ABSTRACT
Wildfire events cause considerable environmental disturbance but few studies have examined changes in soil properties due to fire. This study aimed to assess the effect of a wildfire event on chemical, physical, and biological properties of the soil in a eucalyptus forest in the Pampa biome. Part of a seven-year-old eucalyptus forest was affected by a wildfire event that lasted for two days. Soil and plant litter sampling was performed in three areas: in the forest that was not affected by the fire, in the forest affected by it, and in an adjacent natural pasture area (the original vegetation). Seven samples were collected from the 0.00-0.05 and 0.05-0.20 m layers of each plot for biological analysis, and three samples were collected for chemical and physical analyses. Disturbed soil samples were collected in order to determine pH, organic matter, acidity, and nutrient content. Undisturbed samples were collected to determine soil microporosity, macroporosity, total porosity, and density. Soil macrofauna was assessed through the Tropical Soil Biology and Fertility method, and biological activity was tested through substrate consumption in the bait-lamina test. The fire increased soil pH values, CEC, and base saturation, as well as K, Ca, and Mg content; it decreased potential acidity and P content in the soil. Soil physical properties were not altered by the wildfire. The total abundance of macrofauna and of annelids, arachnids, coleoptera, and isoptera decreased due to the wildfire, resulting in lower soil diversity. Hymenoptera abundance increased because of the fire event. The feeding activity of organisms in the soil surface layer decreased due to the fire. The wildfire in the eucalyptus forest in the Pampa biome altered soil chemical and biological properties.
fire; environmental disturbance; soil quality; soil diversity
INTRODUCTION
Natural environmental disturbances occur in ecosystems and are essential factors in ecosystem dynamics (Gongalsky et al., 2012Gongalsky KB, Malmström A, Zaitsev AS, Shakhab SV, Bengtsson J, Persson T. Do burned areas recover from inside? An experiment with soil fauna in a heterogeneous landscape. Appl Soil Ecol. 2012;59:73-86. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.apsoil.2012.03.017
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.apsoil.2012.03...
). Wildfires are one of the main sources of disturbance (Alves and Nógrega, 2011Alves KMAS, Nóbrega RS. Uso de dados climáticos para análise espacial de risco de incêndio florestal. Mercator. 2011;10:209-19. https://doi.org/10.4215/RM2011.1022.0013
https://doi.org/10.4215/RM2011.1022.0013...
; Verble-Pearson and Yanoviak, 2014Verble-Pearson RM, Yanoviak SP. Effects of fire intensity on litter arthropod communities in Ozark oak forests, Arkansas, U.S.A. Am Midl Nat. 2014;172:14-24. https://doi.org/10.1674/0003-0031-172.1.14
https://doi.org/10.1674/0003-0031-172.1....
; Zaitsev et al., 2016Zaitsev AS, Gongalsky KB, Malmström A, Persson T, Bengtsson J. Why are forest fires generally neglected in soil fauna research? A mini-review. Appl Soil Ecol. 2016;98:261-71. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.apsoil.2015.10.012
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.apsoil.2015.10...
) and they can alter soil physical (Mataix-Solera et al., 2011Mataix-Solera J, Cerdà A, Arcenegui V, Jordán A, Zavala LM. Fire effects on soil aggregation: a review. Earth-Sci Rev. 2011;109:44-60. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.earscirev.2011.08.002
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), chemical (Redin et al., 2011Redin M, Santos GF, Miguel P, Denega GL, Lupatini M, Doneda A, Souza EL. Impactos da queima sobre atributos químicos, físicos e biológicos do solo. Cienc Florest. 2011;21:381-92. https://doi.org/10.5902/198050983243
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), and biological properties (Myers and Harms, 2011Myers JA, Harms KE. Seed arrival and ecological filters interact to assemble high-diversity plant communities. Ecology. 2011;92:676-86. https://doi.org/10.1890/10-1001.1
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; Gongalsky and Persson, 2013Gongalsky KB, Persson T. Recovery of soil macrofauna after wildfires in boreal forests. Soil Biol Biochem. 2013;57:182-91. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.soilbio.2012.07.005
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).
Wildfires are a high concern in Brazilian forest activity because planted forests cover approximately 7.8 million hectares (Ibá, 2016Indústria Brasileira de Árvores - Ibá. Report Ibá 2016. Brasília, DF: Indústria Brasileira de Árvores; 2016 [acesso em 23 abr 2017]. Available at: http://iba.org/images/shared/Biblioteca/IBA_RelatorioAnual2016_.pdf
http://iba.org/images/shared/Biblioteca/...
). Cultivated areas are divided into forest massifs that measure dozens of hectares; this makes wildfires particularly dangerous. Moreover, adoption of integrated agricultural systems has been strongly encouraged in recent decades, for example, integrated crop-livestock-forestry systems. As a result, the number of fire events has increased considerably, as well as the extension of the areas burned (Alves and Nógrega, 2011).
The extent of environmental disturbances caused by these fires varies depending on the climate, the stand in the forest, the presence of combustible materials, and soil properties (Ojeda et al., 2010Ojeda F, Pausas JG, Verdú M. Soil shapes community structure through fire. Oecologia. 2010;163:729-35. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00442-009-1550-3
https://doi.org/10.1007/s00442-009-1550-...
; Lehmann et al., 2011Lehmann J, Rillig MC, Thies J, Masiello CA, Hockaday WC, Crowley D. Biochar effects on soil biota - a review. Soil Biol Biochem. 2011;43:1812-36. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.soilbio.2011.04.022
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). However, few studies describe the effects of fire on soil chemical, physical, and biological properties in Brazil, especially in the Pampa biome, which currently has approximately 1 million hectares of planted forests (Azevedo and Fialho, 2015Azevedo LF, Fialho MAV. “Florestamento” no Pampa Brasileiro: a visão dos pecuaristas familiares do Território do Alto Camaquã/RS. Desenvolv Meio Ambiente. 2015;33:209-24. https://doi.org/10.5380/dma.v33i0.35984
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).
The burning of vegetation and plant litter alters the soil surface layer and some nutrient dynamics since it catalyzes a fast and intense mineralization process (Rheinheimer et al., 2003Rheinheimer DS, Santos JCP, Fernandes VBB, Mafra AL, Almeida JA. Modificações nos atributos químicos de solo sob campo nativo submetido à queima. Cienc Rural. 2003;33:49-55. https://doi.org/10.1590/S0103-84782003000100008
https://doi.org/10.1590/S0103-8478200300...
; Boerner et al., 2009Boerner REJ, Huang J, Hart SC. Impacts of fire and fire surrogate treatments on forest soil properties: a meta-analytical approach. Ecol Appl. 2009;19:338-58. https://doi.org/10.1890/07-1767.1
https://doi.org/10.1890/07-1767.1...
). Increased N, P, K+, Ca2+, and Mg2+ contents are often found in the soil after fire events, since ash has high contents of these nutrients (Rheinheimer et al., 2003Rheinheimer DS, Santos JCP, Fernandes VBB, Mafra AL, Almeida JA. Modificações nos atributos químicos de solo sob campo nativo submetido à queima. Cienc Rural. 2003;33:49-55. https://doi.org/10.1590/S0103-84782003000100008
https://doi.org/10.1590/S0103-8478200300...
; Redin et al., 2011Redin M, Santos GF, Miguel P, Denega GL, Lupatini M, Doneda A, Souza EL. Impactos da queima sobre atributos químicos, físicos e biológicos do solo. Cienc Florest. 2011;21:381-92. https://doi.org/10.5902/198050983243
https://doi.org/10.5902/198050983243...
). A significant rise in soil pH (Boerner et al., 2009Boerner REJ, Huang J, Hart SC. Impacts of fire and fire surrogate treatments on forest soil properties: a meta-analytical approach. Ecol Appl. 2009;19:338-58. https://doi.org/10.1890/07-1767.1
https://doi.org/10.1890/07-1767.1...
; Hylander et al., 2011Hylander K. The response of land snail assemblages below aspens to forest fire and clear-cutting in Fennoscandian boreal forests. Forest Ecol Manag. 2011;26:1811-9. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.foreco.2011.02.003
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.foreco.2011.02...
) and even changes in soil mineralogy are other fire effects (Orrutéa et al., 2012Orrutéa AG, Melo VF, Motta ACV, Lima VC. Mineralogia e reserva de K de Cambissolos submetidos a diferentes manejos após derrubada e queima da floresta na Amazônia Meridional. Acta Amazon. 2012;42:461-70. https://doi.org/10.1590/S0044-59672012000400003
https://doi.org/10.1590/S0044-5967201200...
).
Burning of forest areas can cause changes in soil physical properties (Mataix-Solera et al., 2011Mataix-Solera J, Cerdà A, Arcenegui V, Jordán A, Zavala LM. Fire effects on soil aggregation: a review. Earth-Sci Rev. 2011;109:44-60. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.earscirev.2011.08.002
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.earscirev.2011...
; Verma and Jayakumar, 2012Verma S, Jayakumar S. Impact of forest fire on physical, chemical and biological properties of soil: a review. Proc Int Acad Ecol Environ Sci. 2012;2:168-76.; Thomaz et al., 2014Thomaz EL, Antoneli V, Doerr SH. Effects of fire on the physicochemical properties of soil in a slash-and-burn agriculture. Catena. 2014;122:209-15. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.catena.2014.06.016
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.catena.2014.06...
). Forest fires increase soil hydrophobicity through the formation of a water repellent layer, which decrease soil-water affinity and increased water and soil losses (Keesstra et al., 2017Keesstra S, Wittenberg L, Maroulis J, Sambalino F, Malkinson D, Cerdà A, Pereira P. The influence of fire history, plant species and post-fire management on soil water repellency in a Mediterranean catchment: the Mount Carmel range, Israel. Catena. 2017;149:857-66. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.catena.2016.04.006
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.catena.2016.04...
; Vogelmann et al., 2017Vogelmann ES, Reichert JM, Prevedello J, Awe GO, Cerdà A. Soil moisture influences sorptivity and water repellency of topsoil aggregates in native grasslands. Geoderma. 2017;305:374-81.). Wildfire exposes the surface of minerals, alters the aggregates stability (Redin et al., 2011Redin M, Santos GF, Miguel P, Denega GL, Lupatini M, Doneda A, Souza EL. Impactos da queima sobre atributos químicos, físicos e biológicos do solo. Cienc Florest. 2011;21:381-92. https://doi.org/10.5902/198050983243
https://doi.org/10.5902/198050983243...
), increases density, and alters soil texture (Stoof et al., 2010Stoof CR, Wesseling JG, Ritsema CJ. Effects of fire and ash on soil water retention. Geoderma. 2010;159:276-85. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.geoderma.2010.08.002
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.geoderma.2010....
). Burning (temperature >300 °C) may increase clay and silt content which can be explained by the physical weathering of sand-sized particles in silt and clay particles. However, other authors show that burning in forest areas did not cause large changes in soil physical properties (Spera et al., 2000Spera ST, Reatto A, Correia JR, Silva JCS. Características físicas de um Latossolo Vermelho-escuro no cerrado de Planaltina, DF, submetido à ação do fogo. Pesq Agropec Bras. 2000;35:1817-24. https://doi.org/10.1590/S0100-204X2000000900014
https://doi.org/10.1590/S0100-204X200000...
; Boerner et al., 2009Boerner REJ, Huang J, Hart SC. Impacts of fire and fire surrogate treatments on forest soil properties: a meta-analytical approach. Ecol Appl. 2009;19:338-58. https://doi.org/10.1890/07-1767.1
https://doi.org/10.1890/07-1767.1...
; Thomaz et al., 2014)Thomaz EL, Antoneli V, Doerr SH. Effects of fire on the physicochemical properties of soil in a slash-and-burn agriculture. Catena. 2014;122:209-15. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.catena.2014.06.016
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.catena.2014.06...
.
Wildfires can reduce soil fauna abundance and richness in the short term (Verble-Pearson and Yanoviak, 2014Verble-Pearson RM, Yanoviak SP. Effects of fire intensity on litter arthropod communities in Ozark oak forests, Arkansas, U.S.A. Am Midl Nat. 2014;172:14-24. https://doi.org/10.1674/0003-0031-172.1.14
https://doi.org/10.1674/0003-0031-172.1....
) due to the immediate death of many organisms from the direct effects of fire (Gongalsky et al., 2016Gongalsky KB, Zaitsev AS, Korobushkin DI, Saifutdinov RA, Yazrikova TE, Benediktova AI, Gorbunova AY, Gorshkova IA, Butenko KO, Kosina NV, Lapygina EV, Kuznetsova DM, Rakhleeva AA, Shakhab SV. Diversity of the soil biota in burned areas of southern taiga forests (Tver oblast). Eurasian Soil Sci. 2016;49:358-66. https://doi.org/10.1134/S1064229316030042
https://doi.org/10.1134/S106422931603004...
). Longer term reduction also comes from the indirect effects of destruction of vegetation, plant litter, and surface and sub-surface organic matter in the soil, as well as from changes in temperature and moisture conditions, among other factors (Thomaz et al., 2014Thomaz EL, Antoneli V, Doerr SH. Effects of fire on the physicochemical properties of soil in a slash-and-burn agriculture. Catena. 2014;122:209-15. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.catena.2014.06.016
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.catena.2014.06...
; Shaw et al., 2016Shaw EA, Denef K, De Tomasel CM, Cotrufo MF, Wall DH. Fire affects root decomposition, soil food web structure, and carbon flow in tallgrass prairie. Soil. 2016;2:199-210. https://doi.org/10.5194/soil-2-199-2016
https://doi.org/10.5194/soil-2-199-2016...
).
The recovery of organism communities in the soil after the fire event is slow and it depends on burning intensity, among other factors (Malmström, 2006Malmström A. Effects of wildfire and prescribed burning on soil fauna in boreal coniferous forests [thesis]. Uppsala: Swedish University of Agricultural Sciences; 2006.; Gongalsky et al., 2012Gongalsky KB, Malmström A, Zaitsev AS, Shakhab SV, Bengtsson J, Persson T. Do burned areas recover from inside? An experiment with soil fauna in a heterogeneous landscape. Appl Soil Ecol. 2012;59:73-86. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.apsoil.2012.03.017
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.apsoil.2012.03...
). The time needed to recover the abundance and richness of these species after low-intensity fires in mixed forests in the United States can be approximately one year (Verble-Pearson and Yanoviak, 2014Verble-Pearson RM, Yanoviak SP. Effects of fire intensity on litter arthropod communities in Ozark oak forests, Arkansas, U.S.A. Am Midl Nat. 2014;172:14-24. https://doi.org/10.1674/0003-0031-172.1.14
https://doi.org/10.1674/0003-0031-172.1....
), but recovery can require up to ten years when the fire is intense, as in the case of pine forests in Sweden (Malmström, 2006Malmström A. Effects of wildfire and prescribed burning on soil fauna in boreal coniferous forests [thesis]. Uppsala: Swedish University of Agricultural Sciences; 2006.). Moreover, it has been shown that after wildfires, the communities of soil organisms form a food chain structure that is drastically different from the one observed before the fire (Cairney and Bastias, 2007Cairney JWG, Bastias BA. Influences of fire on forest soil fungal communities. Can J Forest Res. 2007;37:207-15. https://doi.org/10.1139/x06-190
https://doi.org/10.1139/x06-190...
; Gongalsky et al., 2012Gongalsky KB, Malmström A, Zaitsev AS, Shakhab SV, Bengtsson J, Persson T. Do burned areas recover from inside? An experiment with soil fauna in a heterogeneous landscape. Appl Soil Ecol. 2012;59:73-86. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.apsoil.2012.03.017
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.apsoil.2012.03...
).
Forest fires appear to alter several soil properties, and there is a lack of scientific information on the subject, especially for the Pampa biome. Thus, this study aimed to assess the effect of wildfire on soil chemical, physical, and biological properties in a eucalyptus forest in the Pampa biome.
MATERIALS AND METHODS
Study site characterization
The study was carried out in the municipality of São Gabriel (30° 25’ 49.74” S and 54° 22’ 5.86” W), in the Pampa Biome, in the state of Rio Grande do Sul (RS), Brazil. The climate is Cfa, according to the Köppen classification system; it has a sub-tropical humid type climate, with hot summers and mean annual temperature of 18.5 °C (Moreno, 1961Moreno JA. Clima do Rio Grande do Sul. Boletim Geográfico do Rio Grande do Sul; 1961. p. 49-83.). Rainfall throughout the period studied (January to April 2012) was 133 mm (Figure 1), which was 66 % lower than the normal mean rainfall (Inmet, 1992Instituto Nacional de Meteorologia - Inmet. Normais climatológicas do brasil 1961-1990. Brasília-DF; 1992 [acesso em 08 jun 2017]. Disponível em: http://www.inmet.gov.br/portal/index.php?r=clima/normaisClimatologicas
http://www.inmet.gov.br/portal/index.php...
). The soil is classified as an Argissolo Bruno-Acinzentado (Santos et al., 2013Santos HG, Jacomine PKT, Anjos LHC, Oliveira VA, Oliveira JB, Coelho MR, Lumbreras JF, Cunha TJF. Sistema brasileiro de classificação de solos. 3. ed. rev. ampl. Rio de Janeiro: Embrapa Solos; 2013.) or Typic Hapludalf (Soil Survey Staff, 2014Soil Survey Staff. Keys to soil taxonomy. 12th ed. Washington, DC: United States Department of Agriculture, Natural Resources Conservation Service; 2014.), and the natural vegetation is typical of the Pampa biome. The main plant species in the area were Saccharum angustifolium, Aristida laevis, Eryngium pandanifolium, and Paspalum ssp. This natural pastureland is used for extensive bovine and ovine raising on a slightly rolling topography.
Accumulated rainfall and the mean, maximum, and minimum air temperature in 15-day intervals throughout the months of the study in São Gabriel, RS, Brazil. The time-period between dotted lines corresponds to sampling days.
In 2005, 20 hectares of Eucalyptus dunnii were established in this natural pastureland; the eucalyptus seedlings were planted at a spacing of 2 × 2 m. A fire of unknown cause in 2012 lasted two days. It affected plant litter, tree branches, and tree canopy in four hectares, since the flames did not cross roads and firebreaks (Figure 2). The natural pasture used in the study covers 5 hectares; it is adjacent to the eucalyptus forest and was not affected by the fire.
Overview of the eucalyptus forest, of the burnt area (AWF), and of the unburnt area (EF) in São Gabriel, RS, Brazil.
Soil chemical and physical properties
Evaluations were performed in the following three areas two months after the wildfire event: in the eucalyptus forest that was not affected by the wildfire (EF); in the eucalyptus forest affected by the wildfire (AWF); and in the natural pasture adjacent to the forest (NP).
Four plant litter samples (50 × 50 m) were collected from each area, and dry matter was determined after 72 h at 65 °C in a forced-air circulation laboratory oven. Three soil samples from the 0.00-0.05 and 0.05-0.20 m layers were collected from each area at 20 m from each other and from the edge of the area. The disturbed soil samples were used to determine: pH in soil water suspension (1:1), clay content in densimeter, organic matter content by Walkley-Black method, available P extracted with Mehlich-1 and determined in spectrophotometer (660 nm), available K extracted with Mehlich-1 and determined in flame photometer, contents of Ca2+ and Mg2+ extracted by EDTA and determined by atomic absorption spectrophotometry; S extracted by Ca3(PO4)2 and determined in spectrophotometer (440 nm), potential acidity estimated by H+Al and the cation exchanging capacity (CEC) at pH 7.
Undisturbed samples were collected (with the aid of volumetric rings) and used for soil physical analysis. Soil density was determined according to Claessen (1997)Claessen MEC. Manual de métodos de análise de solo. 2. ed. Rio de Janeiro: Embrapa Solos; 1997.. Samples were saturated through capillarity and weighed to determine total porosity (Tp), and macro- (Mac) and microporosity (Mic). Moisture at equilibrium stress -0.006 MPa was obtained on a tension table (Reinert and Reichert, 2006Reinert DJ, Reichert JM. Coluna de areia para medir a retenção de água no solo - protótipos e teste. Cienc Rural. 2006;36:1930-5. https://doi.org/10.1590/S0103-84782006000600044
https://doi.org/10.1590/S0103-8478200600...
).
Sampling fauna in the soil
Soil fauna was sampled along with the soil collected to check chemical and physical properties. Macrofauna was assessed through the Tropical Soil Biology and Fertility (TSBF) method (Anderson and Ingram, 1993Anderson JM, Ingram JSI. Tropical soil biology and fertility: a handbook of methods. 2nd ed. Wallingford: CAB International; 1993.) by collection in seven blocks from each area (0.25 × 0.25 × 0.20 m). The sites were 10 m distant from each other and 20 m from the edge, for a total of 21 samples. The soil blocks were collected manually. The organisms were identified at the order level with the aid of a stereoscopic microscope.
The bait-lamina method was used to assess the activity of the soil organisms (Torne, 1990Torne EV. Assessing feeding activities of soil-living animals - I. bait-lamina-tests. Pedobiologia. 1990;34:89-101.). This method consists of using an apparatus composed of plastic slides (120 × 6 × 1 mm) with 16 holes of 1.5 mm diameter, spaced 5 mm from each other (Torne, 1990Torne EV. Assessing feeding activities of soil-living animals - I. bait-lamina-tests. Pedobiologia. 1990;34:89-101.). These holes were filled with the substrate to be consumed by the soil organisms. The substrate was composed of a homogeneous mixture of powdered cellulose (70 %), wheat flour (27 %), activated charcoal (3 %), and water (Kratz, 1998Kratz W. The bait-lamina test: general aspects applications and perspectives. Environ Sci Pollut Res. 1998;5:94-6. https://doi.org/10.1007/BF02986394
https://doi.org/10.1007/BF02986394...
). The holes in the bait lamina were filled manually; after drying at room temperature, the procedure was repeated in order to completely fill the holes with the substrate (Podgaiski et al., 2011Podgaiski LR, Silveira FS, Mendonça Junior MS. Avaliação da atividade alimentar dos invertebrados de solo em campos do Sul do Brasil - Bait-lamina Test. EntomoBrasilis. 2011;4:108-13.). In each area, 4 sites of 1 m2 were demarcated in which 16 slides were inserted in the soil. Thirty slides were placed in the natural pasture at each site, since 14 slides were used for monitoring consumption. The slides were left in the field for 50 days, which was the time necessary for 60 % of the substrate in the natural pasture to be consumed in at least one replication. The slides were carefully collected and stored in hermetically sealed plastic bags and taken to the laboratory. The slides were assessed as unconsumed (score 0 %), partially consumed (score 50 %), and completely consumed (score 100 %); the assessment procedure was performed with the aid of lighting and a magnifying glass.
Data analysis
The number of individuals of macrofauna in the soil in all treatments was transformed (x0.5) for purposes of data normalization. The soil chemical [pH(H2O), CEC, V%, H+Al, clay, OM, P, K, S, Ca2+, and Mg2+], physical (soil density, total porosity, macro- and microporosity), and biological properties (macrofauna and soil activity) were subjected to analysis of variance (Anova). The means were compared by the Scott-Knott test (p<0.05) when they were significant in the F test (p<0.05). The Simpson (Is), Shannon (H), Margalef (DMg), and Pielou (J) diversity indexes of the macrofauna in the soil were calculated in Past® software. The properties were subjected to principal component analysis (PCA) in Statsoft Statistica 7.0 software.
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
The amount of dry matter in the plant litter of the NP, EF, and AWF areas was 1.39, 16.83, and 7.61 Mg ha-1, respectively, showing that the wildfire reduced plant litter dry matter in the forest by approximately 50 %. These values are close to those found by Freitas et al. (2013)Freitas ECS, Oliveira Neto SN, Fonseca DM, Santos MV, Leite HG, Machado VD. Deposição de serapilheira e de nutrientes no solo em sistema agrossilvipastoril com eucalipto e acácia. Rev Arvore. 2013;37:409-17. https://doi.org/10.1590/S0100-67622013000300004
https://doi.org/10.1590/S0100-6762201300...
, Viera et al. (2014)Viera M, Schumacher MV, Araújo EF, Corrêa RS, Caldeira MVW. Deposição de serapilheira e nutrientes em plantio de Eucalyptus urophyllax e E. globulus. Floresta e Ambiente. 2014;21:327-38. https://doi.org/10.1590/2179-8087.053913
https://doi.org/10.1590/2179-8087.053913...
, and Ribeiro and Soares (1998)Ribeiro GA, Soares RV. Caracterização do material combustível superficial e efeitos da queima controlada sobre sua redução em um povoamento de Eucalyptus viminalis. Cerne.1998;4:57-72. in studies conducted in a natural pasture, in eucalyptus monocultures, and in a monoculture of burnt eucalyptus. The dry matter values in NP were lower than in the EF and AWF areas due to the high grassing pressure on them.
The fire event altered many chemical properties, mainly in the surface layer, but also in the sub-surface layer (Table 1). Cation exchange capacity, pH(H2O), base saturation, organic matter, and K, Ca2+, and Mg2+ content in the soil surface layer exhibited increased values (all of them at p<0.001) in the forest affected by the fire. These properties improved 63, 25, 31, 23, 187, 117, and 93 %, respectively, in comparison to the forest not affected by the fire; and they improved 60, 33, 37, 43, 360, 126, and 71 % in comparison to the properties in the NP area, respectively. In contrast, potential acidity and phosphorus content in AWF decreased 64 and 30 % in comparison to EF (p<0.001). Comparison to NP showed 68 % reduction in potential acidity; however, there was no change in P content. According to Bodí et al. (2014)Bodí MB, Martin DA, Balfour VN, Santín C, Doerr SH, Pereira P, Cerdà A, Mataix-Solera J. Wildland fire ash: production, composition and eco-hydro-geomorphic effects. Earth-Sci Rev. 2014;130:103-27. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.earscirev.2013.12.007
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.earscirev.2013...
, large amounts of ash increase the pH(H2O) values and the content of some nutrients, thus reducing soil acidity.
The wildfire increased the organic matter content in the soil surface layer (Table 1); this same outcome was recorded by Ginzburg and Steinberger (2012)Ginzburg O, Steinberger Y. Effects of forest wildfire on soil microbial-community activity and chemical components on a temporal-seasonal scale. Plant Soil. 2012;360:243-57. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11104-012-1243-2
https://doi.org/10.1007/s11104-012-1243-...
, likely due to deposition of carbonized plant residues on the soil (González-Pérez et al., 2004González-Pérez JA, González-Vila FJ, Almendros G, Knicker H. The effect of fire on soil organic matter - a review. Environ Int. 2004;30:855-70. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.envint.2004.02.003
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.envint.2004.02...
). Phosphorus content decreased in the surface layer and increased in the sub-surface layer (0.05-0.20 m). It is likely that the organic-P fraction in the plant, microbial, and fauna biomass in the soil was mineralized by the fire (Rheinheimer et al., 2003Rheinheimer DS, Santos JCP, Fernandes VBB, Mafra AL, Almeida JA. Modificações nos atributos químicos de solo sob campo nativo submetido à queima. Cienc Rural. 2003;33:49-55. https://doi.org/10.1590/S0103-84782003000100008
https://doi.org/10.1590/S0103-8478200300...
; Silva et al., 2006Silva GR, Silva Junior ML, Melo VS. Efeitos de diferentes usos da terra sobre as características químicas de um Latossolo amarelo do estado do Pará. Acta Amaz. 2006;36:151-7. https://doi.org/10.1590/S0044-59672006000200004
https://doi.org/10.1590/S0044-5967200600...
; Ando et al., 2014Ando K, Shinjo H, Noro Y, Takenaka S, Miura R, Sokotela SB, Funakawa S. Short-term effects of fire intensity on soil organic matter and nutrient release after slash-and-burn in Eastern Province, Zambia. Soil Sci Plant Nutr. 2014;60:173-82. https://doi.org/10.1080/00380768.2014.883487
https://doi.org/10.1080/00380768.2014.88...
). Phosphorus leaching may have occurred because the soil had low clay content (Ceretta et al., 2010Ceretta CA, Lorensini F, Brunetto G, Girotto E, Gatiboni LC, Lourenzi CR, Tiecher TL, De Conti L, Trentin G, Miotto A. Frações de fósforo no solo após sucessivas aplicações de dejetos de suínos em plantio direto. Pesq Agropec Bras. 2010;45:593-602. https://doi.org/10.1590/S0100-204X2010000600009
https://doi.org/10.1590/S0100-204X201000...
; Centeno et al., 2017Centeno LN, Guevara MDF, Cecconello ST, Sousa ROD, Timm LC. Textura do solo: conceitos e aplicações em solos arenosos. Revista Brasileira de Engenharia e Sustentabilidade. 2017;4:31-7.), and the sampling procedure was conducted two months after the fire. Moreover, there was 43-mm accumulated rainfall in this time interval (Figure 1). Another aspect that may have increased P availability in the sub-surface is the high pH(H2O), which was a consequence of ash leaching, as well as of ash products.
The fire did not affect soil physical properties; however, these properties were influenced by different soil uses (Table 1). The highest microporosity values were recorded for NP in the 0.00-0.05 m layer; whereas the highest macroporosity was observed in EF. Suzuki et al. (2012)Suzuki LEAS, Lima CLR, Reinert DJ, Reichert JM, Pillon CN. Condição estrutural de um Argissolo no Rio Grande do Sul, em floresta nativa, em pastagem cultivada e em povoamento com eucalipto. Cienc Florest. 2012;22:833-43. https://doi.org/10.5902/198050987564
https://doi.org/10.5902/198050987564...
found similar results in a study assessing the effect of land use change, from pasture to eucalyptus, on physical and moisture properties of the soil in the Pampa biome. Areas covered with eucalyptus forest had higher macroporosity due to root development and decomposition in the deeper layers, to organic matter input, to exclusion of grazing, and to the action of soil organisms, which were influenced by the large amount of dry matter on the soil surface.
The wildfire reduced the total abundance of organisms in the soil by 31 % (Table 2). The relative frequency of the groups assessed decreased an average of 82 % due to the fire event. This reduction was significant (p<0.01) for arachnids, coleoptera, and isoptera, among others, and was not significant for annelids (p = 0.078) and diptera (p = 0.079). These results corroborate those of Silva et al. (2011)Silva RF, Saidelles FLF, Vasconcellos NJS, Webber DP, Manassero D. Impacto do fogo na comunidade da fauna edáfica em florestas de Eucaliptus grandis e Pinus taeda. R Bras Agrociência. 2011;17:234-41. https://doi.org/10.18539/CAST.V17I2.2054
https://doi.org/10.18539/CAST.V17I2.2054...
, who also observed a reduced total number of organisms, including arachnids and coleoptera, fifteen days after a fire event in a eucalyptus forest in the municipality of Santa Maria, Rio Grande do Sul, Brazil. Hymenoptera (ants) recorded higher relative frequency; they accounted for 71.44 % of the total of organisms identified and were the only ones whose frequency increased in the burnt area (p<0.01). These organisms are recognized as indicators of environmental disturbances in the soil (Silva et al., 2011)Silva RF, Saidelles FLF, Vasconcellos NJS, Webber DP, Manassero D. Impacto do fogo na comunidade da fauna edáfica em florestas de Eucaliptus grandis e Pinus taeda. R Bras Agrociência. 2011;17:234-41. https://doi.org/10.18539/CAST.V17I2.2054
https://doi.org/10.18539/CAST.V17I2.2054...
, and they have high mobility, which facilitates their dispersion to areas altered by the fire (Cordeiro et al., 2004)Cordeiro FC, Dias FC, Merlim AO, Correia MEF, Aquino AM, Brown G. Diversidade da macrofauna invertebrada do solo como indicadora da qualidade do solo em sistema de manejo orgânico de produção. Rev Univ Rural Ser Ci Vida. 2004;24:29-34..
The groups of annelids, arachnids, coleoptera, and isoptera showed low frequency in AWF (Table 2) because they are all very susceptible to changes in habitat (Gongalsky et al., 2012Gongalsky KB, Malmström A, Zaitsev AS, Shakhab SV, Bengtsson J, Persson T. Do burned areas recover from inside? An experiment with soil fauna in a heterogeneous landscape. Appl Soil Ecol. 2012;59:73-86. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.apsoil.2012.03.017
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.apsoil.2012.03...
). Most plant litter disappeared due to the wildfire, and many soil chemical properties, as well as soil temperature and humidity conditions, were altered by this. This process probably resulted in reduced communities of these organisms (Collins, 1969Collins MS. Water relations in termites. In: Krishna K, Weesner FM, editors. Biology of termites. New York: Academic Press; 1969. v. 1. p. 433-58.; Traoré and Lepage, 2008Traoré S, Lepage M. Effects of controlled livestock grazing and annual prescribed fire on epigeal termite mounds in a savannah woodland in Burkina Faso. Insect Soc. 2008;55:183-9. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00040-008-0998-1
https://doi.org/10.1007/s00040-008-0998-...
; Oliveira Filho et al., 2014Oliveira Filho LCI, Baretta D, Santos JCP. Influência dos processos de recuperação do solo após mineração de carvão sobre a mesofauna edáfica em Lauro Müller, Santa Catarina, Brasil. Biotemas. 2014;27:69-77. https://doi.org/10.5007/2175-7925.2014v27n2p69
https://doi.org/10.5007/2175-7925.2014v2...
). The lowest soil diversity was observed in the AWF area, and this result was confirmed by the higher Simpson index and the lower Shannon, Margalef, and Pielou indexes (Table 2). This behavior can be explained by the lower total abundance, the lower abundance of annelids, arachnids, coleoptera, and isoptera and the prevalence of hymenoptera in the area affected by the fire. These results show that the ecosystem services performed by these organisms are temporarily compromised in the burnt area, which compromises the stability, the resilience, and even the sustainability of the forest (Zaitsev et al., 2016Zaitsev AS, Gongalsky KB, Malmström A, Persson T, Bengtsson J. Why are forest fires generally neglected in soil fauna research? A mini-review. Appl Soil Ecol. 2016;98:261-71. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.apsoil.2015.10.012
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.apsoil.2015.10...
).
The mean feeding activity of organisms in the soil was 34, 30, and 34 % for NP, EF, and AWF, respectively (Figure 3). Feeding activity in the current study is quite close to that observed by Musso et al. (2014)Musso C, Miranda HS, Soares AMVM, Loureiro S. Biological activity in Cerrado soils: evaluation of vegetation, fire and seasonality effects using the “bait-lamina test”. Plant Soil. 2014;383:49-58. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11104-014-2233-3
https://doi.org/10.1007/s11104-014-2233-...
in two different seasons in burnt and unburnt areas covered by native grasses and by invasive plant species in the Brazilian Cerrado. The effects of different uses of soil and of fire on the soil organisms activity were significant in the soil surface (up to the 0.02 m depth) (Figure 3). The large accumulation of plant residue in EF resulted in higher biological activity in surface soil. In contrast, the large amount of ash on the surface and the changes in soil chemical properties in AWF inhibited biological activity at the surface. The low relative frequency of annelids and isoptera partially explains the low feeding activity of soil organisms living in deeper layers. According to Hamel et al. (2007)Hamel C, Schellenberg, MP, Hanson K, Wang H. Evaluation of the “bait-lamina test” to assess soil microfauna feeding activity in mixed grassland. Appl Soil Ecol. 2007;36:199-204. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.apsoil.2007.02.004
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.apsoil.2007.02...
, the low frequency of earthworms may explain the low feeding activity of soil fauna assessed through the bait-lamina method, especially in deeper layers.
Feeding activity of organisms in the soil at different depths under natural pasture (NP), in the eucalyptus forest (EF), and in the eucalyptus forest after wildfire (AWF), in São Gabriel, RS, Brazil. The dots represent the mean values and the horizontal bars correspond to the standard deviation.
Principal component analysis showed that the large amount of dry matter on the soil surface in EF was related to annelids, arachnids, coleoptera, diptera, and other groups (Figure 4). The incidence of these organisms in EF resulted in higher biological diversity and in a larger number of macropores. The diversity of soil fauna organisms collaborates to the genesis of soil macropores, which favors to greater water infiltration, soil aeration, and root development (Barros et al., 2001Barros E, Curmi P, Hallaire V, Chauvel A, Lavelle P. The role of macrofauna in the transformation and reversibility of soil structure of an Oxisol in the process of forest to pasture conversion. Geoderma. 2001;100:193-213. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0016-7061(00)00086-0
https://doi.org/10.1016/S0016-7061(00)00...
). The fire event increased soil pH, the contents of most nutrients, CEC, and base saturation. These properties were positively associated with the prevalence of organisms belonging to the group of hymenoptera (Figure 4). The presence of isoptera was associated with S content (resulting from OM), with the amount of micropores, as well as with total porosity, organic matter, and CEC (Figure 4). According to Holt and Legage (2000)Holt JA, Lepage M. Termites and soil properties. In: Abe T, Bignell DE, Higashi M, editors. Termites: evolution: sociality, symbioses, ecology. Dordrecht: Kluwer Academic Publischers; 2000. p. 389-407., isoptera positively influence organic residue decomposition, nutrient cycling and soil porosity.
Principal Component Analysis (PCA) between the natural pasture (NP), the eucalyptus forest (EF), and the eucalyptus forest after wildfire (AWF), and the soil physical, chemical, and biological properties in São Gabriel, RS, Brazil. Is = Simpson index; H = Shannon index; J = Pielou index; Macro = macropososity; Micro = microporosity; Porosity = total porosity; Ds = soil bulk density; OM = organic matter content; V% = base saturation; H+Al = potential acidity.
The wildfire in the eucalyptus forest led to chemical and biological changes in the soil; however, the soil physical properties did not change. The effect of fire on the chemical properties can be explained by the large amount of ash on the soil surface after plant litter, branch, and leaf burning. Soil macrofauna uses plant litter as a habitat; so, the wildfire reduced its abundance and diversity. In contrast, the hymenoptera population increased in the burnt area; it is a bioindicator of environmental impacts. The feeding activity of the soil organisms was altered by the fire event.
CONCLUSIONS
The wildfire in a seven-year-old eucalyptus forest in the Pampa biome altered the soil chemical and biological properties; however, the soil physical properties did not change.
The wildfire increased pH(H2O) values, CEC, base saturation, and K, Ca2+, and Mg2+ content. It also reduced potential acidity and the P content in the soil surface layer.
The wildfire reduced the total abundance of macrofauna in the soil and the abundance of annelids, arachnids, coleoptera, and isoptera, which resulted in lower soil diversity. Moreover, the feeding activity of organisms in the soil surface layer was also reduced by the fire event.
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Publication Dates
-
Publication in this collection
23 July 2018 -
Date of issue
2018
History
-
Received
20 June 2017 -
Accepted
9 Jan 2018