding ferns and how they are used by these inhabitants. Frequency and percentage of different ethnic groups in the area resulted that Pashto was the dominant language (98%) followed by Gujars (2%). Gender wise men had more information about vernacular names and uses of taxa (70%) followed by women (30%). Hakims, wound healers, medicinal plant traders and farmers presented more information on the use of these taxa. Locality wise rural and hilly areas (81.33%) people have more knowledge about the ethnomedicinal uses of taxa, followed by suburban and urban areas (19.67%).
Representation of ethnomedicinal and traditional uses of the ferns families of Khyber Pakhtunkhwa, Pakistan.
Representation of ethnomedicinal and traditional uses of the ferns genera of Khyber Pakhtunkhwa, Pakistan.
3.1. Use value (UV)
Use value is used to identify the plant species which was used extensively amongst indigenous communities for various ailments. In present study use value of ferns species ranges from (0.90) to (0.04); the highest use value reported were of Athyrium atkinsoni and Christella dentata (0.90) each, followed by Equisetum arvense subsp. arvense, E. ramossimum and Pteris vittata subsp. vittata with (0.80) each, Diplazium longifolium, D. maximum, Equisetum arvense subsp. diffusum and Pteris vittata subsp. emodi (0.60) each, Pteris cretica subsp. cretica (0.50), Diplazium esculentum (0.40), Pseudophegopteris levingei and woodwardia unigemata (0.20) each, Asplenium trichomanes subsp. trichomanes (0.15) and Adiantum tibeticum with (0.12). The species with lowest use value were Dryopteris blandfordi subsp. blanfordi (0.04), Ampelopteris prolifera, Phegopteris connectalis (0.05) each, Aleuritopteris grisea, Asplenium ceterach subsp. ceterach and Dryopteris nigropalacea (0.06) each, Aleuritopteris formosana, Oeosporangium nitidulum (0.07) each, Aleuritopteris albomarginata, Hypodematum crenatium subsp. crenatum and Dryopteris redactopinnata (0.08) each (Table 1).
3.2. Fidelity level (FL)
The fidelity level (FL) of ferns species ranged from 0.96 to 0.10 with highest fidelity level (FL) were Equisetum arvense subsp. diffusum (0.96), followed by Aleuritopteris albomarginata (0.94), Equisetum arvense subsp. arvense, and Marsilea minuta (0.93) each, Aleuritopteris formosana (0.90) and Adiantum incisum subsp. incisum (0.80) while species with lowest fidelity level (FL) were Athyrium schimperi (0.10), Asplenium adiantum-nigrum subsp. adiantum-nigrum, Pteris vittata subsp. emodi (0.13) each, Woodwardia unigemata, Dryopteris blandfordi subsp. blanfordi, Hypodematium crenatum subsp. crenatum, Christella dentata and Woodsia cycloba (0.20) each, Asplenium trichomanes subsp. trichomanes (0.26), Pteris cretica subsp. cretica (0.30) and Equisetum ramossimum (0.08) (Table 1).
3.3. Relative frequency of citation (RFC)
In present study the relative frequency of citation (RFC) ranged from 0.68 to 0.06 with highest value were of Equisetum ramossimum (0.68) followed by Dryopteris stewartii (0.61), Diplazium maximum (0.60), Diplazium longifolium (0.50) and Equisetum arvense subsp. arvense, Adiantum capillus-veneris and Adiantum incisum subsp. incisum (0.46) each; while species with lowest relative frequency of citation (RFC) were Adiantum venusetum (0.06) followed by Aleuritopteris albomarginata (0.07), Woodwardia unigemata (0.10), Polystichum piceopalaceum (0.15), Hypodematium crenatum subsp. crenatum and Pseudophegopteris microstegia subsp. laterpens with (0.16) each (Table 1).
3.4. Jaccard index (JI)
Comparison of our study with the previously published articles from India jaccard index (JI) ranged from 5.5 to minus 0.10. The highest Jaccard index (JI) value 5.5, 5.0, 3.33, 3.14 and 2.57 were reported from Rajasthan, India (Parihar and Parihar, 2006PARIHAR, P. and PARIHAR, L., 2006. Some Pteridophytes of medicinal importance from Rajasthan, India. Natural Product Radiance, vol. 5, no. 4, pp. 297-301.); Kolli Hills, Namakkal District,Tamil Nadu, India (Perumal, 2010PERUMAL, G., 2010. Ethnomedicinal Use of Pteridophyte from Kolli Hills, Namakkal District, Tamil Nadu,India. Ethnobotanical Leaflets, vol. 14, pp. 161-172.); Similipal Biosphere Reserve, Orissa, India (Rout et al., 2009ROUT, S.D., PANDA, T. and MISHRA, N., 2009. Ethnomedicinal studies on some pteridophytes of similipal biosphere reserve, Orissa, India. International Journal of Medicine and Medical Sciences, vol. 1, no. 5, pp. 192-197.) and Vindhyan Region (M.P.) India (Pathak et al., 2011PATHAK, A., SINGH, A. and Singh, A.P., 2011. Ethnomedicinal uses of pteridophytes of Vindhyan Region (M.P.). International Journal of Pharmacy and Life Sciences, vol. 1, no. 2, pp. 496-498.) respectively; while lowest Jaccard index (JI) were -1.0, 0.31, 0.69 and 0.79 were reported from the studies of different parts of India (Kumar et al., 2003KUMAR, M., REMESH, M. and SEQUIERA, S., 2003. Medicinal pteridophytes of Kerala, South India. Indian Fern Journal, vol. 20, pp. 1-28.); Western Ghats, India (Benjamin and Manickkam, 2007BENJAMIN, A. and MANICKKAM, V.S., 2007. Medicinal Pteridophytes from Western Ghats. Indian Journal of Traditional Knowledge, vol. 6, no. 4, pp. 611-618.); Banajalaya conserved forest of Shimoga District, Karnataka, India (Deepa et al., 2014DEEPA, J., ASHWINI, S. and PARASHURAMA, T.R., 2014. Enumeration of pteridophytes in Banajalaya conserved forest area of Shimoga District, Karnataka. Asian Pacific Journal of Health Sciences, vol. 1, no. 4, pp. 448-450. http://dx.doi.org/10.21276/apjhs.2014.1.4.23.
http://dx.doi.org/10.21276/apjhs.2014.1....
) and Arunachal Pradesh, North eastern India (Benniamin, 2011BENNIAMIN, A., 2011. Medicinal ferns of North Eastern India with special reference to Arunachal Pradesh. Indian Journal of Traditional Knowledge, vol. 10, no. 3, pp. 516-522.) respectively. Overall the percentage of similar uses ranges from 0.07 to 40.0% and percentage of dissimilar uses ranges from 0 to 12.50% (Table 2).
4. Discussion
Comparison of our results with previously published articles have highest similarity use index with Kolli hills, Namakkal District, Tamil Nadu, India (Perumal, 2010PERUMAL, G., 2010. Ethnomedicinal Use of Pteridophyte from Kolli Hills, Namakkal District, Tamil Nadu,India. Ethnobotanical Leaflets, vol. 14, pp. 161-172.); Rajasthan, India (Parihar and Parihar, 2006PARIHAR, P. and PARIHAR, L., 2006. Some Pteridophytes of medicinal importance from Rajasthan, India. Natural Product Radiance, vol. 5, no. 4, pp. 297-301.); Kerala, South India (Kumar et al., 2003KUMAR, M., REMESH, M. and SEQUIERA, S., 2003. Medicinal pteridophytes of Kerala, South India. Indian Fern Journal, vol. 20, pp. 1-28.); Vindhyan Region (M.P.), India (Pathak et al., 2011PATHAK, A., SINGH, A. and Singh, A.P., 2011. Ethnomedicinal uses of pteridophytes of Vindhyan Region (M.P.). International Journal of Pharmacy and Life Sciences, vol. 1, no. 2, pp. 496-498.); Similipal Biosphere Reserve, Orissa, India (Rout et al., 2009ROUT, S.D., PANDA, T. and MISHRA, N., 2009. Ethnomedicinal studies on some pteridophytes of similipal biosphere reserve, Orissa, India. International Journal of Medicine and Medical Sciences, vol. 1, no. 5, pp. 192-197.); Kumaun Himalaya, Uttarakhand, India (Upreti et al., 2009UPRETI, K., JALAL, J.S., TEWARI, L.M., JOSHI, G.C., PANGTEY, Y.P.S. and TEWARI, G., 2009. Ethnomedicinal uses of Pteridophytes of Kumaun Himalaya, Uttarakhand, India. The Journal of American Science, vol. 5, no. 4, pp. 167-170.); Western Ghats, India (Benjamin and Manickkam, 2007BENJAMIN, A. and MANICKKAM, V.S., 2007. Medicinal Pteridophytes from Western Ghats. Indian Journal of Traditional Knowledge, vol. 6, no. 4, pp. 611-618.); Arunachal Pradesh, North Eastern, India (Benniamin, 2011BENNIAMIN, A., 2011. Medicinal ferns of North Eastern India with special reference to Arunachal Pradesh. Indian Journal of Traditional Knowledge, vol. 10, no. 3, pp. 516-522.) and Banajalaya conserved forest area of Shimoga District, Karnataka, India (Deepa et al., 2014DEEPA, J., ASHWINI, S. and PARASHURAMA, T.R., 2014. Enumeration of pteridophytes in Banajalaya conserved forest area of Shimoga District, Karnataka. Asian Pacific Journal of Health Sciences, vol. 1, no. 4, pp. 448-450. http://dx.doi.org/10.21276/apjhs.2014.1.4.23.
http://dx.doi.org/10.21276/apjhs.2014.1....
), while the lowest JI values were resulted with Kerala, South India (Kumar et al., 2003KUMAR, M., REMESH, M. and SEQUIERA, S., 2003. Medicinal pteridophytes of Kerala, South India. Indian Fern Journal, vol. 20, pp. 1-28.); Banajalaya conserved forest area of Shimoga District, Karnataka, India (Deepa et al., 2014DEEPA, J., ASHWINI, S. and PARASHURAMA, T.R., 2014. Enumeration of pteridophytes in Banajalaya conserved forest area of Shimoga District, Karnataka. Asian Pacific Journal of Health Sciences, vol. 1, no. 4, pp. 448-450. http://dx.doi.org/10.21276/apjhs.2014.1.4.23.
http://dx.doi.org/10.21276/apjhs.2014.1....
); Arunachal Pradesh, North Eastern, India (Benniamin, 2011BENNIAMIN, A., 2011. Medicinal ferns of North Eastern India with special reference to Arunachal Pradesh. Indian Journal of Traditional Knowledge, vol. 10, no. 3, pp. 516-522.); Kumaun Himalaya, Uttarakhand, India (Upreti et al., 2009UPRETI, K., JALAL, J.S., TEWARI, L.M., JOSHI, G.C., PANGTEY, Y.P.S. and TEWARI, G., 2009. Ethnomedicinal uses of Pteridophytes of Kumaun Himalaya, Uttarakhand, India. The Journal of American Science, vol. 5, no. 4, pp. 167-170.); Rajasthan, India (Parihar and Parihar, 2006PARIHAR, P. and PARIHAR, L., 2006. Some Pteridophytes of medicinal importance from Rajasthan, India. Natural Product Radiance, vol. 5, no. 4, pp. 297-301.); Similipal Biosphere Reserve, Orissa, India (Rout et al., 2009ROUT, S.D., PANDA, T. and MISHRA, N., 2009. Ethnomedicinal studies on some pteridophytes of similipal biosphere reserve, Orissa, India. International Journal of Medicine and Medical Sciences, vol. 1, no. 5, pp. 192-197.) and Kolli hills, Namakkal District, Tamil Nadu, India (Perumal, 2010PERUMAL, G., 2010. Ethnomedicinal Use of Pteridophyte from Kolli Hills, Namakkal District, Tamil Nadu,India. Ethnobotanical Leaflets, vol. 14, pp. 161-172.) respectively (Table 2).
5. Conclusion
Ethnomedicinally ferns taxa were utilized by the local inhabitants in the curing of various ailments, i.e. diabetes, hepatitis, hair loss, bones disorders, female infertility, stomach, urinary and intestinal disorders, bronchial disorders, wound healings, general tonic, epilepsy, hair care, inflammation of skin, antivenom, anthelmintic, and fair complexion to treat skin problems with strong potential. These taxa may be utilized commercially for drug discovery, keeping in view of their availability and sustainable supply. Cultivation of these taxa for medicine and ornamental purpose is highly needed. Education plays a key role in awareness about the uses of medicinal plants at scientific basis which can leads to drug discovery.
Acknowledgements
The authors are grateful to local inhabitants of Khyber Pakhtunkhwa, Pakistan for sharing their valuable indigenous knowledge with us. Special thanks to Mr. C.R. Fraser-Jenkins for identifying collections, providing brief lists of specimens, detailed helpful comments on the typescript and valuable suggestions about the Lycophytes and Ferns of Pakistan. The authors are also grateful to Dr. Li-Bing Zhang and Prof. Dr. Rainer W. Bussmann for their help in writing of manuscript. The first author is grateful for funds received from Higher education commission of Pakistan as an International Ph.D. scholar. The authors also extend their appreciation to the Deanship of Scientific Research at King Khalid University for funding this work through Research group Project under grant number (R.G.P.1/39/42).
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Publication Dates
-
Publication in this collection
20 Dec 2021 -
Date of issue
2024
History
-
Received
25 Mar 2021 -
Accepted
22 Sept 2021