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Fish protein hydrolysate in diets for Nile tilapia post-larvae

Hidrolisado proteico de peixe em dietas para pós-larvas de tilápia-do-nilo

Abstract:

The objective of this work was to determine the apparent digestibility coefficient (ADC) of crude protein, crude energy, fat, and dry matter of fish protein hydrolysate (FPH), made of by-products of Nile tilapia (Oreochromis niloticus) and whole sardines (Cetengraulis edentulus), and to evaluate the productive performance and muscle fiber growth of Nile tilapia post-larvae. Two trials were conducted, the first one to determine the digestibility in 120 fingerlings (70.0±2.0 g), and the second one to evaluate the productive performance of 375 post-larvae, with three days of age, which were distributed in 25 aquaria with 30 L of useful volume. Five diets were prepared based on vegetable ingredients, to which fish were included at 0, 2, 4, 6, and 8% FPH. For the evaluation of muscle growth, eight fish of each experimental unit were used. The ADC values found were: 98.29% for dry matter; 99.28% for crude protein; and 99.13% for gross energy. The best zootechnical response for the productive performance resulted from the treatment with the inclusion of fish hydrolysate at 4.75%. The diets affected the frequency of the muscle fiber diameters, mainly the growth by hyperplasia. FPH can be efficiently used, and its inclusion at 4.75% is indicated in the diets for Nile tilapia in the post-larvae stage.

Index terms:
Cetengraulis edentulus; Oreochromis niloticus; digestibility; fish meal; nutrition; peptides; pisciculture.

Resumo:

O objetivo deste trabalho foi determinar o coeficiente de digestibilidade aparente (CDA) da proteína bruta, da energia bruta, da gordura e da matéria seca de um hidrolisado proteico de peixe (HPP), feito de resíduos de tilápia-do-nilo (Oreochromis niloticus) e sardinha inteira (Cetengraulis edentulus), e avaliar o desempenho produtivo e o crescimento das fibras musculares de pós-larvas de tilápia-do-nilo. Realizaram-se dois ensaios, o primeiro para a determinação da digestibilidade em 120 alevinos (70,0±2,0 g) e, o segundo, para avaliação do desempenho produtivo de 375 pós-larvas, com três dias de idade, distribuídas em 25 aquários (unidade experimental) com volume útil de 30 L. Cinco rações à base de ingredientes vegetais foram elaboradas, às quais se incluíram os peixes a 0, 2, 4, 6 e 8% de HPP. Para a avaliação do crescimento muscular, oito peixes de cada unidade experimental foram utilizados. Os valores de CDA encontrados foram: 98,29% para matéria seca; 99,28% para proteína bruta; e 99,13% para energia bruta. As melhores respostas zootécnicas quanto ao desempenho produtivo resultaram do tratamento com a inclusão do hidrolisado proteico a 4,75%. As dietas influenciaram a frequência do diâmetro das fibras musculares, principalmente o crescimento por hiperplasia. O HPP pode ser eficientemente utilizado, e sua inclusão a 4,75% é indicada em dietas de tilápia-do-nilo na fase de pós-larva.

Termos para indexação:
Cetengraulis edentulus; Oreochromis niloticus; digestibilidade; farinha de peixe; nutrição; peptídeos; piscicultura.

Introduction

The production of larvae and fry in the quantity and quality to meet the growing demand of fish farming depends on efficient solutions to problems in the rearing process. Feeding outstands as the main factor among those responsible for failures in larviculture, (Phelps, 2010PHELPS, R.P. Recent advances in fish hatchery management. Revista Brasileira de Zootecnia, v.39, p.95-101, 2010. DOI: 10.1590/S1516-35982010001300011.
https://doi.org/10.1590/S1516-3598201000...
).

To achieve satisfactory performance indices, it is recommended that, in the initial stage, part of the dietary protein be of animal origin because of the better profile of available amino acids and minerals (Galdioli et al., 2000GALDIOLI, E.M.; HAYASHI, C.; SOARES, C.M.; FURUYA, W.M.; NAGAE, M.Y. Diferentes fontes protéicas na alimentação de alevinos de curimba (Prochilodus lineatus, V.). Acta Scientiarum, v.22, p.471-477, 2000. DOI: 10.4025/actascibiolsci.v22i0.2930.
https://doi.org/10.4025/actascibiolsci.v...
; NRC, 2011NRC. National Research Council. Nutrient requirements of fish and shrimp. Washington: National Academies Press, 2011. 379p.). Therefore, fish meal continues to be the main protein source in diets for most species of farmed fish because of the balanced amino acid profile and the composition of essential fatty acids, digestible energy, vitamins, and minerals (Tacon & Metian, 2008TACON, A.G.J.; METIAN, M. Global overview on the use of fish meal and fish oil in industrially compounded aquafeeds: trends and future prospects. Aquaculture, v.285, p.146-158, 2008. DOI: 10.1016/j.aquaculture.2008.08.015.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.aquaculture.20...
).

However, worldwide fish meal production has staganated by approximately 6-7 million tons in recent years, and with the increasing demand, its value has increased, raising production costs in aquaculture systems (Tacon & Metian, 2008TACON, A.G.J.; METIAN, M. Global overview on the use of fish meal and fish oil in industrially compounded aquafeeds: trends and future prospects. Aquaculture, v.285, p.146-158, 2008. DOI: 10.1016/j.aquaculture.2008.08.015.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.aquaculture.20...
; Merino et al., 2010MERINO, G.; BARANGE, M.; MULLON, C. Climate variability and change scenarios for a marine commodity: modelling small pelagic fish, fisheries and fishmeal in a globalized market. Journal of Marine Systems, v.81, p.196-205, 2010. DOI: 10.1016/j.jmarsys.2009.12.010.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jmarsys.2009.1...
). Therefore, several studies have been conducted on the total or partial replacement of fish meal in the preparation of diets for aquatic organisms, in order to maintain the nutritional standards of the feeds (Teixeira et al., 2006TEIXEIRA, E. de A.; CREPALDI, D.V.; FARIA, P.M.C.; RIBEIRO, L.P.; MELO, D.C.; EULER, A.C.C.; SALIBA, E. de O.S. Substituição de farinha de peixes em rações para peixes. Revista Brasileira de Reprodução Animal, v.30, p.118-125, 2006.).

An alternative with great potential is the use of by-products of the fish-processing industry, in the form of protein hydrolysate and fish of low-commercial value. The hydrolysis process is defined as the protein breakdown into peptides of various sizes. This breakdown can be achieved chemically (with acids or bases), or biologically (with enzymes). The enzymatic process is more promising, as it generates a product with high functionality and nutritional value (Naylor et al., 2009NAYLOR, R.L.; HARDY, R.W.; BUREAU, D.P.; CHIU, A.; ELLIOTT, M.; FARRELL, A.P.; FORSTER, I.; GATLIN, D.M.; GOLDBURG, R.J.; HUA, K.; NICHOLS, P.D. Feeding aquaculture in an era of finite resources. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America, v.106, p.15103-15110, 2009. DOI: 10.1073/pnas.0905235106.
https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.0905235106....
; Pasupuleti & Braun, 2010PASUPULETI, V.K.; BRAUN, S. State of the art manufacturing of protein hydrolysates. In: PASUPULETI, V.K.; DEMAIN, A.L. (Ed.). Protein hydrolysates in biotechnology. Dordrecht: Springer, 2010. p.11-32. DOI: 10.1007/978-1-4020-6674-0_2.
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-4020-6674-...
).

The composition of a protein hydrolysate, produced from fish residue, may contain on average 78.75% crude protein, 3.42% fat, and 12.51% ash (Nilsang et al., 2005NILSANG, S.; LERTSIRI, S.; SUPHANTHARIKA, M.; ASSAVANIG, A. Optimization of enzymatic hydrolysis of fish soluble concentrate by commercial proteases. Journal of Food Engineering, v.70, p.571-578, 2005. DOI: 10.1016/j.jfoodeng.2004.10.011.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jfoodeng.2004....
). The partial replacement of the fish meal with this product, even at low percentages, shows a beneficial effect on the productive performance and immunological activity of several fish species, mainly in the early stages of life (Refstie et al., 2004REFSTIE, S.; OLLI, J.J.; STANDAL, H. Feed intake, growth, and protein utilisation by post-smolt Atlantic salmon (Salmo salar) in response to graded levels of fish protein hydrolysate in the diet. Aquaculture, v.239, p.331-349, 2004. DOI: 10.1016/j.aquaculture.2004.06.015.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.aquaculture.20...
; Hevroy et al., 2005HEVROY, E.M.; ESPE, M.; WAAGB, R.; SANDNES, K.; RUUD, M.; HEMRE, G.-I. Nutrient utilization in Atlantic salmon (Salmo salar L.) fed increased levels of fish protein hydrolysate during a period of fast growth. Aquaculture Nutrition, v.11, p.301-313, 2005. DOI: 10.1111/j.1365-2095.2005.00357.x.
https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1365-2095.2005...
).

Tang et al. (2008)TANG, H.; WU, T.; ZHAO, Z.; PAN, X. Effects of fish protein hydrolysate on growth performance and humoral immune response in large yellow croaker (Pseudosciaena crocea R.). Journal of Zhejiang University Science B, v.9, p.684-690, 2008. DOI: 10.1631/jzus.B0820088.
https://doi.org/10.1631/jzus.B0820088....
have shown that including up to 10% fish protein hydrolysate (FPH) in the diet of yellow croaker (Pseudosciaena crocea) improved the growth and immunological parameters of this fish. Likewise, Lian et al. (2005)LIAN, P.Z.; LEE, C.M.; PARK, E. Characterization of squid-processing byproduct hydrolysate and its potential as aquaculture feed ingredient. Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry, v.53, p.5587-5592, 2005. DOI: 10.1021/jf050402w.
https://doi.org/10.1021/jf050402w....
and Chotikachinda et al. (2013)CHOTIKACHINDA, R.; TANTIKITTI, C.; BENJAKUL, S.; RUSTAD, T.; KUMARNSIT, E. Production of protein hydrolysates from skipjack tuna (Katsuwonus pelamis) viscera as feeding attractants for Asian seabass (Lates calcarifer). Aquaculture Nutrition, v.19, p.773-784, 2013. DOI: 10.1111/anu.12024.
https://doi.org/10.1111/anu.12024....
found positive effects with FPH supplementation in the diet of the studied species. The results found in these studies may be related to the high palatability of FPH, which contains biologically active, immune-stimulating peptides with antibacterial properties that can be produced during the hydrolysis process (Kotzamanis et al., 2007KOTZAMANIS, Y.P.; GISBERT, E.; GATESOUPE, F.J.; ZAMBONINO INFANTE, J.L.; CAHU, C. Effects of different dietary levels of fish protein hydrolysates on growth, digestive enzymes, gut microbiota, and resistance to Vibrio anguillarum in European sea bass (Dicentrarchus labrax) larvae. Comparative Biochemistry and Physiology. Part A: Molecular and Integrative Physiology, v.147, p.205-214, 2007. DOI: 10.1016/j.cbpa.2006.12.037.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cbpa.2006.12.0...
).

The objective of this work was to determine the apparent digestibility coefficient (ADC) of crude protein, crude energy, fat, and dry matter of FPH, made of by-products of Nile tilapia (Oreochromis niloticus) and whole sardines (Cetengraulis edentulus), and to evaluate the productive performance and muscle fiber growth of Nile tilapia post-larvae.

Materials and Methods

Digestibility and zootechnical performance trials were carried out at the aquaculture and fish nutrition laboratory of Grupo de Estudos de Manejo na Aquicultura (Gemaq), of Universidade Estadual do Oeste do Paraná (Unioeste), Campus Toledo, in the municipality of Toledo, PR, Brazil.

The production of FPH consisted of 80% residues from Nile tilapia filleting (heads, viscera, scales, fins, vertebral column, and adhered tissues) and 20% whole sardine which were used to enhance the aroma and taste of FPH, in order to improve the final product attractiveness (Broggi, 2014BROGGI, J.A. Hidrolisado proteico de sardinha (Clupeidae) como atrativo alimentar para o jundiá (Rhamdia quelen). 2014. 49p. Dissertação (Mestrado) - Universidade do Estado de Santa Catarina, Lages.). This raw material was crushed in a CAF food processor , model Boca 5, 250-watt power and 30 kg h-1 capacity; then, a water volume equivalent to 20% of the mass value was added and homogenized. The mixture was placed for approximately 5 min in a RW 20 mechanical stirrer (Ika Brasil Equipamentos Laboratoriais, Analíticos e Processos Ltda., Campinas, SP, Brazil). Subsequently, butylated hydroxytoluene (BHT) and butylated hydroxyanisole (BHA) were added at 0.01%. The temperature was adjusted to 60°C in a water bath to promote the enzymatic activity. Alcalase enzyme was added at 0.5% and stirred continuously for 60 min. After this time, the enzymatic activity was stopped by raising the temperature to 85°C for 15 min, and a food preservative (citric acid) was added. At the end of the process, the liquid hydrolysate was filtered through a 0.5 mm steel sieve to remove small bones.

To determine digestibility, the diets were elaborated with an extruded practical feed (used as reference), and an extruded test feed composed of 80% of the reference feed and 20% of the ingredient to be tested, adding 0.1% chromium oxide, used as inert marker (NRC, 2011NRC. National Research Council. Nutrient requirements of fish and shrimp. Washington: National Academies Press, 2011. 379p.) (Table 1).

Table 1.
Composition of the reference diet used for determination of the apparent digestibility coefficient (ADC) of fish protein hydrolysate (FPH).

For the feed production, the ingredients were initially milled in a hammer-type grinder with a 0.7 mm sieve, and, then, weighed and mixed manually. The crushed feed was moistened with 20% water, and extruded in an ExMicro apparatus (Exteec Máquinas, Ribeirão Preto, SP, Brazil), with 10 kg h-1 production capacity. After this processing, the feeds were oven dried at 55°C for 12 hours.

Nile tilapia juveniles (120) with a mean mass of 70±2 g were used. Fish were randomly distributed in six 90 L conical tanks suitable for the collection of feces. The juveniles remained in the tanks for seven days in the tanks, in order to adapt to the diets and to the experimental conditions. The treatments, randomly assigned at the beginning of the adaptive period, consisted of three tanks with reference feed, and three tanks with test feed. Fish were fed at 09:00, 12:00, 15:00, and 18:00 h. Two hours after the last feeding, the tanks were cleaned, and 70% of the water volume was exchanged, to avoid contamination of the feces by feed debris. Finally, the collecting cups were attached to the bottom of the tanks and, at 07:00 h of the following day, feces were collected and immediately stored in a freezer at-15ºC until the start of the analyses.

The coefficients of apparent digestibility and gross energy of the nutrients in the diets and FPH were calculated according to the NRC equations (2011), adapted for 20% of the feed inclusion, as follows:

CDA(n) = {100 -[100 ×(%Cr2O3d × %Cr2O3f) × (%Nf / %Nd)]}, in which: CDA (n) is the nutrient digestibility coefficient; %Cr2O3d is the percentage of chromium oxide in the diet; %Cr2O3f is the percentage of chromium oxide in feces; %Nf is the percentage of nutrient in feces; %Nd is the percentage of nutrient in the diet. And CDA (i) = {CDAdt + [(CDAdt - CDAdr) × (0.8×Ddr / 0.2×Ding)]}, in which: CDA (i) is the apparent digestibility coefficient of the ingredient; 0.8 is the percentage of the reference diet; CDAdt is the apparent digestibility coefficient of the test diet; 0.2 is the percentage of the ingredient; and CDAdr is the apparent digestibility coefficient of the reference diet.

The reference feed and the test feed were analyzed for dry matter, ash, crude protein, fat, energy, and chromium oxide. The following components of the feces were analyzed: crude protein, gross energy, fat, and chromium oxide. The analyses of the diets and feces followed the methodology described by Horwitz (2005)HORWITZ, W. (Ed.). Official Methods of Analysis of the AOAC International. 18th ed. Gaithersburg: Association of Official Analytical Chemists, 2005., except for the chromium analysis that followed the protocol described by Bremer Neto et al. (2003)BREMER NETO, H.; GRANER, C.A.F.; PEZZATO, L.E.; PADOVANI, C.R.; CANTELMO O.A. Diminuição do teor de óxido de crômio (III) usado como marcador externo. Revista Brasileira de Zootecnia, v.32, p.249-255, 2003. DOI: 10.1590/S1516-35982003000200001.
https://doi.org/10.1590/S1516-3598200300...
.

The zootechnical performance of Nile tilapia post-larvae was evaluated in 375 three-day-old Nile tilapia post-larvae, which were distributed in 25 aquaria of 30 L useful volume each, in a completely randomized design, with five treatments and five replicates, in which the experimental unit consisted of an aquarium with 15 animals. Each aquarium had its own water aeration and heating system. The aquaria were siphoned twice a day: once in the morning and again in the late afternoon. Fish were fed at 08:00, 10:00, 12:00, 14:00, and 18:00 h. The experiment lasted 40 days.

Five feeds were prepared based on ingredients of plant origin, with five different percentages of FPH: 0, 2, 4, 6, and 8%. The experimental diets were formulated according to the NRC recommendation (2011) (Table 2). The feeds were extruded according to the procedure described for the digestibility trial; however, shortly after drying, the feeds were ground again to obtain a 0.7 mm feed.

Table 2.
Composition of experimental diets based on plant ingredients with fish protein hydrolysate (FPH) inclusion for post-larvae of Nile tilapia (Oreochromis niloticus).

At the end of the experimental period, fish were fasted for 24 hours, then the individual measurements of mass (g) and total length (cm) were recorded. The evaluated zootechnical performance variables were: final mass, mass gain, specific growth rate, protein efficiency rate, survival rate, and batch uniformity.

In both experiments, the water temperature, dissolved oxygen, and pH were measured daily using a HI 9828 multi-parameter (Hanna Instruments Portugal Ltda., Póvoa de Varzim, Portugal) and remained within the recommended amounts for the species cultivation (Ridha & Cruz, 2001RIDHA, M.T.; CRUZ, E.M. Effect of biofilter media on water quality and biological performance of the Nile tilápia Oreochromis niloticus L. reared in a simple recirculating system. Aquacultural Engineering, v.24, p.157-166, 2001. DOI: 10.1016/S0144-8609(01)00060-7.
https://doi.org/10.1016/S0144-8609(01)00...
). The average values obtained in the digestibility trial were: temperature, 25.12°C ± 1.15°C; dissolved oxygen, 4.55±0.64 mg L-1; and pH, 6.68±0.26. The average values obtained in the zootechnical performance test were: water temperature, 26.26°C±0.50°C; dissolved oxygen, 5.93±0.34 mg L-1; and pH, 6.23±0.40.

In the morphometric analyses of muscle fiber, eight fish from each experimental unit were used to evaluate muscle growth. These samples were fixed in 10% buffered formalin for 24 hours, and processed for inclusion in paraffin. Cross sections (5 μm) were obtained in a microtome and stained with hematoxylin-eosin. Using an image analysis system, morphometry was conducted to determine the smallest diameter of 200 muscle fibers per animal. The data on diameter (D) were separated, as described in Assis et al. (2004)ASSIS, J.M.F. de; CARVALHO, R.F.; BARBOSA, L.; AGOSTINHO, C.A.; DAL PAI-SILVA, M. Effects of incubation temperature on muscle morphology and growth in the pacu (Piaractus mesopotamicus). Aquaculture, v.237, p.251-267, 2004. DOI: 10.1016/j.aquaculture.2004.04.022.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.aquaculture.20...
, into the following classes: c10, D ≤ 10 μm; c20, 10 < D ≤ 20 μm; c30, 20 < D ≤30 μm; and c40, 30 < D ≤ 40 μm. On the basis of the results of diameter classification, the degree of hypertrophic and hyperplastic growth of muscle fibers was evaluated according to Alami-Durante et al. (2010)ALAMI-DURANTE, H.; MÉDALE, F.; CLUZEAUD, M.; KAUSHIK, S.J. Skeletal muscle growth dynamics and expression of related genes in white and red muscles of rainbow trout fed diets with graded levels of a mixture of plant protein sources as substitutes for fishmeal. Aquaculture, v.303, p.50-58, 2010. DOI: 10.1016/j.aquaculture.2010.03.012.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.aquaculture.20...
.

Data on zootechnical performance and histology were subjected to the analysis of variance, and the means were compared by the Tukey’s test, at 5% probability. The best level of FPH inclusion was determined by a quadratic equation, associated with the linear response plateau (LRP) model. Data were calculated by the statistical software SAEG (Universidade Federal de Viçosa, Viçosa, MG, Brazil).

Results and Discussion

The centesimal composition showed that FPH had 40.74% crude protein, 54.06% lipids, 3.23% ash, and 6.429 kcal kg−1 of gross energy (values based on dry matter). These values are similar to other hydrolysates mentioned in the literature, produced with fish residues, such as: shrimp, with 46.7% crude protein (Bueno-Solano et al., 2009BUENO-SOLANO, C.; LÓPEZ-CERVANTES, J.; CAMPAS-BAYPOLI, O.N.; LAUTERIO-GARCÍA, R.; ADAN-BANTE, N.P.; SÁNCHEZ-MACHADO, D.I. Chemical and biological characteristics of protein hydrolysates from fermented shrimp by-products. Food Chemistry, v.112, p.671-675, 2009. DOI: 10.1016/j.foodchem.2008.06.029.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.foodchem.2008....
); tilapia, with 37.7% crude protein (Abdul-Hamid et al., 2002ABDUL-HAMID, A.; BAKAR, J.; BEE, G.H. Nutritional quality of spray dried protein hydrolysate from black tilapia (Oreochromis mossambicus). Food Chemistry, v.78, p.69-74, 2002. DOI: 10.1016/S0308-8146(01)00380-6.
https://doi.org/10.1016/S0308-8146(01)00...
); and croaker, with 47.09% crude protein (Martins et al., 2009MARTINS, V.G.; COSTA, J.A.V.; PRENTICE-HERNÁNDEZ, C. Hidrolisado protéico de pescado obtido por vias química e enzimática a partir de corvina (Micropogonias furnieri). Química Nova, v.32, p.61-66, 2009. DOI: 10.1590/S0100-40422009000100012.
https://doi.org/10.1590/S0100-4042200900...
). The nature and quality of the raw material are two of the factors that can affect the results obtained from the composition, and that can affect characteristics as the quality and functionality of the final product (Choi et al., 2009CHOI, Y.J.; HUR, S.; CHOI, B.-D.; KONNO, K.; PARK, J.W. Enzymatic hydrolysis of recovered protein from frozen small croaker and functional properties of its hydrolysates. Journal of Food Science, v.74, p.C17-C24, 2009. DOI: 10.1111/j.1750-3841.2008.00988.x.
https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1750-3841.2008...
).

The values for ADCs of crude protein, gross energy, fat, and dry matter were, respectively, 99.28, 99.13, 97.64, and 98.29%. The high-protein digestibility may be associated with the increased solubility, and a structural unfolding of the protein molecule into smaller peptide units occurred during hydrolysis (Van Der Plancken et al., 2003VAN DER PLANCKEN, I.; VAN REMOORTERE, M.; INDRAWATI, I.; VAN LOEY, A.; HENDRICKX, M.E. Heat-induced changes in the susceptibility of egg white proteins to enzymatic hydrolysis: kinetic study. Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry, v.51, p.3819-3823, 2003. DOI: 10.1021/jf026019y.
https://doi.org/10.1021/jf026019y....
). These smaller molecules, generated by the hydrolysis process, show considerably higher-intestinal absorption kinetics for solutions that contain only dipeptides and tripeptides, or partially hydrolyzed proteins, than those composed only of free amino acids (Fairclough et al., 1980FAIRCLOUGH, P.D.; HEGARTY, J.E.; SILK, D.B.; CLARK, M.L. Comparison of the absorption of two protein hydrolysates and their effects on water and electrolyte movements in the human jejunum. Gut, v.21, p.829-834, 1980.; Zhanghi & Mattews, 2010ZHANGHI, B.M.; MATTHEWS, J.C. Physiological importance and mechanisms of protein hydrolysate absorption. In: PASUPULETI, V.K.; DEMAIN, A.L. (Ed.). Protein hydrolysates in Biotechnology. Dordrecht: Springer, 2010. p.135-177.).

The speed of absorption of free amino acids and small peptides is attributed to factors such as competition between amino acids and the transport of amino acids. Free amino acids are rapidly absorbed only in the proximal small intestine, whereas dipeptides and tripeptides are absorbed in both the proximal and distal portions of the small intestine; dipeptides and tripeptides have a faster rate of absorption (Frenhani & Burini, 1999FRENHANI, P.B.; BURINI, R.C. Mecanismos de ação e controle da digestão de proteínas e peptídios em humanos. Arquivos de Gastroenterologia, v.36, p.139-147, 1999. ; Ronnestad & Morais, 2008RONNESTAD, I.; MORAIS, S. Digestion. In: FINN, R.N.; KAPOOR, B.G. Fish larval physiology. Enfield: Science Publishers, 2008. p.201-262.).

In vivo digestibility of FPH is still rarely evaluated. However, in vitro digestibility shows slightly lower results than those found in the present study. Hevroy et al. (2005)HEVROY, E.M.; ESPE, M.; WAAGB, R.; SANDNES, K.; RUUD, M.; HEMRE, G.-I. Nutrient utilization in Atlantic salmon (Salmo salar L.) fed increased levels of fish protein hydrolysate during a period of fast growth. Aquaculture Nutrition, v.11, p.301-313, 2005. DOI: 10.1111/j.1365-2095.2005.00357.x.
https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1365-2095.2005...
found 95% dry matter, 98% gross energy, and 91% lipids; and Foh et al. (2011)FOH, M.B.K.; KAMARA, M.T.; AMADOU, I.; FOH, B.M.; WENSHUI, X. Chemical and physicochemical properties of tilapia (Oreochromis niloticus) fish protein hydrolysate and concentrate. International Journal of Biological Chemistry, v.5, p.21-36, 2011. DOI: 10.3923/ijbc.2011.21.36.
https://doi.org/10.3923/ijbc.2011.21.36....
mentioned values of 93.2% protein digestibility.

The values of productive performance - final mass, mass gain, specific growth rate, and batch uniformity - showed a quadratic effect (p<0.05) with the FPH inclusion. However, survival was not affected (p>0.05) by the experimental diets (Table 3). The association of the quadratic effect with the LRP model was adjusted only for the final mass, mass gain (indicating the same value), and specific growth rate, where the maximum inclusion determined were 4.75 and 4.77%, respectively (Figure 1).

Table 3
Perfomance of post-larvae of Nile tilapia (Oreochromis niloticus) fed diets with different levels of fish protein hydrolysate (FPH) inclusion.

Figure 1.
Best fish protein hydrolysate (FPH) inclusion level for final mass (A), mass gain (B), and specific growth rate (C), by means of the first intercept of the quadratic equation with LRP plateau.

Earlier studies have shown that diets supplemented with FPH can improve the productive performance of several fish species in the early stages of life (Kotzamanis et al., 2007KOTZAMANIS, Y.P.; GISBERT, E.; GATESOUPE, F.J.; ZAMBONINO INFANTE, J.L.; CAHU, C. Effects of different dietary levels of fish protein hydrolysates on growth, digestive enzymes, gut microbiota, and resistance to Vibrio anguillarum in European sea bass (Dicentrarchus labrax) larvae. Comparative Biochemistry and Physiology. Part A: Molecular and Integrative Physiology, v.147, p.205-214, 2007. DOI: 10.1016/j.cbpa.2006.12.037.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cbpa.2006.12.0...
; Tang et al., 2008TANG, H.; WU, T.; ZHAO, Z.; PAN, X. Effects of fish protein hydrolysate on growth performance and humoral immune response in large yellow croaker (Pseudosciaena crocea R.). Journal of Zhejiang University Science B, v.9, p.684-690, 2008. DOI: 10.1631/jzus.B0820088.
https://doi.org/10.1631/jzus.B0820088....
; Chotikachinda et al., 2013CHOTIKACHINDA, R.; TANTIKITTI, C.; BENJAKUL, S.; RUSTAD, T.; KUMARNSIT, E. Production of protein hydrolysates from skipjack tuna (Katsuwonus pelamis) viscera as feeding attractants for Asian seabass (Lates calcarifer). Aquaculture Nutrition, v.19, p.773-784, 2013. DOI: 10.1111/anu.12024.
https://doi.org/10.1111/anu.12024....
). These findings are corroborated by the data obtained in the present study.

The main causes of the positive effect of FPH are associated with improved palatability and high digestibility of the protein, which stimulates digestive enzymes and channels nutrients for biomass production (Hevroy et al., 2005HEVROY, E.M.; ESPE, M.; WAAGB, R.; SANDNES, K.; RUUD, M.; HEMRE, G.-I. Nutrient utilization in Atlantic salmon (Salmo salar L.) fed increased levels of fish protein hydrolysate during a period of fast growth. Aquaculture Nutrition, v.11, p.301-313, 2005. DOI: 10.1111/j.1365-2095.2005.00357.x.
https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1365-2095.2005...
; Zheng et al., 2013ZHENG, K.; LIANG, M.; YAO, H.; WANG, J.; CHANG, Q. Effect of size-fractionated fish protein hydrolysate on growth and feed utilization of turbot (Scophthalmus maximus L.). Aquaculture Research, v.44, p.895-902, 2013. DOI: 10.1111/j.1365-2109.2012.03094.x.
https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1365-2109.2012...
). The positive effects on the growth rate and the final mass of salmon juveniles, fed on a diet containing 5 to 8% FPH, are mentioned by Berge & Storebakken (1996)BERGE, G.M.; STOREBAKKEN, T. Fish protein hydrolyzate in starter diets for Atlantic salmon (Salmo salar) fry. Aquaculture, v.145, p.205-212, 1996. DOI: 10.1016/S0044-8486(96)01355-5.
https://doi.org/10.1016/S0044-8486(96)01...
. Likewise, Zheng et al. (2013)ZHENG, K.; LIANG, M.; YAO, H.; WANG, J.; CHANG, Q. Effect of size-fractionated fish protein hydrolysate on growth and feed utilization of turbot (Scophthalmus maximus L.). Aquaculture Research, v.44, p.895-902, 2013. DOI: 10.1111/j.1365-2109.2012.03094.x.
https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1365-2109.2012...
observed that flounder fed 3.7% FPH showed a better growth and feed efficiency. The inclusion of FPH above 50% may lead to a decrease of feed intake, which is caused by a change in the palatability of the hydrolysate due to bitter-tasting peptides or rancid lipid compounds, which result in decreased feed consumption and animal growth (Hevroy et al., 2005HEVROY, E.M.; ESPE, M.; WAAGB, R.; SANDNES, K.; RUUD, M.; HEMRE, G.-I. Nutrient utilization in Atlantic salmon (Salmo salar L.) fed increased levels of fish protein hydrolysate during a period of fast growth. Aquaculture Nutrition, v.11, p.301-313, 2005. DOI: 10.1111/j.1365-2095.2005.00357.x.
https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1365-2095.2005...
). The inclusion of FPH affected the frequency distribution of muscle fibers (p<0.05), with a higher number of fibers with a diameter below 10 μm; and the treatment with 2% of FPH resulted in 74.06% fibers in this size class (Table 4). This indicates growth by hyperplasia, which is characterized by fiber diameters lower than 20 μm (Rowlerson & Veggetti, 2001ROWLERSON, A.; VEGGETTI, A. Cellular mechanisms of post-embryonic muscle growth in aquaculture species. In: JOHNSTON, A.I. (Ed.). Muscle development and growth. San Diego: Academic Press, 2001. p.101-130. DOI: 10.1016/S1546-5098(01)18006-4.
https://doi.org/10.1016/S1546-5098(01)18...
; Johnston & Hall, 2004JOHNSTON, I.A.; HALL, T.E. Mechanisms of muscle development and responses to temperature change in fish larvae. American Fisheries Society Symposium, v.40, p.85-116, 2004.).

Table 4
Occurrence frequency of white muscle fibers in diameter classes - c10 (<10), c20 (10-20), c30 (20-30), and c40 (>30) -, in post-larvae of Nile tilapia (Oreochromis niloticus) diets with different levels of fish protein hydrolysate (FPH) inclusion.

The process of hyperplasia is predominant in the initial life stages of animals (Almeida et al., 2010ALMEIDA, F.L. de A.; PESSOTTI, N.S.; PINHAL, D.; PADOVANI, C.R.; LEITÃO, N.de J.; CARVALHO, R.F.; MARTINS, C.; PORTELLA, M.C.; DAL PAI-SILVA, M. Quantitative expression of myogenic regulatory factors MyoD and myogenin in pacu (Piaractus mesopotamicus) skeletal muscle during growth. Micron, v.41, p.997-1004, 2010. DOI: 10.1016/j.micron.2010.06.012.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.micron.2010.06...
); nevertheless, as indicated in the present study, factors such as nutrition may affect the dynamics of muscle fiber growth. With the increased FPH inclusion corresponding to the post-larvae mass gain, there was a frequency decrease in the c10 class muscle fiber and a consequent increase in the c20 class, that is, there was a negative correlation between mass gain and class <10 (−0.64), and a positive correlation for class c20 (0.62). In a study conducted with 35-day-old pacu post-larvae, Leitão et al. (2011)LEITÃO, N. de J.; DAL PAI-SILVA, M.; ALMEIDA, F.L.A. de; PORTELLA, M.C. The influence of initial feeding on muscle development and growth in pacuPiaractus mesopotamicuslarvae. Aquaculture, v.315, p.78-85, 2011. DOI: 10.1016/j.aquaculture.2011.01.006.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.aquaculture.20...
also show the effect of diet on the proportion of muscle fibers in hypertrophy and hyperplasia.

Conclusions

  1. The apparent digestibility of crude protein (99.28%), fat (99.13%), dry matter (97.64%), and energy utilization (98.29%) show that the fish protein hydrolysate can be used efficiently by Nile tilapia (Oreochromis niloticus).

  2. The growth of muscle fibers is characterized by hyperplasia.

  3. The inclusion of the fish protein hydrolysate at 4.75% is indicated in diets for Nile tilapia, in the post-larval phase.

Acknowledgments

To Fundação Araucária, for financial support.

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Publication Dates

  • Publication in this collection
    July 2017

History

  • Received
    26 Feb 2016
  • Accepted
    20 Oct 2016
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