Diversity of aquatic parasites in pristine spring waters in Tehsil Babuzai, Swat, Pakistan

Diversidade de parasitas aquáticos em águas cristalinas de nascente em Tehsil Babuzai, Swat, Paquistão

Abstract

Global access to clean and safe drinking water remains a formidable challenge, contributing to a myriad of health issues. This research exposes the existence of waterborne parasites in seemingly pristine spring waters, indicating potential contamination. Daily extensive sampling of Seventeen water sources was conducted in the untarnished freshwater streams of Tehsil Babuzai, District Swat, Khyber Pakhtunkhwa, Pakistan, from February to September 2021. Employing a stringent filtration process, the collected samples were effectively concentrated to detect any waterborne parasites. Subsequent application of the wet mount technique, combined with the capabilities of a compound microscope, revealed a disconcerting reality: all examined samples tested positive for various parasites. Identified parasites included Schistosoma species, Ascaris lumbricoides, Trichiuria trichiuria, Taenia saginata, Entamoeba histolytica, Amoeba, Lacrymana olor, Tintinnids, Paramecium, Dileptus, Euglena, Loxodes striatus, Acanthocyclops lynceus, Spondylosium, Oscillatoria, Cyanobacteria, Cilindros, Cilindros cerro, Commensal amoeba mature cysts,, Filliform larva of Strongyloides, Cercaria larva, Larva of Taenia solium, Egg of Enterobius vermiculais, Egg of Isospora belli, Egg of Tapeworm, Egg of Schistosoma species, Egg of Toxocara, and Egg of Diphyllobothrium latum. These findings clearly demonstrate the presence of a diverse array of parasites in the freshwater springs of Tehsil Babuzai, Swat, Pakistan. Implementing robust water treatment protocols, conducting regular monitoring and testing, and raising awareness about the risks of waterborne parasites are crucial steps to safeguard public health in the region.

Keywords:
freshwater contamination; parasite diversity; public health concern; water-borne parasites; Pakistan

Resumo

O acesso global à água potável limpa e segura continua a ser um desafio formidável, e a falta das condições de potabilidade contribui para uma miríade de problemas de saúde. Esta pesquisa expõe a existência de parasitas transmitidos pela água em águas de nascentes aparentemente intocadas, indicando uma possível contaminação. Foram realizadas amostragens extensivas diárias de 17 fontes de água nos riachos de água doce intocados de Tehsil Babuzai, Distrito de Swat, Khyber Pakhtunkhwa, Paquistão, de fevereiro a setembro de 2021. Utilizando um processo rigoroso de filtração, as amostras coletadas foram concentradas de forma eficaz para detectar quaisquer parasitas transmitidos pela água. A aplicação subsequente da técnica de montagem a úmido, combinada com as capacidades de um microscópio composto, revelou uma realidade desconcertante: todas as amostras examinadas testaram positivo para vários parasitas. Os parasitas identificados incluíram espécies de Schistosoma, Ascaris lumbricoides, Trichiuria trichiura, Taenia saginata, Entamoeba histolytica, Amoeba, Lacrymana olor, Tintinnids, Paramecium, Dileptus, Euglena, Loxodes striatus, Acanthocyclops lynceus, Spondylosium, Oscillatoria, Cyanobacteria, Cilindros, Cilindros cerro, Cistos maduros de ameba comensal, Larva filiforme de Strongyloides, Larva de Taenia solium, Ovo de Enterobius vermiculais, Ovo de Isospora belli, Ovo de verme, Ovo de espécies de Schistosoma, Ovo de Toxocara e Ovo de Diphyllobothrium latum. Estes achados demonstram claramente a presença diversificada de parasitas nas nascentes de água doce de Tehsil Babuzai, Swat, Paquistão. Implementar protocolos robustos de tratamento de água, conduzir monitoramento e testes regulares, e aumentar a conscientização sobre os riscos de parasitas transmitidos pela água são passos cruciais para proteger a saúde pública na região.

Palavras-chave:
contaminação de água doce; diversidade de parasitas; preocupação com a saúde pública; parasitas transmitidos pela água; Paquistão

1. Introduction

Parasites, spanning both the microscopic and macroscopic realms, pervade various environments and exert their influence on organisms across the globe. Their prevalence is intricately tied to factors such as habitat, ecological nature, and life cycles (Yousafzai et al., 2021). An extensive diversity of these parasitic organisms is underscored by Morand et al. (2014), which documented approximately 70 species of protozoa and nearly 300 species of helminthic worms worldwide. The impact of these parasites is profound, with the potential to induce severe illnesses in humans, either through direct consumption via contaminated food and water or indirectly through zoonotic transmission pathways (Cable et al., 2017). Understanding the intricate relationships between parasites and their environment is crucial for devising effective strategies to reduce the risks posed by these pervasive and diverse biological entities. Access to freshwater is vital for communities worldwide, playing a crucial role in sustaining life. When examining parasitic illnesses, freshwater environments take center stage as potential reservoirs for waterborne parasites. The transmission of freshwater parasites can be categorized into three primary groups: those associated with contaminated drinking water, those capable of penetrating the skin, and those transmitted through the consumption of raw freshwater foods like fish, plants, crabs, snails, and vegetation (Hayunga, 2014).

Recognition of these parasites in rural development initiatives has grown, as a clear correlation exists between their prevalence and the availability of sanitary facilities and clean water (Huntington, 2012). The world hosts approximately 15,000 species of protozoa, including health-related parasites such as Infusoria, Sarcodina, Flagellata, and Sporozoa (White et al., 2020; Welsh, 2012). Among waterborne parasitic protozoa are Entamoeba histolytica, Blastocystis hominis, Balantidium coli, Isospora belli, Cyclospora cayetanensis, Acanthamoeba spp., Sarcocystis spp., and Naegleria spp. These parasites significantly impact public health. Entamoeba histolytica, alone, is estimated to cause 100,000 deaths annually, ranking as the third most critical public health concern after schistosomiasis and malaria (Jahan, 2020). Amoebiasis is estimated to affect 10 million individuals in rural China. Giardia intestinalis, in some regions, exhibits zoonotic characteristics and a global presence, while in other areas, it is exclusive to human hosts (Innes et al., 2020). Giardiasis and cryptosporidiosis stand out as two of the most widespread parasitic infections transmitted through water. These enteric protozoan parasites often emerge as primary culprits during outbreaks associated with contaminated drinking water, especially in epidemics triggered by waterborne contaminants (Yaeger, 1996; Baldursson and Karanis, 2011; Pandey et al., 2014).

Childhood diarrhea stands as a persistent and formidable threat to the health and well-being of children, especially in economically disadvantaged regions (Huang and White, 2006; Efstratiou et al., 2017; Squire and Ryan, 2017; Liu et al., 2018; Omarova et al., 2018; Prüss-Üstün et al., 2019; El-Sayed, 2020). The prevalence of diarrheal diseases among children in impoverished nations is a grave concern, contributing significantly to child mortality rates. In this context, enteric protozoan parasites emerge as substantial contributors to the burden of childhood diarrhea. These microscopic organisms, such as Giardia lamblia and Entamoeba histolytica, play a crucial role in the pathogenesis of diarrheal diseases. The impact of enteric protozoan parasites on global health is staggering, with an estimated 1.7 billion cases of diarrhea attributed to them each year, leading to approximately 842,000 deaths (WHO, 1997; Hongxing et al., 2016; Cadarette, 2020). Giardia lamblia and Cryptosporidium parvum are notably perilous protozoa, displaying resilience to chlorine treatment (Omarova et al., 2018; Gopinath et al., 2020). Their diminutive size (1-17 μm) allows Giardia cysts and Cryptosporidium oocysts to elude conventional water treatment systems, potentially sparking outbreaks and epidemics when individuals consume supposedly purified water (Yang et al., 2021). Among children under the age of five, parasitic protozoa represent the second most common cause of mortality. The primary barrier to curbing the dissemination of these protozoan parasites, both within households and beyond, lies in inadequate human waste disposal practices (Zahedi et al., 2021). Furthermore, these parasitic protozoa can endure in the environment for up to a month (Ryan et al., 2019; Banach and van der Fels-Klerx, 2020). Consequently, it is imperative to conduct research on more potent purification techniques to eliminate these organisms and prevent their proliferation.

An alarming issue arises from the widespread use of stream waters for drinking and daily activities among the residents of Tehsil Babuzai, Swat, Khyber Pakhtunkhwa (Pakistan), posing an exceptionally high risk to public health. Recognizing the urgency to address this peril, the current study is initiated with the primary objective of assessing water quality, specifically in terms of waterborne parasites. The overarching aim is to raise awareness about the potential health hazards associated with the consumption and utilization of these waters, ultimately advocating for measures to safeguard public health. The primary objective of this research encompasses a parasitological analysis of water samples collected from diverse freshwater sources in Tehsil Babuzai. Through laboratory examinations, the study seeks to identify the presence of various water-borne parasites. By elucidating the extent of contamination and identifying specific parasites in the freshwater streams, the research endeavors to contribute valuable insights that can inform targeted interventions. These interventions, in turn, aim to reduce the risks associated with waterborne parasites, safeguard the well-being of the local population, and establish a foundation for sustainable water management practices.

2. Materials and Methods

2.1. Study area

Our investigation was concentrated in Tehsil Babuzai, a deliberately selected region due to its substantial dependence on spring waters for daily activities and drinking purposes. Tehsil Babuzai encompasses 17 union councils, each characterized by its distinct water sources, namely Saidu Sharif, Islampur/Marghazar, Faizabad/Amankot, Gulkada, Rang Mohallah, Malokabad, Shahdara Nawaklay, Barn/Engaroderai, Qambar/Guligram, Odigram Sangota/Dangram, Manglawar, Kokaria, Akamaruf Bami Khel, Rahim Abad, Malakanan Landikas, and Tindodag. In these rural areas within Tehsil Babuzai, springs abound, serving as the primary water source for thousands of residents for their domestic needs. The inherent lack of awareness regarding potential waterborne parasites exacerbates the situation, posing a significant health risk to the local population. Tehsil Babuzai is part of the District Swat and has a diversified topography; the climate is temperate and witnesses great seasonal changes. This, in essence, greatly depends on spring water sources for the bulk of the rural population daily use. It directly impacts the water quality and, therefore, public health through ecological and sociodemographic particularities of this area. It should be taken into consideration; they form the basis for research on water parasites in target-oriented interventions and practice for sustainable water management.

2.2. Study site

Sample collection was executed through a random sampling approach, strategically targeting springs that are regularly utilized by the local population. The selected springs encompassed two distinct types: those characterized by water cascading from a modest height and those forming natural ponds. A comprehensive overview of the springs, including detailed descriptions, is outlined in Table 1. This deliberate selection of spring types enables a comprehensive examination of the diverse water sources prevalent in the study area. By including both cascading springs and those forming natural ponds, our sampling strategy aims to capture a representative spectrum of water environments within Tehsil Babuzai. This approach ensures a holistic understanding of potential variations in water quality, contributing to the overall robustness and applicability of our study findings.

Table 1
Temperature and pH measurements in various analyzed springs.

Union Council Names	Spring Name	Temperature (°C)	pH
Siadu Sharif	Kostangat Cheena	17	8
	Khunachum Cheena	18	8
Qambar/Guligram	Serrai Cheena	19	8
	Cheenar Tangy	22	7
Islampur/Marghazar	Meerghay Cheena	17	8
	White palace Cheena	16	8
Amankot/Faizabad	Skha Cheena	22	7
Gulkada	Ajrang Khwar Cheena (1)	22	7
	Ajrang Khwar Cheena (2)	21	8
Burn/Engaroderai	Malakabad	20	7
Sangota/Dangram	Cheal Cheena	18	7
Kokorai	Batakar Cheena (1)	19	8
	Batakar Cheena (2)	19	7
Odigram	Ghazi BaBa Cheena	21	8
Manglawar	Manglawar Cheena (1)	25	7
Rahim Abad	Gujjarabad	22	8
Aka Maruf Bami Khel	Bishbarn Cheena	15	7
Shahdara Nawakalay	Faizagat Cheena	18	7

2.3. Sampling sites

In the Union Council of Saidu Sharif, samples were collected from Khuna Cham Spring and Kostangaht Spring. In the Union Council of Qambar/Guligram, two samples were collected from Serrai Spring and Cheenar Tangy Spring. In the Union Council of Isalampur and Marghazar, two samples were collected from Mergai and White Palace Spring. In the Union Council of Gulkada, samples were collected from Ajrang Spring 1 and 2. In the Union Council of Sangota or Dangram, samples were collected from Chail Spring. In the Union Council of Kokaria, samples were collected from Batakar Spring 1 and Batakar Spring 2. In the Union Council of Faizabad, samples were collected from Skha Cheena. In the Union Council of Rahim Abad, water samples were collected from Gujjarabad Spring. In the Union Council of Odigram, Ghazi Baba Spring. In the Union Council of Banrr/Engaroderai, samples were collected from Malakabad Spring. In the Union Council of Akamuraf Bami Khel, samples were collected from Bishband Spring. In the Union Council of Manglawar and Shahdara Nawakaly, samples were collected from Manglawar and Fizaghat Spring respectively.

2.4. Sampling

A total of 18 samples were collected from various springs, with a deliberate emphasis on capturing the essence of rural areas. To ensure the integrity of the collected samples, sterile 500ml bottles were employed in accordance with established protocols as outlined by Stothard and Adams (2014). Water was retrieved from depths ranging between 10 to 20cm within the springs, employing a standardized collection procedure. The sampling period spanned eight months, from February to September, allowing for a comprehensive assessment of potential seasonal variations in water quality. Following collection, each water sample was securely sealed, made airtight, and labeled with detail information. The labeling system included the name of the corresponding spring, its association with the respective union council (UC), and an encoded chronological code for precise identification. To maintain the integrity and quality of the samples, swift transportation protocols were enacted. The samples were transported to the Zoology Laboratory at Swat University Kanju, Township sector D for analysis. This centralized facility was chosen for its advanced analytical capabilities, ensuring a thorough and accurate examination of the collected water samples.

2.5. Sampling process

Water samples underwent physical and parasitological analyses to assess water quality and potential public health risks.

2.5.1. Physical analysis

The pH of the spring water was recorded using a universal indicator paper. Submerging the pH paper in the spring water, a brief interval allowed it to attain equilibrium, following which it was compared to a pH scale for precise determination of the water's pH level (Rao et al., 2006). To ascertain the temperature of the spring water, a clinical thermometer was carefully immersed for one minute. This method, as outlined by Horstmeyer et al. (2015), provides an accurate reflection of the water's temperature. The determination of geographical coordinates and altitude was executed using the Simple Altitude Meter app. Additionally, spring images were captured using a mobile camera to visually document the surroundings and facilitate a comprehensive understanding of the topographical and land use context. This approach aims to provide a holistic depiction of the physical attributes of the sampled springs, contributing to an assessment of the environmental factors influencing water quality.

2.5.2. Parasitological analysis

The collected samples underwent a thorough parasitological analysis in the laboratory, involving a series of executed steps:

Filtration: The collected sample was filtered through Whitman filter paper positioned in a funnel. Filtrates were carefully discarded, and the residue retained on the filter paper was preserved for subsequent investigations.

Slide Preparation: The filter paper was subsequently diluted in 5ml of distilled water within a beaker. A droplet was extracted from the beaker using a dropper, and a drop was carefully placed in the center of a slide. Using a toothpick, the droplet was evenly spread on the slide, both vertically and horizontally. The resulting smear was then covered with a coverslip.

Microscopy: The prepared slides underwent meticulous examination for the presence of Trophozoites, Cysts, Oocytes, and Eggs of various parasites, encompassing both Protozoans and helminths. Microscopic examination was conducted at varying magnifications, including 5x, 10x, and 40x. High-quality images of all microorganisms were captured using an Android phone or a computer connected to the microscope.

Identification of parasites: Observed parasites in forms such as Trophozoites, cysts, oocytes, larval forms, and eggs were morphologically compared using an array of references (Dehority, 1993; Hildrew and Townsend, 2007; Chatterjee, 2009; Zeibig, 2012).

3. Results

3.1. Union Council Saidu Sharif

The analysis unveiled a diverse spectrum of parasites within samples. Specifically, Khuna Cham spring exhibited the presence of (a) Schistosoma, (b) Ascaris lumbricoides, (c) Filliform larva of Strongyloides, and (d) Paramecium. On the other hand, Kostan Ghat spring did not posses any parasites (e) (f), as depicted in Figure 1. In addition to the parasitological findings, the physicochemical parameters of these springs were recorded. Khuna Cham spring registered a temperature of 18 °C and a pH of 8, while Kostan Ghat spring exhibited a temperature of 17 °C and a pH of 8, as detailed in Table 1.

Figure 1
Identified Parasites in Springs Khuna Chum and Kostan Ghat, Union Council Saidu Sharif, Tehsil Babuzai, District Swat. Legend: (A) Schistosoma; (B) Ascaris lumbricoides; (C) Filiform Larva of Strongyloids; (D) Paramecium.

3.2. Union Council Qambar/Guligram

Serrai spring exhibited the presence of (a)Ascaris lumbricoides, and (b) eggs of Enterobius vermicularis (Figure 2). The spring recorded a temperature of 19 °C and a pH of 8, as detailed in Table 1. Conversely, Cheenar Tangy spring within the same Union Council Where no parasites have been found (d), having the temperature of 22 °C and a pH of 7 (Table 1).

Figure 2
Identified parasites in Springs Serrai and Cheenar Tangy, Union Council Qambar/Guligram, Tehsil Babuzai, District Swat. Legend: (A) Ascaris lumbricoides; (B) Egg of Enterobius vermicularis.

3.3. Union Council Islampur/Marghazar

Mergai spring hosted (a)Egg of Isospora belli, (b) Egg of Schistosoma mansoni, (c) Trichuris trichiuria (Figure 3). The spring recorded a temperature of 17 °C and a pH of 8, as outlined in Table 1. White Palace spring contained (e), (d) Ascaris lumbricoides,, with a temperature of 16 °C and a pH of 8 (Table1).

Figure 3
Identified parasites in Springs Mergai and White Palace, Union Council Islampur/Marghazar, Tehsil Babuzai, District Swat. Legend: (A) Isospora belli egg; (B) Schistosoma mansoni egg; (C) Trichuris trichiura; (D) Ascaris lumbricoides.

3.4. Union Council Gulkada

Distinct species of parasites were identified within each sample. Ajrang spring no 1 was found to host (a) Egg of Taenia saginata, (b) Commensal amoeba cyst, and (c) Egg of Tapeworm, (Figure 4). The spring recorded a temperature of 22 °C and a pH of 7, as detailed in Table 1. Conversely, Ajrang spring no 2 within the same Union Council presented (d) Commensal amoeba cyst, (g), with a temperature of 21 °C and a pH of 8 (Table 1).

Figure 4
Identified parasites in Springs Ajrang, Union Council Gulkada, Tehsil Babuzai, District Swat. Legend: (A) Taenia saginata egg; (B) Commensal Amoeba cyst; (C) Tapeworm egg; (D) Commensal Amoeba cyst.

3.5. Union Council Sangota/Dangram

Thorough microscopic examination, involving diverse resolutions and magnifications, unveiled a range of parasites within this spring, including(a)Commensal amoeba cyst,(b) Schistosoma haematobium,(c), and (c)Tintinnids (protozoa: ciliates) (Figure 5). The recorded physicochemical parameters of Chail spring indicated a temperature of 18 °C and a pH of 7, as outlined in Table 1.

Figure 5
Identified parasites in Chail Spring, Union Council Sangota/Dangram, Tehsil Babuzai, District Swat. Legend: (A) Commensal Amoeba; (B) Schistosoma haematobium; (C) Tintinnids (protozoa: ciliates).

3.6. Union Council Kokarai

Batakar Spring no. 1 exhibited a diverse array of parasites, including (a) Adult male Ascaris lumbricoides, (b) Commensal amoeba cyst, (c) Egg of Schistosoma species,, and (d) Egg of Isospora belli (Figure 6). Physicochemical analysis of Batakar spring no. 1 yielded a temperature of 19 °C and a pH of 7 (Table 1), indicating conditions conducive to these parasitic organisms.

Figure 6
Identified parasites in Batakar Spring Number 1, Union Council Kokarai, Tehsil Babuzai, District Swat. Legend: (A) Ascaris lumbricoides Male; (B) Commensal Amoeba; (C) Schistosoma egg; (D) Isospora belli egg.

Batakar Spring no. 2 exhibited a distinct profile of parasitic species. The observed parasites in this spring encompassed (a) Amoeba, (b) Amoeba, (c) Dileptus, (d) Paramecium, and (e) Egg of Ascaris lumbricoides (Figure 7). Physicochemical analysis of Batakar spring no. 2 revealed a temperature of 19 °C and a pH of 7 (Table 1).

Figure 7
Identified parasites in Batakar Spring Number 2, Union Council Kokarai, Tehsil Babuzai, District Swat. Legend: (A) Amoeba; (B) Amoeba; (C) Dileptus; (D) Paramecium; (E) Ascaris lumbricoides egg.

3.7. Union Council Amankot/Faizabad

Within Union Council Amankot/Faizabad, a single sample was obtained from the Skha cheena spring. Microscopic examination of this sample unveiled the presence of a diverse range of parasitic organisms, including (a) Amoeba, (b) Euglena, and (c) Loxodes striatus (Figure 8). Physiological analysis of Skha cheena spring indicated a temperature of 22 °C and a pH of 8 (Table 1).

Figure 8
Identified parasites in Skha Cheena Spring, Union Council Amankot/Faizabad, Tehsil Babuzai, District Swat. Legend: (A) Amoeba; (B) Euglena; (C) Loxodes striatus.

3.8. Union Council Rahim Abad

In Union Council Rahim Abad, a solitary sample was procured from Gujjarabad spring for analysis. Microscopic examination of the sample revealed the presence of various parasitic organisms, including (a) Commensal amoeba, (d) and (b) Cyanobacteria (Figure 9). The physicochemical analysis of Gujjarabad spring indicated a temperature of 21 °C and a pH of 8 (Table 1).

Figure 9
Identified Parasites in Gujjarabad Spring, Union Council Rahim Abad, Tehsil Babuzai, District Swat. Legend: (A) Intestinal nonpathogenic Amoeba; (B) Cyanobacteria.

3.9. Union Council Odigram

In Union Council Odigram, a solitary sample was collected from Ghazi Baba spring for analysis. Microscopic examination of the sample unveiled the presence of various parasitic entities, including (a) Entamoeba histolytica trophozoites, (b) Entamoeba histolytica cysts, (c) Eggs of Enterobius vermicularis, (d) Remanella, and (e) A lynceus (Figure 10). The physicochemical assessment of Ghazi Baba spring indicated a temperature of 21 °C and a pH of 8 (Table 1).

Figure 10
Identified parasites in Ghazi Baba Spring, Union Council Odigram, Tehsil Babuzai, District Swat. Legend: (A) Enterobius vermicularis egg; (B) Entamoeba histolytica Trophozoites; (C) Entamoeba histolytica cyst; (D) Remanella; (E) Lynceus.

3.10. Union Council Banrr/Engaroderai

A solitary sample retrieved from Malakabad spring within this union council unveiled the presence of noteworthy parasites upon microscopic examination. Among the identified parasites were (a) Euglena, (b) Spondylosium, and (c) Taxocara eggs (Figure 11). The environmental conditions reflected a temperature of 20 °C and a pH of 7 in the spring (Table 1).

Figure 11
Identified parasites in Malakabad Spring, Union Council Banrr/Engaroderai, Tehsil Babuzai, District Swat. Legend: (A) Euglena; (B) Spondylosium; (C) Toxocara egg.

3.11. Union Council Aka Maruf Bami Khel

In the specified union council, a sole sample retrieved from Bishband spring underwent comprehensive microscopic analysis. The examination revealed the presence of various parasites, including (a) Oscillatoria (Bacteria), (b) Ascaris lumbricoides,(c) Cilindros, and (d) Cilindros cerro (Figure 12). These observations were made under different resolutions and magnifications using a biological microscope. The environmental conditions of the spring were characterized by a temperature of 15 °C and a pH of 7 (Table 1).

Figure 12
Identified parasites in Bishband Spring, Union Council Aka Maruf Bami Khel, Tehsil Babuzai, District Swat. Legend: (A) Oscillatoria (bacteria); (B) Ascaris lumbricoides; (C) Cilindros; (D) Cilindros cerro.

3.12. Union Council Manglawar

Within Union Manglawar, a single sample was carefully collected from Manglawar spring. Subsequent microscopic examination at varying resolutions and magnifications uncovered the presence of several parasites, including the (a) Egg of Diphyllobothrium latum, and (b) Lacrymana olor (Figure 13). Notably, the environmental conditions of this spring registered a temperature of 25 °C and a pH of 7 (Table 1).

Figure 13
Identified parasites in Manglawar Spring, Union Council Manglawar, Tehsil Babuzai, District Swat. Legend: (A) Diphyllobothrium Latum egg; (B) Lacrymana olor.

3.13. Union Council Shahdara Nawakalay

In Union Council Shahdara Nawakalay, a sample was obtained from Fizaghat spring located in Tehsil Babuzai, District Swat. Subsequently, a comprehensive microscopic examination was conducted at varying resolutions and magnifications. This scrutiny revealed a notable abundance of Amoeba species in the spring water (Figure 14). Moreover, the environmental conditions of this spring were recorded with a temperature of 18 °C and a pH level of 7 (Table 1).

Figure 14
Identified parasites in Fizaghat Spring, UC Shahdara Nawakalay, Tehsil Babuzai, District Swat. Legend: (A) Amoeba.

4. Discussion

In the modern era, the specter of parasitic infections continues to loom large, constituting a formidable public health challenge primarily linked to the ingestion of contaminated food and water (Rafiq et al., 2022; Crewe, 1998). This study distinctly hones in on waterborne parasites, with a focus on their prevalence within spring environments. Through a investigation that spanned diverse aquatic landscapes, including ponds, waterfalls, and various spring outlets, our findings illuminate a disconcerting reality-every single sample scrutinized revealed the presence of parasitic organisms. The depth and breadth of our study aimed not only to identify the specific parasites but also to underscore the potential gravity of waterborne parasitic contamination across varied water sources. This revelation holds profound implications for public health, highlighting the urgent need for proactive measures to mitigate the risks associated with waterborne parasites.

The pervasive nature of parasitic infections across all samples accentuates the ubiquity of waterborne parasites, challenging conventional assumptions about the safety of spring environments. Springs, often considered pristine sources of freshwater, paradoxically emerge as potential hotspots for harboring and transmitting various parasitic organisms (Changotra et al., 2022). This underscores the imperative for a reevaluation of water safety standards and the implementation of robust management strategies. Our findings beckon the attention of policymakers, public health professionals, and environmental scientists to collaboratively formulate comprehensive frameworks for monitoring, prevention, and mitigation of waterborne parasitic infections. The pressing need for heightened community awareness cannot be overstated, emphasizing informed water consumption practices to mitigate the risk of parasitic infections. Beyond the immediate geographic context, our study contributes to a broader understanding of a global challenge. The interconnectedness of water systems and human activities implies that waterborne parasitic infections transcend regional boundaries, necessitating a coordinated, international response to address root causes and implement effective preventative measures.

The spectrum of waterborne parasites unveiled by our research poses substantial threats to public health, encompassing Ascaris lumbricoides, Entamoeba histolytica cysts, Filliform larvae of Strongyloides, and Entamoeba histolytica trophozoites. Particularly noteworthy is the identification of Schistosoma species, aligning seamlessly with the research by Grimes et al. (2015), underscoring the critical issue of waterborne parasitic contamination. Schistosomiasis, attributed to Schistosoma, emerges as a major health concern akin to malaria, demanding urgent attention and intervention. The presence of Ascaris lumbricoides, as evidenced in our study, echoes the findings of Molina et al. (2018), shedding light on the extensive impact of this parasite. The severity of public health consequences is accentuated by approximately 60,000 annual infant deaths linked to Ascaris lumbricoides (Fahim et al., 2018), highlighting the pressing need for targeted interventions. Our identification of Strongyloides larvae aligns with studies in the Beni-Suef Governorate of Egypt conducted by El-Badry et al. (2018). Mahmoud (1996) underscore the significant health problems associated with Strongyloides infections, including disseminated strongyloidiasis and hyperinfection syndrome, with fatality rates ranging from 60% to 85%.

The discovery of Entamoeba histolytica in our study resonates with the findings of Ayaz et al. (2011), emphasizing protozoan parasites as primary contaminants in drinking water. Fitts (2002) identified Giardia and Entamoeba histolytica as leading causes of gastrointestinal disorders in the United States. Furthermore, in line with studies by Walsh (1986), Chapman et al. (2012), and Mtapuri‐Zinyowera et al. (2009), Entamoeba histolytica emerge as major contributors to diarrheal illnesses. Amoebiasis, caused by Entamoeba histolytica, stands out as a global concern, resulting in 40,000-100,000 deaths annually (Dumevi, 2017). The gravity of these findings emphasizes the urgent need for targeted public health initiatives and improved water treatment strategies to mitigate the impact of waterborne parasites on community well-being. It is noteworthy that comparable research investigations conducted by Sami Ul Haq and Rashid Ahmad in 2020 in Tehsil Khawazakhela revealed a prevalence of waterborne parasites, including Entamoeba histolytica, Giardia spp., and Schistosoma mansoni. This parallel research underscores the persistent and ongoing challenge of waterborne parasites in the region, necessitating sustained efforts for mitigation and intervention. The cumulative evidence from our study and parallel research advocates for concerted actions to address waterborne parasitic infections and safeguard the health of the local communities.

Our study has successfully unraveled the intricate dynamics of waterborne parasites thriving in spring environments. The prevalence of Ascaris lumbricoides, Entamoeba histolytica cysts, Filliform larvae of Strongyloides, Entamoeba histolytica trophozoites, and Schistosoma species highlights the multifaceted challenges posed by these microscopic organisms. The urgency of addressing this issue is paramount, and our findings advocate for immediate and comprehensive actions. To curb the proliferation of waterborne parasites, proactive measures are indispensable. Implementing stringent regulations for waste disposal, particularly human waste, is crucial. The study revealed that improper waste disposal is a major contributor to the presence of parasitic organisms in spring water. Community awareness programs should be initiated to educate residents about the importance of proper waste disposal practices, emphasizing the direct link between unhygienic practices and water contamination. Empowering communities with knowledge is key to breaking the cycle of waterborne parasitic infections. Establishing community workshops, seminars, and information campaigns can significantly contribute to enhancing awareness. Residents need to be informed about the potential health risks associated with contaminated water sources and the preventive measures they can undertake. By fostering a sense of responsibility within communities, there is a higher likelihood of sustained efforts to maintain water quality.

Conventional water treatment methods may fall short in eliminating resilient waterborne parasites like Giardia lamblia and Cryptosporidium parvum. Therefore, investing in advanced water treatment protocols is imperative. Cutting-edge filtration systems, ultraviolet (UV) irradiation, and chlorine-resistant technologies should be explored and implemented (Xiao, 2015). Collaborative efforts with experts in water treatment and environmental science can provide valuable insights into tailoring protocols that specifically target waterborne parasites, ensuring safe and clean water for communities. The convergence of findings from our study, along with those from various global studies, underscores the widespread nature of the issue. Waterborne parasites do not recognize geopolitical boundaries, making it a collective responsibility to address this global challenge. Collaborative efforts involving researchers, policymakers, and public health organizations are essential. Sharing best practices, research findings, and innovative solutions on an international scale will contribute to a more comprehensive and effective approach in mitigating the impact of waterborne parasites.

5. Conclusion

In conclusion, our investigation into waterborne parasites in the springs of Tehsil Babuzai, Swat, Khyber Pakhtunkhwa, sheds light on a critical public health concern. The presence of a diverse array of parasites, including Ascaris lumbricoides, Entamoeba histolytica, and Schistosoma species, underscores the vulnerability of water sources and the pressing need for intervention. The alarming consistency of positive results in all eighteen samples highlights the pervasive nature of waterborne parasitic contamination in the region. Addressing this issue requires urgent and concerted efforts, encompassing community engagement, education, and advancements in water treatment technologies. Proactive measures, such as stringent waste disposal regulations and community awareness campaigns, are essential to break the cycle of contamination. Moreover, the implementation of advanced water treatment protocols tailored to combat resilient parasites is imperative. Our findings contribute to the growing body of global evidence, emphasizing the interconnectedness of waterborne parasitic challenges and the importance of collaborative, international efforts to ensure safe and clean water for communities.

Acknowledgements

The present study was financed by project MECESUP UCT 0804, May 2023.

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Publication Dates

• Publication in this collection
  07 Oct 2024
• Date of issue
  2024

History

• Received
  05 Jan 2024
• Accepted
  03 June 2024