Astaxanthin extraction from lobster “Panulirus penicillatus” waste and its quantification by environmentally safe microbial methods

[Extração de astaxantina de resíduos de lagosta “Panulirus penicillatus” e sua quantificação por métodos microbianos ambientalmente seguros]

ABSTRACT

The accumulation of large amounts of crustacean waste is a major environmental issue, however, this waste can yield valuable bioactive chemicals. Carotenoids and astaxanthin were recovered from the exoskeleton of red sea lobsters (Panulirus penicillatus) utilizing three eco-friendly techniques. The techniques employed include the use of flaxseed oil at various incubation durations, the use of beneficial bacterial and fungal strains (Lactobacillus lactis, Bifidobacterium lactis, Saccharomyces cerevisiae, and Candida utilis) in the biological method, and the utilization of microorganisms with flaxseed oil. The spectrophotometer and HPLC results showed that after one hour of incubation, the highest amount of astaxanthin and carotenoid achieved in the flaxseed oil extraction was 0.52g/g and 13.4g/g, respectively. Also, the highest quantities of astaxanthin and carotenoid in the biological technique achieved using S. cerevisiae were 0.7g/g and 30.766g/g, respectively. The last approach yielded the highest amounts (9.39g/g for astaxanthin and 46.266g/g for carotenoid). It is critical to develop more environmentally acceptable technologies for extracting bioactive chemicals from crustacean waste to decrease environmental contamination in the future. Also, extensive research to enhance extraction efficiency will eventually minimize the need for chemicals.

Keywords:
Panulirus penicillatus; Astaxanthin; Bifidobacterium lactis; Lactobacillus lactis; Candida utilis; Saccharomyces cerevisiae

RESUMO

O acúmulo de grandes quantidades de resíduos de crustáceos é um grande problema ambiental; no entanto, esses resíduos podem produzir produtos químicos bioativos valiosos. Carotenoides e astaxantina foram recuperados do exoesqueleto de lagostas do mar vermelho (Panulirus penicillatus) utilizando três técnicas ecologicamente corretas. As técnicas empregadas incluem o uso de óleo de linhaça com vários tempos de incubação, o uso de cepas bacterianas e fúngicas benéficas (Lactobacillus lactis, Bifidobacterium lactis, Saccharomyces cerevisiae e Candida utilis) no método biológico e a utilização de microrganismos com óleo de linhaça. Os resultados do espectrofotômetro e do HPLC mostraram que, após uma hora de incubação, a maior quantidade de astaxantina e carotenoide obtida na extração do óleo de linhaça foi de 0,52g/g e 13,4g/g, respectivamente. Além disso, as maiores quantidades de astaxantina e carotenoide na técnica biológica obtida com o uso de S. cerevisiae foram 0,7g/g e 30,766g/g, respectivamente. A última abordagem produziu as maiores quantidades (9,39g/g para astaxantina e 46,266g/g para carotenoide). É fundamental desenvolver tecnologias ambientalmente mais aceitáveis para extrair produtos químicos bioativos de resíduos de crustáceos para reduzir a contaminação ambiental no futuro. Além disso, pesquisas abrangentes para aumentar a eficiência da extração acabarão por minimizar a necessidade de produtos químicos.

Palavras-chave:
Panulirus penicillatus; astaxantina; Bifidobacterium lactis; Lactobacillus lactis; Candida utilis; Saccharomyces cerevisiae

INTRODUCTION

The environmental repercussions of dumping crustacean waste in seas or landfills are hazardous. The implications include aquatic species mortality, due to decreased oxygen concentration, and changes in pH, temperature, and water salinity (Abd El-Ghany, 2024; Arvanitoyannis and Kassaveti, 2008; Vidal et al., 2022). According to several statistics, the yearly waste of lobster is more than 50,000 million tonnes (Nguyen et al., 2017; Venugopal, 2021; Zhang et al., 2023). Consequently, reducing environmental degradation and increasing waste utilization is critical for long-term seafood processing (Venugopal, 2021).

Carotenoids are pigments known for their orange, red, and yellow colors (Tiwari et al., 2022). They are valuable compounds extracted from crustacean waste (Šimat et al., 2022). Carotenoids play a role in photosynthesis; moreover, they lower the risk of various types of cancer in addition to their superior antioxidant activity (Yao et al., 2022). Astaxanthin is one of the most frequent forms of carotenoids (Jing et al., 2022). Astaxanthin is a dark, reddish-orange carotenoid found in marine creatures (Basiony et al., 2022; Chung et al., 2022; Zhao et al., 2022a). It is always described as a xanthophyll carotenoid (carotenoids containing oxygen in their chemical structure) (Šimat et al., 2022). Astaxanthin exhibits a variety of biological activities as it acts as an antioxidant (Aneesh et al., 2022; Farrugia et al., 2018; Vinothkumar, 2024), antidiabetic (Aneesh et al., 2022; Penislusshiyan et al., 2020), cardioprotective (Aneesh et al., 2022; Krestinina et al., 2020; Qiang et al., 2024), neuroprotective (Aneesh et al., 2022; Sharma et al., 2018), and anticancer agent (Aneesh et al., 2022; Rossi et al., 2024; Sowmya et al., 2017). Furthermore, it is frequently used in nutrition, cosmetics, and pharmaceuticals (Zhao et al., 2022b).

Wade et al. (2005) isolated and measured carotenoids from lobster (Panulirus cygnus) waste and reported that the content of carotenoids in red lobster is greater than that of white lobster. Moreover, via trypsin, Yaet al. (1991) increased carotenoid extraction from lobster waste. Marco et al. (2022) studied the extraction of astaxanthin from lobster waste, reporting that the astaxanthin concentration present in the exoskeleton of lobster Jasus lalandii equals 19% of total astaxanthin by utilizing hexane as a solvent for extraction. Additionally, researchers extracted astaxanthin from J. lalandi waste using papain, a proteolytic enzyme. As a result, the extraction process is improved (Auerswald and Gäde, 2008).

Using microorganisms to extract astaxanthin is a promising method that may reduce the use of chemicals in the extraction process, as demonstrated by Hamdi et al. (2022a, 2022b) using crawfish powder and Saccharomyces cerevisiae, Bifidobacterium lactis, Candida utilis, and Lactobacillus lactis. A relevant study used Lactobacillus acidophilus and Saccharomyces cerevisiae to extract astaxanthin from shrimp waste (Hamdi et al., 2024). Previous studies have used flaxseed oil as a solvent for astaxanthin extraction, such as Pu and Sathivel (2011), who claimed that the astaxanthin obtained from shrimp waste is stable at lower temperatures. Moreover, Hamdi et al. (2022a) extracted astaxanthin from crawfish powder using flaxseed oil.

The study's goal is to extract carotenoids, including astaxanthin, from the exoskeleton of the lobster "Panulirus penicillatus" using three methods: the first using flaxseed oil, the second using a biological method (using beneficial bacterial and fungal strains), and the third using a mixed extraction method (using both flaxseed oil and the beneficial microorganisms used in the biological technique) (there are no previous studies that report using P. penicillatus for carotenoids and astaxanthin quantification).

MATERIALS AND METHODS

Lobsters (P. penicillatus) collected in an icebox from Aqaba Golf in Sinai City, Egypt from coordination 27° 56' 59.99" N. Microorganisms, fungal and bacterial strains, were purchased from the Microbiological Resources Center (Cairo Mircen), Faculty of Agriculture, Ain Shams University, Cairo, Egypt (Hamdi et al., 2022b).

Sample preparation: Frozen lobsters are stored at room temperature (22 to 25°C) until processing, according to Hamdi et al. (2022a, 2022b). Following that, the exoskeletons of the samples were separated. The waste was then cleaned with fresh water before drying. The drying of the exoskeleton lasted for 12 hours at 50°C. The shells were then crushed to a fine powder using a home blinder, sifted via a screen, weighed, and kept at room temperature in sterilized containers with silica packets.

Flaxseed oil extraction of astaxanthin and carotenoid: Adapting this approach from Pu and Sathivel (2011) with a few changes, mixing 10 g of lobster powder with 30 mL of flaxseed oil, then incubating in a water bath for 1 hour at 50ºC before extracting the oil. Incubation times of 2 hours, 3 hours, 4 hours, and 6 hours, including 1 hour in the water bath, were tested.

Biological extraction of astaxanthin and carotenoid: This method was done according to Hamdi et al. (2022a, 2022b) using S. cerevisiae, C. utilis, B. lactis, and L. lactis. After autoclaving 10 g of lobster powder with 100 mL of either Czapek dox broth or MRS broth and adding 1 mL of each fungal or bacterial strain to its respective media flask, then incubating all the samples for a week at 37ºC and 100 rpm.

Flaxseed oil and microorganisms mixed method for astaxanthin and carotenoid extraction: After adding 10g of lobster powder to 20mL of flaxseed oil, 2.5mL of astaxanthin-containing flaxseed oil was withdrawn and added to the bacterial and fungal broth using a bacterial filter (Hangzhou Cobetter Filtration Equipment Co., Xiaoshan, Hangzhou, China). 1mL of fungal and bacterial strains were added to the respective broths and incubated under the conditions described by Hamdi et al. (2022a), with samples incubated at 37°C and 100 rpm for a week.

Lyophilization: “Edwards freeze dryer modulyo” (at the Microbial Analytical Center, Faculty of Science, Cairo University, Egypt) was used for cooling lyophilization at -45ºC and 10 atm for 48 hours.

Determination of the total content of carotenoid using a spectrophotometer:

Determination of carotenoid content at 468 nm using petroleum ether (Sigma Aldrich Co., St. Louis, MO, USA) as a solvent. Then the carotenoid content was calculated according to the following equation (Sachindra et al., 2006; Sila et al., 2012):

Total carotenoid content (µg astaxanthin/g sample) = $\frac{Abs\times D.F.\times V}{0.2\times W}$

where Abs = the absorbance of carotenoids at 468 nm, D.F. = the dilution factor, V = is the volume of extract, W = the sample weight in grams, 0.2 = the absorbance of 1 µg/mL of astaxanthin or canthaxanthin standard.

Quantification of astaxanthin using HPLC: The National Research Center in Cairo, Egypt, performed the HPLC analysis. The column used for separation was the Eclipse C18 column (4.6 mm x 250 mm i.d., 5 μm) using an Agilent 1260 series. The mobile phase flow rate was 1 mL/min. The composition of the mobile phase was acetonitrile:water:dichloromethane:methanol (13:4:13:70) (v/v), and the programming of the mobile phase was done consecutively in an isocratic system. The sample solutions were injected at a volume of 5 µL while monitoring the Diode array detector at 280 nm with a column temperature of 40°C. (Lu et al., 2010).

HPLC sample preparation: Using 1 ml of Acetone (Sigma Aldrich) for dissolving the extract (15-20mg), followed by vortexing (1 min), sonication (15 min), then filtering by a 0.45-micron filter (Hangzhou Cobetter Filtration Equipment).

Statistical analysis: All the samples in the experiments were performed as triplicates (n = 3) using SPSS 25 software where (p<0.05).

RESULTS

Flaxseed oil extraction results: The spectrophotometer findings inFig. 1reveal that the highest carotenoid concentration extracted was at 1 hour of incubation (13.34 µg/g) followed by 2 hours (13.125 µg/g) afterward, the concentration declines. InFig. 4 the HPLC findings showed that the concentration of astaxanthin extracted was highest after 1 hour of incubation (0.52µg/g), then decreased as the incubation period increased. The chromatograms of astaxanthin determination are shown in Fig. 7.

Biological extraction results: The spectrophotometer findings in Fig. 2 reveal that the highest carotenoid concentration was achieved when utilizing S. cerevisiae (30.766µg/g), followed by L. lactis (26.78µg/g), B. lactis (21.8 µg/g), and C. uitlis (20.66µg/g). InFig. 5, the HPLC findings showed that the concentration of astaxanthin extracted was highest when utilizing S. cerevisiae (0.7µg/g), followed by L. lactis (0.64µg/g), B. lactis (0.63µg/g), and C. uitlis (0.6µg/g). The chromatograms of astaxanthin determination are shown inFig. 8.

Figure 1
Carotenoid content extracted using flaxseed oil at different times of incubation. The mean ± SD (p>0.05).

Figure 2
Carotenoid content extracted using different microorganisms. The mean ± SD (p>0.05).

Flaxseed oil and microorganisms mixed method results: The spectrophotometer findings in Fig. 3 reveal that the highest carotenoid concentration was achieved in the extraction after 1 hour of incubation when utilizing L. lactis (46.266µg/g), followed by S. cerevisiae (45.53µg/g), B. lactis (33.8µg/g), and C. uitlis (30.46µg/g). In Fig. 6, the HPLC findings showed that the concentration of astaxanthin extracted was highest after 1 hour of incubation when utilizing L. lactis (9.39 µg/g), followed by S. cerevisiae (4.21µg/g), B. lactis (1.09µg/g), and C. uitlis (0.83µg/g). The chromatograms of astaxanthin determination are shown in Fig. 9.

Figure 3
Carotenoid content extracted by flaxseed oil and different microorganisms after 1 hour of incubation. The mean ± SD (p>0.05).

Figure 4
Astaxanthin concentrations extracted by flaxseed oil at different times of incubation quantified by HPLC. The mean ± SD (p>0.05).

Figure 5
Astaxanthin concentration extracted by microorganisms quantified by HPLC. The mean ± SD (p>0.05).

Figure 6
Astaxanthin concentrations extracted by flaxseed oil and different microorganisms after 1 hour of incubation quantified by HPLC. The mean ± SD (p>0.05).

Figure 7
Chromatograms of astaxanthin extracted by flaxseed oil at different times of incubation (1 hrs., 2 hrs., 3 hrs., 4 hrs., and 6 hrs.).

Figure 8
Chromatograms of astaxanthin extracted using different microorganisms.

Figure 9
Chromatograms of astaxanthin extracted by flaxseed oil and microorganisms after 1 hour of incubation.

DISCUSSION

The carotenoid content extracted using flaxseed oil was highest after 1 hour of incubation at 50 ºC and decreased as the incubation duration increased. However, the data presented by Hamdi et al. (2022a) reveal that the carotenoid content increases with time, which could be due to the heating factor that enhances the extraction efficiency, as mentioned by Ruen-ngam et al. (2010).

The combined technique of flaxseed oil and L. lactis employed for extraction resulted in the highest carotenoid concentration of 46.26g/g, as determined by a spectrophotometer after 1 hour of incubation. Sachindra et al. (2006), on the other hand, reported carotenoid content of 43.9g/g when shrimp waste was extracted with an isopropanol/hexane combination. Furthermore, Pourashouri et al. (2022) discovered that the content of carotenoids recovered from white shrimp waste varied from 330 to 530 g/g samples.

The maximum concentration of astaxanthin in our data, determined by HPLC, was seen when the flaxseed oil and L. lactis combined technique was employed after 1 hour of incubation (9.39g/g). In contrast to other crustaceans, shrimp waste has higher astaxanthin content than lobster, so according to Yoon et al. (2012), (17.8 g/g) of astaxanthin was produced because of chemical extraction using ethanol. Furthermore, Zhu et al. (2022) used shrimp, Trachypenaeus curvirostris, by-products to report that astaxanthin concentration was (23.23µg/g). According to Hu et al. (2019), the greatest astaxanthin concentration was (239g/g) when they employed ethyl acetate and 95% alcohol with the crawfish Procamburus clarkii. The pretreatment of Bacillus amyloliquefaciens to extract astaxanthin from Callinectes sapidusexoskeleton gave a significantly high yield (92.2 µg/g) than the chemical method used according to Abd El-Ghany (2023).

Flaxseed oil has attracted attention as a prospective astaxanthin extractant due to its high omega-3 acids, such as alpha-linolenic acid and linoleic acid. These acids have been shown to aid in preventing cardiovascular disease and inflammation. Natural astaxanthin distributed in flaxseed oil may offer healthier dietary alternatives to customers (Stachowiak and Szulc, 2021). The combination of astaxanthin and flaxseed oil significantly increases antioxidant defense capabilities while decreasing plasma lipid oxidation. Consumption of flaxseed oil with astaxanthin has also been proven to lower hepatic steatosis, oxidative stress, triglyceride, and cholesterol levels (Espinaco et al., 2021). The use of astaxanthin as a potential therapeutic strategy in treating various disorders demands the extraction of astaxanthin via biological techniques rather than traditional chemical procedures that use harmful solvents. In terms of sustainability, the extraction of astaxanthin from fresh waste provides a significant advantage over chemical synthesis for the nutraceutical industry (Messina et al., 2021).

CONCLUSION

The results revealed that extracting astaxanthin using Saccharomyces cerevisiae efficiently yields a high astaxanthin extraction; also, the astaxanthin concentration of the spiny lobster, Panulirus penicillatus, is lower than that of crawfish, Procambarus clarkii, and shrimp. More astaxanthin and carotenoid sources from crustacean waste are needed to identify innovative strategies to lessen environmental issues. Using many environmentally safe ways to extract astaxanthin and carotenoids may reduce the need for chemicals. The primary issue, however, is to develop new methods that ensure the same extraction efficiency of bioactive chemicals acquired by chemical procedures.

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

The authors extend their appreciation to the Researchers Supporting Project number (RSPD2025R725) King Saud University, Riyadh, Saud Arabia.

REFERENCES

• ABD EL-GHANY, M.N.; HAMDI, S.A.; ELBAZ, R.M. et al. Development of a microbial-assisted process for enhanced astaxanthin recovery from crab exoskeleton waste. Fermentation, v.9, p.505, 2023.
• ABD EL-GHANY, M.N.; YAHIA, R.A.; FAHMY, H.A. Nanosensors for agriculture, water, environment, and health. In: ALI, G.A.M.; CHONG, K.F.; MAKHLOUF, A.S.H. (Eds.). Cham: Springer, 2024. (Handbook of Nanosensors).
• ANEESH, P.A.; AJEESHKUMAR, K.K.; LEKSHMI, R. G. et al. Bioactivities of astaxanthin from natural sources, augmenting its biomedical potential: a review. Trends Food Sci. Technol., v.125, p.81-90, 2022.
• ARVANITOYANNIS, I.S.; KASSAVETI, A. Fish industry waste: treatments, environmental impacts, current and potential uses. Int. J. Food Sci. Technol., v.43, p.726-745, 2008.
• AUERSWALD, L.; GÄDE, G. Simultaneous extraction of chitin and astaxanthin from waste of lobsters Jasus lalandii, and use of astaxanthin as an aquacultural feed additive. Afr. J. Mar. Sci., v.30, p.35-44, 2008.
• BASIONY, M.; OUYANG, L.; WANG, D. et al. Optimization of microbial cell factories for astaxanthin production: Biosynthesis and regulations, engineering strategies and fermentation optimization strategies. Synthetic Syst. Biotechnol., v.7, p.689-704, 2022.
• CHUNG, B.Y.; PARK, S.H.; YUN, S.Y.; YU, D.S.; LEE, Y.B. Astaxanthin protects ultraviolet B-induced oxidative stress and apoptosis in human keratinocytes via intrinsic apoptotic pathway. Ann. Dermatol., v.34, p.125, 2022.
• ESPINACO, B.Y.; NIIZAWA, I.; MARINO, F.; ZORRILLA, S.E.; SIHUFE, G.A. Storage stability of chia ( Salvia hispanica L.) oil incorporated with astaxanthin. J. Food Proc. Preserv., v.45, p.e15184, 2021.
• FARRUGIA, C.; KIM, M.B.; BAE, M.; et al. Astaxanthin exerts anti-inflammatory and antioxidant effects in macrophages in NRF2-dependent and independent manners. J. Nutri. Biochem., v.62, p.202-209, 2018.
• HAMDI, S.; ALGAYAR, M.; ISHAK, V. et al. Eco-friendly methods for recycling of crayfish “Procambarus clarkii” by-product for astaxanthin extraction and quantification. Egypt. J. Aquat. Biol. Fish., v.26, p.239-251, 2022a.
• HAMDI, S.; ELSAYED, N.; ALGAYAR, M. et al. Biological extraction, HPLC quantification and medical applications of astaxanthin extracted from crawfish “Procambarus clarkii” exoskeleton by-product. Biology, v.11, p.1215, 2022b.
• HAMDI, S.A.H.; GHONAIM, G.M.; EL SAYED, R.R.; RODRÍGUEZ-COUTO, S.; ABD EL-GHANY, M.N. Bioprocess of astaxanthin extraction from shrimp waste via the common microorganisms Saccharomyces cerevisiae and Lactobacillus acidophilus in comparison to the chemical method. Biomass Conversion Biorefinery, v.14, p.8333-8339, 2024.
• HU, J.; LU, W.; LV, M. et al. Extraction and purification of astaxanthin from shrimp shells and the effects of different treatments on its content. Rev. Bras. Farmacogn., v.29, p.24-29, 2019.
• JING, Y.; WANG, Y.; ZHOU, D. et al. Advances in the synthesis of three typical tetraterpenoids including β-carotene, lycopene and astaxanthin. Biotechnol. Adv., v.61, p.108033, 2022.
• KRESTININA, O.; BABURINA, Y.; KRESTININ, R. et al. Astaxanthin prevents mitochondrial impairment induced by isoproterenol in isolated rat heart mitochondria. Antioxidants, v.9, p.262, 2020.
• LU, M.; ZHANG, Y.; ZHAO, C.; ZHOU, P.; YU, L. Analysis and identification of astaxanthin and its carotenoid precursors from xanthophyllomyces dendrorhous by high-performance liquid chromatography. Z. Naturforschung C, v.65, p.489-494, 2010.
• MARCO, H.G.; AUERSWALD, L.; MATUMBA, T.G.; GÄDE, G. Distribution of astaxanthin in the spiny lobster Jasus lalandii: trends during biological cycles. Invertebr. Reprod. Dev., v.66, p.120-134, 2022.
• MESSINA, C.M.; MANUGUERRA, S.; ARENA, R. et al. In vitro bioactivity of astaxanthin and peptides from hydrolisates of shrimp (Parapenaeus longirostris) by-products: From the extraction process to biological effect evaluation, as pilot actions for the strategy “From Waste to Profit.” Mar. Drugs, v.19, p.216, 2021.
• NGUYEN, T.T.; BARBER, A.R.; CORBIN, K.; ZHANG, W. Lobster processing by-products as valuable bioresource of marine functional ingredients, nutraceuticals, and pharmaceuticals. Bioresour. Bioprocess., v.4, p.27, 2017.
• PENISLUSSHIYAN, S.; CHITRA, L.; ANCY, I.; KUMARADHAS, P.; PALVANNAN, T. Novel antioxidant astaxanthin-s-allyl cysteine biconjugate diminished oxidative stress and mitochondrial dysfunction to triumph diabetes in rat model. Life Sci., v.245, p.117367, 2020.
• POURASHOURI, P.; MIRSADEGHI, H.; KHODANAZARY, A. Extracting and physicochemical properties of carotenoprotein from shrimp processing waste by proteases-mediated hydrolysis. Waste Biomass Valorization, v.13, p.1169-1178, 2022.
• PU, J.; SATHIVEL, S. Kinetics of lipid oxidation and degradation of flaxseed oil containing crawfish (Procambarus clarkii) astaxanthin. J. Am. Oil Chem. Soc., v.88, p.595-601, 2011.
• QIANG, Z.H.O.U.; DAWEI, Z.H.O.U.; JINGXIANG, S.U.N. et al. Research progress in synthesis of astaxanthin by microbial fermentation. Synthetic Biol. J., v.5, p.126, 2024.
• ROSSI, N.; GROSSO, C.; DELERUE-MATOS, C. Shrimp waste upcycling: unveiling the potential of polysaccharides, proteins, carotenoids, and fatty acids with emphasis on extraction techniques and bioactive properties. Mar. Drugs, v.22, p.153, 2024.
• RUEN-NGAM, D.; SHOTIPRUK, A.; PAVASANT, P. Comparison of extraction methods for recovery of astaxanthin from Haematococcus pluvialis. Separation Sci. Technol., v.46, p.64-70, 2010.
• SACHINDRA, N.M.; BHASKAR, N.; MAHENDRAKAR, N.S. Recovery of carotenoids from shrimp waste in organic solvents. Waste Manag., v.26, p.1092-1098, 2006.
• SHARMA, K.; SHARMA, D.; SHARMA, M. et al. Astaxanthin ameliorates behavioral and biochemical alterations in in-vitro and in-vivo model of neuropathic pain. Neurosci. Lett., v.674, p.162-170, 2018.
• SILA, A.; NASRI, M.; BOUGATEF, A. Isolation and characterisation of carotenoproteins from deep-water pink shrimp processing waste. Int. J. Biol. Macromol., v.51, p.953-959, 2012.
• ŠIMAT, V.; RATHOD, N.B.; ČAGALJ, M. et al. Astaxanthin from crustaceans and their byproducts: A bioactive metabolite candidate for therapeutic application. Mar. Drugs, v.20, p.206, 2022.
• SOWMYA, P.R.R.; ARATHI, B.P.; VIJAY, K.; BASKARAN, V.; LAKSHMINARAYANA, R. Astaxanthin from shrimp efficiently modulates oxidative stress and allied cell death progression in MCF-7 cells treated synergistically with β-carotene and lutein from greens. Food Chem. Toxicol.y, v.106, p.58-69, 2017.
• STACHOWIAK, B.; SZULC, P. Astaxanthin for the food industry. Molecules, v.26, p.2666, 2021.
• TIWARI, S.; YAWALE, P.; UPADHYAY, N. Carotenoids: Extraction strategies and potential applications for valorization of under-utilized waste biomass. Food Biosci., v.48, p.101812, 2022.
• VENUGOPAL, V. Valorization of seafood processing discards: Bioconversion and bio-refinery approaches. Front. Sustainable Food Syst., v.5, 2021.
• VIDAL, J.L.; JIN, T.; LAM, E.; KERTON, F.; MOORES, A. Blue is the new green: Valorization of crustacean waste. Curr. Res. Green Sustainable Chem., v.5, p.100330, 2022.
• VINOTHKUMAR, R. Recent advancements of astaxanthin from an animal feed to a therapeutic agent in humans-a meta-analysis overview. In: _____. Food additives: from chemistry to safety. [s.l.]: [s.n.], 2024. cap.45.
• WADE, N.; GOULTER, K.C.; WILSON, K.J.; HALL, M.R.; DEGNAN, B.M. Esterified astaxanthin levels in lobster epithelia correlate with shell colour intensity: potential role in crustacean shell colour formation. Comp. Biochem.Physiol. B: Biochem. Mol. Biol., v.141, p.307-313, 2005.
• YA, T.; SIMPSON, B.K.; RAMASWAMY, H. et al. Carotenoproteins from lobster waste as a potential feed supplement for cultured salmonids. Food Biotechnol., v.5, p.87-93, 1991.
• YAO, R.; FU, W.; DU, M. et al. Carotenoids biosynthesis, accumulation, and applications of a model microalga Euglenagracilis. Mar. Drugs, v.20, p.496, 2022.
• YOON, C.H.; BOK, H.S.; CHOI, D.K.; ROW, K.H. Optimization condition of astaxanthin extract from shrimp waste using response surface methodology. Korean Chem. Eng. Res., v.50, p.545-550, 2012.
• ZHANG, Z.; MA, Z.; SONG, L.; FARAG, M.A. Maximizing crustaceans (shrimp, crab, and lobster) by-products value for optimum valorization practices: A comparative review of their active ingredients, extraction, bioprocesses and applications. J. Adv. Res., v.57, p.59-76, 2023.
• ZHAO, X.; WANG, G.; LIU, X. et al. Dietary supplementation of astaxanthin increased growth, colouration, the capacity of hypoxia and ammonia tolerance of Pacific white shrimp (Litopenaeus vannamei).Aquacul. Rep., v.23, p.101093, 2022a.
• ZHAO, X.; WANG, K.; ZHAO, J. et al. Physical and oxidative stability of astaxanthin microcapsules prepared with liposomes. J. Sci. Food Agricul., v.102, p.4909-4917, 2022b.
• ZHU, K.; YAN, W.; DAI, Z.; ZHANG, Y. Astaxanthin extract from shrimp (Trachypenaeus curvirostris) by-products improves quality of ready-to-cook shrimp surimi products during frozen storage at −18 °C. Foods, v.11, p.2122, 2022.

• FUNDING
  Project number (RSPD2025R725) King Saud University, Riyadh, Saud Arabia.

Publication Dates

• Publication in this collection
  28 Apr 2025
• Date of issue
  May-Jun 2025

History

• Received
  20 July 2024
• Accepted
  16 Sept 2024