Ethnomedicinal indices based ethno-veterinary plant profile of Yousaf Baba Hills, District Mohmand, Khyber Pakhtunkhwa, Pakistan

Perfil de plantas etnoveterinárias baseado em índices etnomedicinais de plantas das Colinas de Yousaf Baba, Distrito Mohmand, Khyber Pakhtunkhwa, Paquistão

Abstract

The local communities in Pakistan's remote mountainous regions possess a unique and rich treasure trove of ethnoveterinary knowledge regarding an indigenous medicinal plant that has been passed down through generations for centuries. In these hilly areas, where basic facilities are lacking, residents primarily depend on local plants to treat various veterinary health issues. The aim of our research is to chronicle, explore, and quantitatively assess ethnoveterinary knowledge. The current study documents the use of ethnoveterinary plant medicine for curing different animal ailments. The majority of animal diseases are treated with local herbal medicines extracted from plants. To identify traditional remedies, the survey and information were collected from locals and farmers. Ethnoveterinary information was obtained through semi-structured interviews with 133 informants who were randomly selected from 17 villages, and the data were interpreted using various ethnobotanical indices. Altogether, 41 livestock ailments were documented, and it was concluded that ailments like digestive disorders, mouth and foot diseases, milk deficiency, diarrhea, worm infestation, skin disorders, wound healing, placenta retention, carminatives, and anti-lice are the most prevalent. Eighty-three plants from 36 families, including one species of pteridophyte and gymnosperm and 81 species of angiosperm, were identified for animal health care. Most frequently, plant parts used for ethnoveterinary medicine are leaves (56.8%), shoots (15.9%), fruit (8.87%), seed (8.87%), bark (2.95%), whole plant (2.95%), latex (1.77%), and root (1%). The most common administration is oral, followed by dermal. The inhabitants use leaves, fruits, seeds, shoots, and bark to prepare various oral and topical remedies. The plant species ranked highest in terms of RFC values were Mentha longifolia (0.76), Ajuga bracteosa (0.64), Carthamus oxyacantha (0.53), Brassica campestris (0.46), and Sonchus asper (0.42). Species with the highest use values include Ajuga bracteosa (1.03), Mentha longifolia (0.85), Brassica campestris (0.71), Carthamus oxycantha (0.54), and Sonchus asper (0.51). A high ICF was noted for digestive disorders (0.45), followed by lactation issues (0.41) and dermatological conditions (0.29). Given the enormous potential for popularizing local herbal remedies in the study area, this research underlines the critical need for further investigations to ensure a sustainable and safe utilization of these herbal drugs.

Keywords:
ethno-veterinary; highest use value; RFC; medicinal plants; traditional knowledge

Resumo

As comunidades locais nas regiões montanhosas remotas do Paquistão possuem um tesouro único e rico de conhecimento etnoveterinário sobre uma planta medicinal indígena que foi transmitida de geração em geração por séculos. Nessas áreas montanhosas, onde faltam instalações básicas, os moradores dependem principalmente de plantas locais para tratar vários problemas de saúde veterinária. O objetivo da nossa pesquisa é registrar, explorar e avaliar quantitativamente o conhecimento etnoveterinário. O estudo atual documenta o uso da medicina vegetal etnoveterinária para tratamento diferentes enfermidades animais. A maioria das doenças dos animais é tratada com medicamentos fitoterápicos extraídos de plantas locais. Para identificar remédios tradicionais, a pesquisa e as informações foram coletadas de moradores e agricultores. As informações etnoveterinárias foram obtidas por meio de entrevistas semiestruturadas com 133 informantes selecionados aleatoriamente de 17 aldeias, e os dados foram interpretados usando vários índices etnobotânicos. Ao todo, 41 doenças do gado foram documentadas, e concluiu-se que doenças como distúrbios digestivos, doenças bucais e dos pés, deficiência de leite, diarreia, infestação por vermes, problemas de pele, cicatrização de feridas, retenção de placenta, carminativos e antiparasitários são as mais prevalentes. Oitenta e três plantas de 36 famílias, incluindo uma espécie de pteridófita e gimnosperma e 81 espécies de angiosperma, foram identificadas para cuidados com a saúde animal. As partes das plantas mais utilizadas para a medicina etnoveterinária são folhas (56,8%), brotos (15,9%), frutos (8,87%), sementes (8,87%), casca (2,95%), planta inteira (2,95%), látex (1,77%) e raiz (1%). A administração mais comum é oral, seguida da aplicação dérmica. Os habitantes usam folhas, frutas, sementes, brotos e cascas para preparar diversos remédios orais e tópicos. As espécies de plantas mais bem classificadas em termos de valores de RFC foram Mentha longifolia (0,76), Ajuga bracteosa (0,64), Carthamus oxyacantha (0,53), Brassica campestris (0,46) e Sonchus asper (0,42). As espécies com os maiores valores de uso incluem Ajuga bracteosa (1,03), Mentha longifolia (0,85), Brassica campestris (0,71), Carthamus oxycantha (0,54) e Sonchus asper (0,51). Um alto ICF foi observado para distúrbios digestivos (0,45), seguido por problemas de lactação (0,41) e condições dermatológicas (0,29). Dado o enorme potencial para popularizar remédios herbais locais na área de estudo, esta pesquisa destaca a necessidade crítica de mais investigações para garantir uma utilização sustentável e segura desses medicamentos fitoterápicos.

Palavras-chave:
etnoveterinária; maior valor de uso; RFC; plantas medicinais; conhecimento tradicional

1. Introduction

Ethnoveterinary medicine (EVM) is a field of traditional knowledge systems that includes the use of ethnopharmacological plant remedies to prevent and treat various animal ailments (Mishra and Patro, 2010). Livestock farming serves as a dynamic source of economic productivity, central to the livelihoods of traditional ethnic and rural communities (Khan et al., 2012). The nomadic farmers in the area rely on local herbs for cattle fodder and utilize various medicinal herbs to treat diverse animal health issues (Misra and Kumar, 2004). Medicinal plants traditionally used to treat multiple animal diseases are essential in local health modalities (Mishra and Patro, 2010; Abbasi et al., 2013). Plant-based remedies frequently serve as the primary treatment in rural veterinary care as allopathic modalities remain unreachable, especially in the developing regions (Al-Yemeni and Sher, 2010). Ethnoveterinary medicine (EVM) also represents a potentially more economical and sustainable substitute for synthetic pharmaceuticals (Al-Mamun et al., 2015). The fragility and threat to the verbal transmission of folk knowledge leftovers underscore the critical need for documentation and recording (Alawa et al., 2002). Most rural livestock farmers have investigated the constituents used in these traditional remedies, which include herbal extracts, inflorescence, barks, seeds, leaves, buds, latex, tubers, resins, and roots of various plants. These remedies are prepared in different ways and administered to cattle for common health problems (Monteiro et al., 2011; Khan et al., 2012). Natural products may also be an important source for new pharmaceuticals (Harun and Massango, 2001).

Since the dawn of civilization, people have harvested and processed medicinal plants to treat both human and cattle health, which has also been utilized in almost all cultures (Shinwari and Khan, 2000; Murad et al., 2012). The use of folk medicine for healthcare is widely acknowledged as a longstanding practice in many emerging countries (Sulaiman et al., 2020). Moreover, in rural communities, local plant medicines have gained prominence for treating minor ailments, largely due to the rising costs of conventional healthcare (Mishra and Patro, 2010; Sher et al., 2014). The folks manage and preserve substantial, convenient biological resources for humans, industry, veterinarians, and the world community (Abbasi et al., 2013). However, it has been observed that rural inhabitants exhibit a deficiency in structured methodologies across a range of technical disciplines, including pharmacological, botanical, agronomic, anthropological, chemical, communal, and environmental sciences. This deficiency extends to areas such as habitat destruction affecting the survival of wild plant species, systematic documentation practices, genetic erosion, and other pertinent domains (Al-Quran, 2008; Sushila et al., 2010).

In Pakistan, there has been scant attention devoted to the inventory of plants used in veterinary therapeutics, and there is a substantial need to systematically gather and preserve this valuable knowledge (Khan et al., 2012). Currently, Indigenous cultural knowledge is being threatened rapidly. Similarly, with the escalating costs of pharmaceutical drugs and the issue of ecological pollution, it is imperative to develop cost-effective and environmentally friendly alternatives for managing livestock disorders (Zahoor et al., 2017). Due to their remote nature and limited access to quality education, comprehensive documentation of traditional knowledge by researchers has been significantly impeded (Deeba et al., 2009). There is a dire need to explore the indigenous knowledge about the use of herbal remedies in veterinary care before it fades into obscurity. In the research area, this study marks the initial endeavor to explore the ethnomedical applications of local plant species in animal health care. Lack of systematic documentation suggests such information may have disappeared. This paper's specific objective is to record and analyze the existing ethnoveterinary heritage and practices in the Yousaf Baba Hills, NW Pakistan. Furthermore, the study focused on the most culturally significant plant species, their availability status, and the sustainable utilization of curative plants by the local communities. This was done to gather information for future investigations and potentially create a dataset for revitalizing this plant heritage among the younger locals.

1.2. Literature review

Abidin et al. (2021) investigated ethnoveterinary botanical practices involving medicinal plants among various communities in Southwest Pakistan. Their research emphasizes the critical role of medicinal plants in ethnoveterinary practices, particularly as vital resources for livestock management in remote areas. The findings reveal that diverse communities and ethnic groups share specific traditional knowledge and intercultural approaches regarding the use of plants to address livestock health issues. In District Karak, Pakistan, Khattak et al. (2015) looked into the traditional uses of medicinal plants for animals. They focused on plants from the Orobanchaceae and Cuscutaceae families, which feed on plants like Dodonaea, Ziziphus, Calligonum, and Calotropis. These plants' powdered forms demonstrated significant value in ethnoveterinary practices. The study highlighted 46 plant species used in traditional veterinary care, with whole plants being the most common part used, followed by leaves, fruits, stems, and roots. These plants were primarily administered through oral ingestion, with topical applications and smoke serving as secondary methods. According to Majeed et al. (2020), herbs in Punjab, Pakistan, serve essential roles in both livestock nutrition and medicine. Their study found that grasses are predominantly used to treat infections and digestive problems in animals. The research underscores the deep-seated connection between the local communities and their plant resources, as well as their extensive understanding of herbal remedies for veterinary purposes. Similarly, Aziz et al. (2018b) investigated the use of medicinal plants by Indigenous communities in Bajaur Agency for veterinary applications and recorded 73 plant species used in traditional practices. Their research shows that Withania somnifera, Foeniculum vulgare, Curcuma longa, Solanum virginianum, Glycyrrhiza glabra, and Visnaga daucoides are the plants that are most often mentioned. The study also identified new medicinal uses for Glycyrrhiza glabra and Heracleum candicans, with strong supporting citation evidence. The Apiaceae family was particularly notable, featuring seven medicinal species. These plants were primarily used to treat digestive issues and skin ailments. Furthermore, Ahmad et al. (2015) explored the ethnoveterinary practices of pastoralist groups in the isolated Thakht-e-Sulaiman Hills. Their research highlights the reliance on local plants for veterinary treatments, focusing on the use of leaves for oral decoctions. Musculoskeletal and gastrointestinal issues were the most commonly treated conditions, while ritualistic and dermatological applications had the highest Indigenous Community Familiarity scores. Key plant species included Daphne papyracea, Pinus gerardiana, and P. wallichiana. The plants with the highest fidelity levels were Berberis calliobotries, Litsea monopetala, and Salix tetrasperma. Notably, half of these plants are also used for similar ailments in human medicine. Moreover, Rehman et al. (2022) conducted an in-depth analysis of indigenous plant species utilized by remote communities in North Waziristan, KP Pakistan. Their study highlights the crucial role domestic animals have played in the evolution of human societies and underscores the use of botanical remedies for both human and veterinary care. The research reveals the rich ethnoveterinary heritage within Waziristan communities, particularly concerning the medicinal properties of local plants. The documented ethnoveterinary uses include treatments for various conditions such as colic, bone fractures, gastrointestinal disturbances, hematuria, constipation, dermatological disorders, mastitis, foot-and-mouth disease, retained placenta, and enhanced lactation. This extensive repository of knowledge underscores the integration of traditional plant-based therapies into local veterinary practices and enriches the overall understanding of ethnoveterinary medicine in the region. Likewise, Ahmed and Murtaza (2015) explored medicinal plants in District Muzaffarabad, Pakistan, and identified several species with significant fidelity levels. Rumex nepalensis and Primula denticulata, each with maximum FL, were primarily used for treating dysuria and frequent urination. Skimmia laureola (100%), Angelica glauca (97%), and Swertia paniculata (99%) were employed for various conditions such as gastrointestinal disturbances, fever, cold, and shivering. Melia azedarach (100%) was utilized to alleviate intestinal worm burdens in cattle, demonstrating a strong traditional use of these plants. The highest citation fidelity was recorded for remedies for foot and mouth disease and ectoparasitic infestations.

2. Materials and Methods

2.1. Study area

Yousaf Baba Hills, located in the Mohmand District of the Hindu Kush range in Khyber Pakhtunkhwa (KPK), Pakistan, is situated at a longitude of 71.58833°E and latitude of 34.45556°N. It covers an area of 151 square kilometers, surrounded by district Bajaur to the north and situated to the west of Afghanistan. Districts Peshawar and Charsadda are located to its east (Figure 1). The study area is widely recognized as a prominent and picturesque tourist destination in Mohmand District, situated adjacent to Tehsil Tangi in District Charsadda (Mohammadzai, 2002). Most locals live in remote, isolated hamlets that depend on plant resources for survival (Aziz et al., 2018a). Due to their dependence on the available plant resources, the people possess a rich treasure of traditional ethnomedicinal knowledge (Ali et al., 2016). At the study site, the folk knowledge of medicinal plant use is increasingly at risk of disappearing. This decline is attributable to the passing of elderly community members, who are the primary custodians of this knowledge, and the younger generation's lack of engagement in preserving these practices (Barkatullah et al., 2015). The region is predominantly rural, with residents relying heavily on livestock for agricultural, economic, and nutritional sustenance (Mohammadzai, 2002). The dominant plant species in the area are Dodonaea viscosa, Otostegia limbata, Acacia nilotica, Acacia modesta, Cymbopogon jwarancusa, Ziziphus nummularia, Rhazya stricta, and Eucalyptus lanceolata. These plants not only contribute to the biodiversity of the region but also serve as a vital resource for traditional medicine practiced by local communities (Barkatullah et al., 2018). The current study, therefore, tries to find ethnoveterinary applications of native flora for curing various livestock disorders in this area, which has a wide variety of medicinal flora.

Figure 1
Map of Yousaf Baba Hills, KPK, NW Pakistan, indicating the localities visited during the field study.

2.2. Ethnoveterinary data collection

The current survey was conducted throughout various seasons of 2020-2021. The study relied on visits and data gathered from the indigenous communities through interviews with herbal dealers and practitioners in the local area (Barkatullah et al., 2015). Altogether, 133 participants were interviewed, consisting of 45.5% elders (both men and women aged 50 years and above), 22.05% herbal vendors, 22% adults aged 21-50 years, and 10% of the population is under 20 years of age. Throughout the study, it was also noted that the younger generation shows limited interest in indigenous plants and their associated traditional practices (Hussain and Sher, 2005). The plant information was collected in the herbarium of Islamia College, Peshawar. The plants were given voucher numbers and deposited in the Islamia College herbarium for future studies.

2.3. Ethical consideration

Data collection was conducted with careful attention to ethical standards to prevent or minimize any potential emotional or physical harm to participants. Participation was entirely voluntary, ensuring that ethnoveterinary information was gathered solely from those individuals who were enthusiastic and willing to share their experiences about the use of significant plants (Hussain and Sher, 2005; Barkatullah et al., 2015).

2.4. Field materials

The necessary tools and equipment for fieldwork and the collection of important plants comprise a digital camera, field notebook, pencil, knife, coarse paper, plant presser, and soil excavation tools (Abbasi et al., 2013).

2.5. Data analysis

Conversion of qualitative data into quantitative form is crucial for validating statistical findings, conducting comparative analysis, and hypothesis testing (Barkatullah et al., 2015). Quantitative metrics improve the probability of identifying plants that are promising in terms of pharmacological significance (Ong and Kim, 2014). Assessing the significance of each plant is essential for determining its potential in pharmaceutical applications (Bano et al., 2014). Various canonical metrics are available for analyzing and interpreting ethnomedicinal data. Documented data was evaluated using a variety of ethnomedical indices, such as use value, relative frequency of citation, Pearson correlation coefficient and informant consensus factor.

2.5.1. Relative frequency citation (RFC)

The RFC measures the level of consensus among informants regarding the use of therapeutic plants. This index reflects the local significance of each species in the local communities (Kayani et al., 2014). The calculation was performed using the following Formula 1.

$$RFC=FC/N$$ (1)

where FC represents the number of informants who mentioned the species and N denotes the total number of participants in the survey.

2.5.2. Use value (UV)

The use value (UV) reflects the importance of plants as recognized by local communities (Ong and Kim, 2014). This index provides valuable insights into the cultural relevance and practical applications of local plant species. It is defined by the following Formula 2:

$$UV=\sum Ui/N$$ (2)

where Ui represents the number of uses reported by each informant for a particular species and N denotes the total number of informants in the study area.

2.5.3. Pearson correlation coefficient (PCC)

This statistical index quantifies both the strength and direction of the linear linkage among variables. It represents the proportion of the joint variability between two factors relative to the product of their standard deviations (Shuaib and Khan, 2015). The coefficient can be expressed using the following formula: r represents the correlation coefficient for the analyzed sample, and x (RFC) and y (UV) represent the factors being investigated. A zero r value indicates no association between the factors, whereas a value greater than 0 indicates a positive correlation. A higher absolute value of r signifies a robust correlation (Barkatullah et al., 2018).

2.5.4. Informant consensus factor (ICF)

Informant consensus factor (ICF) was used to measure participants agreement on the application of plant taxa for various health treatments (Formula 3).

$$FCI=\frac{Nt}{Nur}$$ (3)

where Nur indicates the number of usage reports from informants for a disease category treated by a specific plant taxa, and Nt represents the number of plant taxa used for that disease category. The value of ICF varies from 0 to 1, with 1 denoting maximum agreement among respondents and 0 reflecting no agreement.

3. Results

3.1. Ethnoveterinary data from respondent reports

We gathered ethnoveterinary data from respondent reports during regular field visits to the study site. One hundred and thirty-three (133) respondents were interviewed, including herbal dealers, farmers, drivers, housewives, hakims, laborers, shepherds, shopkeepers, and pansaries, e.t.c. The collection of information on plants used for cattle feed began with individuals aged 50 and above, followed by those from pansaries, and finally by individuals aged between 20 and 49. The majority of informants were elderly individuals, as they possessed a wealth of ethnoveterinary knowledge regarding indigenous medicinal plants and their applications (Barkatullah et al., 2015). As shown in Figure 2, there was a noticeable decrease in traditional wisdom of therapeutic plants among respondents groups below the age of 50. The majority of people in the local area speak Pashto. Despite the increasing shift towards advanced therapeutic interventions, many individuals favor herbal remedies to circumvent the adverse effects linked to modern pharmaceuticals (Shinwari and Khan, 2000).

Figure 2
Study participants’ age profile.

3.2. Biodiversity of quoted plants

The present study identified 83 indigenous medicinal plant species, which are divided into 36 families. Table 1 meticulously catalogs additional supporting information, including scientific names, local names, families, plant parts used, routes of administration, veterinary applications, number of informants, UV, and RFC. The documented species belonged to 36 families, 75% of which were dicots (27 families), 19% monocots (7 families), 1.9% pteridophytes (1 family), and 1.9% gymnosperms (1 family). Among the dicots, Fabaceae and Asteraceae were the most dominant families in the research area. Their wide distribution across the investigation area may contribute to their prevalence. The Pakistani Flora also indicates that the Asteraceae family is the most prevalent in the country. Additionally, the family Asteraceae is extensively found throughout the northern regions of Pakistan (Bhatia et al., 2014). Furthermore, the dominance of the Asteraceae family has been reported in the surrounding areas in various floristic and ethnobotanical studies (Farooq et al., 2019). Similarly, Gairola et al. (2014) assessed the traditional expertise in ethnoveterinary remedies in the Jessore district of Bangladesh. The predominant medicinal herbs used for treating various animal disorders are from the Asteraceae, Fabaceae, and Lamiaceae families, which closely align with our findings. In the study area, herbs are more vigorous and exhibit faster growth in contrast to trees and shrubs. Furthermore, herbs are readily available and generally contain higher concentrations of various bioactive compounds compared to other plant forms. Additionally, herbs often exhibit greater medicinal efficacy than shrubs and trees.

Table 1
Ethno-veterinary plants used in the study area.

Voucher No		Botanical name		Family		Local name		Veterinary uses		Part use		Route		FC		RFC		∑Ui		UV
Bilal-ICP-1	Abutilon indicum (L.) Sweet.		Malvaceae		Ziar guly		Carminative, skin injury and anti-lice (3)		L		Oral		10		0.13		21		0.28
Bilal-ICP-2	Acacia catechu Willd.		Fabaceae		Angrezy kikar		Cure for horn injury and anticoagulant (2)		L		Oral		9		0.12		18		0.24
Bilal-ICP-3	Acacia farnesiana - (L.)Willd.		Fabaceae		Kikar		Eye infections and antidiarrheal (2)		L, S*		Drop		11		0.14		26		0.34
Bilal-ICP-4	Acacia modesta Wall.		Fabaceae		Phalosa		Placenta expelling after birth, tonic and promote lactation (3)		L, S*		Oral		4		0.05		8		0.11
Bilal-ICP-5	Acacia nilotica (L.) Delile.		Fabaceae		Kikar		Foot diseases and anthelmintic (2)		L, F		Oral		5		0.07		11		0.14
Bilal-ICP-6	Achyranthes aspera L.		Amaranthaceae		Jeshky		Indigestion and diuretic (2)		L		Oral		7		0.09		15		0.20
Bilal-ICP-7	Adiantum capillus-veneris-L.		Pteridaceae		Sumbal		Vermifuge and antipyretic(2)		W		Oral		7		0.09		11		0.14
Bilal-ICP-8	Aerva javanica Burm.		Amaranthaceae		Speen boty		Purgative, antidiarrheal and urinary troubles (3)		L		Oral		13		0.17		28		0.37
Bilal-ICP-9	Ajuga bracteosa wall.ex.		Lamiaceae		Booti		Carminative, abdomen pain and antipyretic (3)		R, S		Oral		48		0.64		78		1.03
Bilal-ICP-10	Ailanthus altissima (Mill.)		Simaroubaceae		Shandii		Laxative and tonic (2)		B		Oral		10		0.13		16		0.21
Bilal-ICP-11	Albizia lebbeck (L.) Benth.		Fabaceae		Srekh		Antidiarrheal and worm infestation (2)		L, B		Oral		8		0.11		21		0.28
Bilal-ICP-12	Alhagi Maurorum Medik.		Fabaceae		Nary		Gastrointestinal disorders and carminative (2)		L, S*		Oral		6		0.08		25		0.33
Bilal-ICP-13	Aloe barbadensis Mill.		Asphodelaceae		Kamal panra		Scabies and stomach troubles (2)		L		Paste		14		0.18		30		0.39
Bilal-ICP-14	Amaranthus albus L.		Amaranthaceae		Sarmy		Warmness in cattle’s after birth and promotes lactation (2)		L, S		Oral		7		0.09		13		0.17
Bilal-ICP-15	Amaranthus spinosus L.		Amaranthaceae		Chorlaye		Dog bites, promote lactation and appetite (3)		L		Paste, oral		5		0.07		21		0.28
Bilal-ICP-16	Amaranthus viridus L.		Amaranthaceae		Ganhar		Lactation, tonic, diuretic and emollient (4)		L		Oral		16		0.21		30		0.39
Bilal-ICP-17	Ammi visnaga L.		Apiaceae		Sowa		Abdomen pain (1)		L		Oral		11		0.14		11		0.14
Bilal-ICP-18	Anagallis arvensis L.		Primulaceae		Shen guly		Leech expelling and anti-lice		W		Paste		9		0.12		18		0.24
Bilal-ICP-19	Anethum graveolens L.		Apiaceae		Sovaa		Indigestion and increase lactation (2)		W		Oral		20		0.26		24		0.32
Bilal-ICP-20	Apluda mutica L.		Poaceae		Waha		Treat mouth sores (1)		L		Paste		7		0.09		14		0.18
Bilal-ICP-21	Argemone mexicana L.		Papaveraceae		Trakha		Antimicrobial (1)		F, L		Paste		5		0.07		17		0.22
Bilal-ICP-22	Avena sativa L.		Poaceae		Jawdar		Promote lactation and food poisoning (2)		S, L, S*		Oral		16		0.21		24		0.32
Bilal-ICP-23	Bauhinia variegata (L.) Benth.		Fabaceae		Kachnar		Antidiarrheal (1)		L, S*		Oral		7		0.09		22		0.29
Bilal-ICP-24	Bombax ceba L.		Malvaceae		Foomba		Cure for broken horn and dysentery (2)		L, S*		paste		11		0.14		18		0.24
Bilal-ICP-25	Brassica compestris L.		Brassicaceae		Sharshm		Cure for broken horns, skin infection and tonic (3)		L, S*		Paste, oral		35		0.46		62		0.71
Bilal-ICP-26	Bromus catharticus Vahl.		Poaceae		Jawder		Purgative (1)		L		Oral		5		0.07		5		0.07
Bilal-ICP-27	Calotropis procera (Aiton) W.T.		Apocynaceae		Spalmay		Abdomen pain and cough and cold (2)		L		Oral		7		0.09		13		0.17
Bilal-ICP-28	Cannabis sativa L.		Cannabaceae		Bang		Mouth infection and placenta retention (3)		R, S		Oral		9		0.12		25		0.33
Bilal-ICP-29	Capparis decidua Edgew.		Capparaceae		Kerrla		Antidiarrheal, bone healing and indigestion (3)		B, F		Oral		16		0.21		24		0.32
Bilal-ICP-30	Capparis spinosa L.		Capparaceae		Prewata		Respiratory problems and abdomen pain (2)		L		Oral		7		0.09		15		0.20
Bilal-ICP-31	Carthamus oxycantha M.		Asteraceae		Kareza		Wound healing and digestive problems (2)		S		Paste		40		0.53		41		0.54
Bilal-ICP-32	Cassia fistula L.		Fabaceae		Amaltas		Digestive disorders and antipyretic (2)		L, F		Oral		6		0.08		12		0.16
Bilal-ICP-33	Caralluma tuberculata L.		Asclepiadaceae		Pamanky		Antidiarrheal, carminative and digestive problems (3)		S		Oral		28		0.37		31		0.41
Bilal-ICP-34	Cassia occidentalis (Linn).		Fabaceae		Skha boty		Mouth and foot diseases (1)		L, L*		Oral		7		0.09		7		0.09
Bilal-ICP-35	Chenopodium ambrosioides L.		Amaranthaceae		Skha boty		Anthelmintic and hoof diseases (2)		L		Oral		4		0.05		12		0.16
Bilal-ICP-36	Chenopodium botrys L.		Amaranthaceae		Skha boty		Digestive disorders (1)		S		Oral		5		0.06				0.01
Bilal-ICP-37	Chrozophora tinctoria (L.)A.Juss.		Euphorbiaceae		Lengattty		Skin problems (1)		L, F		Paste		7		0.09		7		0.09
Bilal-ICP-38	Cirsium arvense (L.) Scop.		Asteraceae		Asghaki		Anthelmintic (1)		L		Oral		7		0.09		7		0.09
Bilal-ICP-39	Citrullus Colocynthis L.		Cucurbitaceae		Karkondi		Abdomen pain(1)		L, F		Oral		10		0.13		17		0.22
Bilal-ICP-40	Cleome viscosa L.		Cleomaceae				Antimaggots and wound healing (2)		S*, F		Paste		6		0.08		18		0.24
Bilal-ICP-41	Cocculus pendulus Diels.		Menispermaceae		Chamelle		Carminative and anti-diarrheal (2)		L		Oral		5		0.07		11		0.14
Bilal-ICP-42	Colebrookea oppositifolia Sm.		Lamiaceae		Dhurseli		Antimaggots and anthelmintic (2)		L, F		Paste		6		0.08		12		0.16
Bilal-ICP-43	Cuscuta reflexa L.		Convolvulaceae		Banafsha		Antilice and astringent (2)		S		Paste		9		0.08		20		0.26
Bilal-ICP-44	Cyperus rotundus L.		Cyperaceae		Dela		Flatulence (1)		S, B		Paste		7		0.09		16		0.21
Bilal-ICP-45	Desmostachya bipinnata (Linn.)		Poaceae		Drab		Urinary troubles (1)		L		Oral		4		0.05		10		0.13
Bilal-ICP-46	Dodonaea viscosa jacq.		Sapindaceae		Ghorasky		Anti-inflammatory and wound healing (2)		L, S*		Paste		19		0.25		41		0.54
Bilal-ICP-47	Echinops echinatus Roxb.		Asteraceae		Ghana		Wounds healing and tonic (2)		L		Paste		10		0.13		17		0.22
Bilal-ICP-48	Eruca sativa Mill.		Brassicaceae		Jamama		Antilice, skin problems and antidiarrheal (3)		L		Paste		28		0.37		32		0.42
Bilal-ICP-49	Euphorbia heliscopa L.		Euphorbiaceae		Mandaro		Anthelmintic (1)		L, S		Oral		7		0.09		7		0.09
Bilal-ICP-50	Euphorbia hirta Linn.		Euphorbiaceae		Jaghje		Promote lactation and appetite stimulant (2)		L, S		Oral		13		0.17		23		0.30
Bilal-ICP-51	Euphorbia prostrata L.		Euphorbiaceae		-		Antipyretic (1)		S		Oral		5		0.08		6		0.08
Bilal-ICP-52	Fagonia indica L.		Zygophyllaceae		Azghaky		Indigestion and appetite stimulant (2)		L, S		Oral		20		0.26		28		0.37
Bilal-ICP-53	Ficus palmata Forssk.		Moraceae		Inzar		Indigestion and skin disorders (2)		F		Paste, oral		18		0.24		27		0.36
Bilal-ICP-54	Justica adhaota L.		Acanthaceae		Baikar		Anti-inflammatory and cough depressant (2)		L, L*		Oral, Paste		18		0.24		24		0.32
Bilal-ICP-55	Lathyrus aphaca L.		Fabaceae		Pali		Skin burns and promote lactation (2)		W		Paste		15		0.20		18		0.24
Bilal-ICP-56	Launaea nudicaulis L.		Asteraceae		Shodafy		Skin infection (1)		R		Paste		20		0.26		20		0.26
Bilal-ICP-57	Lepidium sativum L.		Brassicaceae		Alam		Warmness, indigestion, and as a tonic (2)		S*		Oral		48		0.64		78		1.03
Bilal-ICP-58	Leucaena leucocephala (Lam.) de Wit.		Febaceae		Srekh		Anthelmintic (1)		S*		Oral		14		0.18		14		0.18
Bilal-ICP-59	Linum usitatissimum L.		Linaceae		Alsi		Stomach disorders, diuretic and cough depressant (4)		S*		Oral		57		0.76		65		0.86
Bilal-ICP-60	Malvastrum coromandelianum L.		Malvaceae		Jaro boty		Antiallergic (1)		L		Paste		8		0.11		8		0.11
Bilal-ICP-61	Medicago denticulata Willd.		Fabaceae		Pishtari		As a tonic (1)		W		Oral		10		0.12		20		0.26
Bilal-ICP-62	Melia azadarach Linn.		Meliaceae		Shunday		Antilice and carminative (2)		B, L		Paste, oral		15		0.20		24		0.32
Bilal-ICP-63	Mentha longifolia L.		Lamiaceae		Enaly		Abdomen pain and respiratory disorders (1)		W		Oral		57		0.76		65		0.86
Bilal-ICP-64	Nannorrhops ritchiana (Griff.) Aitch		Arecaceae		Mazari		Mouth and foot diseases and Purgative (2)		L		Oral, paste		24		0.32		38		0.50
Bilal-ICP-65	Nerium oleander L.		Apocynaceae		Gander		Digestive problems (1)		L		Oral		15		0.20		30		0.39
Bilal-ICP-66	Otostegia limbata (Benth) Boiss.		Lamiaceae		Spin azghy		Wound healing (1)		L		Oral		10		0.13		13		0.17
Bilal-ICP-67	Opuntia dillenii (Ker Gawl.) Haw.		Cactaceae		Zaqum		Lactation and carminative (2)		S		Oral		10		0.12		21		0.28
Bilal-ICP-68	Parkinsonia aculeate L.		Fabaceae		Kikar		Dog bite (1)		L, S*		Oral		11		0.14		11		0.14
Bilal-ICP-69	Pheonix dactalfera L.		Arecaceae		Kajora		Infertility (1)		F		Oral		5		0.07		5		0.07
Bilal-ICP-70	Pinus roxburghii Sarg.		Pinaceae		Nahter		Wounds healing and antilice (2)		L, L*		Paste		28		0.37		31		0.41
Bilal-ICP-71	Prosopis juliflora (Sw.) DC.		Fabaceae		Kikar		Wounds healing (1)		L		Paste		14		0.18		14		0.18
Bilal-ICP-72	Rhazya stricta Decne		Apocynaceae		Gandaray		Antimaggots (1)		L, S		Paste		15		0.19		32		0.42
Bilal-ICP-73	Rumex dentatus L.		Polygonaceae		Shalkhy		Antidiarrheal and foot and mouth infection (2)		L		Oral		18		0.24		24		0.32
Bilal-ICP-74	Sonchus asper (L.) Hill		Asteraceae		Shodapy		Skin abscess and promote lactation (2)		L, S		Paste, oral		33		0.42		39		0.51
Bilal-ICP-75	Silybum marianum (L.) Gaertn.		Asteraceae		Ghana		liver disorders (1)		L, S, S*		Oral		35		0.46		35		0.46
Bilal-ICP-76	Solanum nigrum L.		Lamiaceae		MaKo		Urinary troubles and eye diseases (2)		L, F		Oral		10		0.13		13		0.17
Bilal-ICP-77	Tamarix aphylla (L.) Karst		Tamaricaceae		Ghuz		Dermatitis and analgesic (2)		L, B		Paste		20		0.26		33		0.43
Bilal-ICP-78	Taraxacum officinales L.		Asteraceae		Ziyar guly		Antitumor and promote lactation (2)		L, S		Oral		13		0.17		20		0.26
Bilal-ICP-79	Tribulus terrestris L.		Zygophyllaceae		Markondy		Placenta retention and carminative (2)		L, F		Oral		7		0.09		17		0.22
Bilal-ICP-80	Vitex negundo L.		Lamiaceae				Foot and mouth diseases and wound healing (2)		L		Oral		10		0.13		20		0.26
Bilal-ICP-81	Withania somnifera (L.) Dunal		Solanaceae		Kotilal		Cure for arthritis and warmness (2)		L, S*		Oral		15		0.19		30		0.39
Bilal-ICP-82	Woodfordia fruticosa (L.)		Lythraceae		Pallay		Anti-diarrheal (1)		L		Oral		5		0.07		5		0.07
Blal-ICP-83	Ziziphus nummularia Wight & Arn.		Rhamnaceae		KArkand		Anthelmintic, broken horn, mouth and foot diseases (3)		L, F		Oral		19		0.25		31		0.41

• Keys: Part Use: B = bark; F = fruit; R = root; L = leaf; L* = latex; S = shoot; B* = bulb; W = whole plant; S* = seed.

3.3. Parts used and route of administration

The local residents utilized eight different parts of the plant for their ethnoveterinary practices. The most commonly used plant parts for traditional veterinary medicine are leaves 56.8%, shoots 15.9%, fruit 8.87%, seed 8.87%, bark 2.95%, whole plant 2.95%, latex 1.77%, and root 1%. Moreover, roots, gums, bark, wood, latex, and inflorescences were utilized for a range of applications, as depicted in Figure 3. In combination, most of the leaves, shoots, and fruits were widely used; the remaining parts of any type of combination were recorded. In the current study, a majority of folk remedies were administered orally to alleviate various livestock ailments.

Figure 3
Plant parts predominance in the quoted taxa.

3.4. Disease categories

In the study area, pastoral farming of goats, cattle, and sheep was substantially more prevalent than that of other livestock. Herdsmen transport their livestock to mountainous areas for grazing, whereas farmers either cultivate fodder species or harvest them from mountainous and field environments. Among the common animal ailments reported in the local area were indigestion and skin infections, low milk production, placenta retention, wound healing, lice infestation, laxatives, and mouth and foot diseases, all of which were being cured by these indigenous medicinal plants. Residents of the local area used 83 plant species to treat various animal health diseases, which were grouped into 10 major disease categories. In the analysis of plant species utilization, the primary application is for the treatment of digestive disorders, which accounts for 16% of all documented uses. This is followed by their application in the treatment of skin disorders, which accounts for 14%, and in the enhancement of lactation, which accounts for 12%. Treatments for mouth and foot infections each account for 10%, as do antidiarrheal properties. Carminative effects and wound healing each make up 9 percent of the recorded uses, with anthelmintic applications also comprising 9 percent. Other notable uses include lice infestation management at (8%) and placenta retention at (3%), as illustrated in Figure 4. In the Shervaroy Hills, Usha et al. (2016) investigated the efficacy of essential medicinal herbs as traditional remedies for treating various cattle diseases. He also noted that local people utilized native plants to treat a range of ailments, including stomatitis, enteritis, mastitis, lice and tick infestations, salivation, wounding, arthritis, and milk deficiency in livestock, which corroborates our findings. The survey area's elevated and rugged topography is linked to a higher rate of external wounds and injuries among the locals. Additionally, residents utilize spring water for washing their bodies and clothing, despite its potential to harbor pathogens that may cause skin infections, as a measure to address these concerns. Another study by Shah et al. (2012) looked at different plant species that are used to treat a wide range of conditions, such as skin problems, urogenital problems, influenza, pain relief needs, respiratory problems (like coughs and pharyngitis), muscular problems, and digestive problems. Their results supported our own. Similarly, Aziz et al. (2018b) documented the application of ethnoveterinary medicine for curing a range of disorders, including abdominal distension, milk deficiency, diarrhea, mastitis, and foot and mouth disease, which aligns with our findings. Likewise, Malik et al. (2019) explored specific ethnoveterinary practices among indigenous communities in northern Pakistan. They documented that local populations utilized wild medicinal plant remedies for the management of various conditions, including wound healing, hemorrhage, analgesia, pediculosis, uterine disorders, lactation enhancement, foot and mouth infection, pneumonia, lice infestations, and gastrointestinal issues. These findings reflect practices commonly used in remote areas for animal health care, which are consistent with our results.

Figure 4
Plants used for various ailments by locals.

3.5. Cultural analysis

To assess the ethnoveterinary knowledge of the research area, statistical indices were calculated. The compiled data were quantitatively interpreted through various indices such as RFC, UV, and Pearson correlation coefficient (PPC). Quantitative parameters are used to predict species usage for various ailments and evaluate the significance of specific plant species within the study area (Shuaib and Khan, 2015).

3.5.1. Relative frequency of citation (RFC)

This index assesses consensus among informants regarding the use of curative plants (Kone et al., 2008). In this study, the relative frequency of citation (RFC) values ranged from 0.05 to 0.76. Figure 5 shows the five most cited plants known by most respondents for ethno-veterinary uses. The plant species ranked highest in terms of RFC values were Mentha longifolia (0.76), Ajuga bracteosa (0.64), Carthamus oxyacantha (0.53), Brassica campestris (0.46), and Sonchus asper (0.42). The minimum RFC value of 0.05 was recorded for Desmostachya bipinnata. These results indicate that the RFC is positively correlated with the number of informants who report using a plant (FC). Indigenous communities have extensive knowledge of the applications of medicinal plants available in their region (Barkatullah et al., 2015). Multiple investigations have also found similar plant species, as mentioned in the current study (Barkatullah et al., 2015).

Figure 5
Five quoted plants showing the highest RFCs.

3.5.2. The use value (UV)

UV index is applied to interpret the relevance of each plant's use as cited by the informants (Kayani et al., 2014). Based on what people in the study area said, the most commonly used medicinal plants and their highest use value (UV) were Ajuga bracteosa (1.03), then Mentha longifolia (0.86), Brassica campestris (0.71), Carthamus oxycantha (0.54), and Sonchus asper (0.51) respectively, as shown in Figure 6. The leaves of Mentha longifolia and seeds of Linum usitatissimum were commonly used to cure stomach disorders, diuretics, coughing, and weakness in cattle (Barkatullah et al., 2018).

Figure 6
Five quoted plants showing the highest Uvs.

3.5.3. Pearson correlation coefficient (PCC)

A Pearson correlation coefficient of 0.8699 was found for RFC and UV, with a P-value of less than 1%. This means that there is a strong positive relationship between how important each species is in the area and how important it is to use them (Bano et al., 2014). This suggests that an increase in the number of informants correlates with a broader range of medicinal plants identified. The fact that UV and RFC values are robustly correlated suggests aligned patterns among species; individual species may vary in their RFC and UV values, with some exhibiting high values and others having low values.

3.5.4. Statistical analysis illustrating the relationship of RFC and UV

Statistical analysis was conducted to explore the correlation between Relative Frequency of Citation (RFC) and Use Value (UV) across various species (Ong and Kim, 2014). Pearson correlation coefficient (PPC) (r) was calculated to be 0.8699. This demonstrates a robust positive correlation, which means that high x variable scores align with high y variable scores. The coefficient of determination r2 was 0.7567 (Figure 7). The strong correlation suggests that UV and RFC exhibit a linear association among species (Barkatullah et al., 2015).

Figure 7
Correlation between RFC and UV (interviewed study participants: 133).

3.5.5. Informant consensus factor (ICF)

The locals used botanical medicines to treat 41 health disorders. The key disorders included digestive issues, skin issues, lactation problems, wound healing, diarrhea, mouth and foot infections, worm infestations, carminative issues, lice infestations, and retained placenta. In order to calculate the informant consensus factor, health issues were first classified into 10 distinct categories (Table 2). The highest ICF value was found for digestive problems (0.45), followed by lactation issues (0.41), wound healing (0.30), and skin problems (0.29). As shown in Table 2, the most commonly reported issues were digestive problems, with 55 entries, followed by lactation issues, wound healing, and skin problems, with 24, 23, and 41 reports, respectively. The findings reveal that diseases such as digestive, lactation, and skin disorders were notably frequent in the study area.

Table 2
Informant Consensus Factors by ailment categories in the study area

Ailments Category	Nur	Nt	Nur-Nt	Nur-1	ICF
Digestive disorders	55	25	30	54	0.45
Lactation	24	10	14	23	0.41
Wound healing	23	7	16	22	0.30
Skin disorders	41	12	29	40	0.29
Antidiarrheal	29	8	21	28	0.27
Mouth and foot diseases	34	9	25	33	0.26
Anthelmintic	27	7	20	26	0.25
Placenta retention	14	3	11	13	0.21
Carminative	42	8	34	41	0.19
Antilice	45	7	38	44	0.15

• Keys: Nur = Total Utilization; Nt = Total number of species used in an disease category; ICF = Informant consensus factor.

4. Discussion

In general, rural regions of Pakistan extensively use ethnoveterinary plants. In the present study, the majority of traditional herbal experts were predominantly elderly males and females. It was recorded that about 84% of total rural communities worldwide depend on ethnomedicinal plants in curing different ailments (Usha et al., 2016). Indigenous knowledge concerning the uses of local plants is predominantly transmitted verbally from one generation to the next. This cultural practice is particularly prevalent in less developed regions (Ibrar et al., 2007; Kayani et al., 2014). Livestock rearing serves as one of the primary sources of income for rural populations in the research area. Plants are used by locals not only as livestock feed but also as medicinal treatments for various cattle diseases, according to the study's findings. The use of plants for medicinal purposes to cure a variety of ailments has deep historical roots, extending back to ancient times. In our research, we documented 83 plant species from 36 different families. The Fabaceae family, with 14 species, has the highest number of individual species used in traditional animal health practices, followed by the Asteraceae family, which includes 8 species. Additional studies have similarly recognized the Fabaceae and Asteraceae families as the most commonly utilized in traditional medicinal practices (Barkatullah et al., 2018). Based on traditional knowledge, Fabaceae species were found to be very important in this study. This may be because they contain many different chemicals, such as alkaloids, amines, coumarins, anthraquinones, cyanogenic glycosides, lectins, flavonoids, phenylpropanoids, protease inhibitors, and terpenoids that are very good at killing microbes (Wink, 2003). Given the widespread populations of ovines, caprines, bovines, and equines in the study area, our research has concentrated on documenting the indigenous veterinary practices employed in the management and treatment of these specific domesticated species. Primary sources said that Ajuga bracteosa (1.03 UVs) was used a lot, followed by Mentha longifolia (0.86 UVs), Brassica compestris (0.71 UVs), Carthamus oxycantha (0.54 UVs), and Sonchus asper (0.51 UVs). Medicinal botanicals with high use values underscore their importance to local populations and facilitate the exchange of indigenous expertise within the community. During our investigation, A. Bracteosa is utilized to alleviate abdominal pain, function as a carminative, and act as an antipyretic in livestock. The use of ethnoveterinary plant species varies across distinct cultural groups, highlighting differences in traditional methods and specialized knowledge (Abbasi et al., 2013). Previous research has confirmed the use of A. bracteosa leaf decoction. Furthermore, A. bracteosa is used for addressing digestive disorders in the research locale (Barkatullah et al., 2018). In a comparable manner, M. longifolia is recognized for its analgesic properties in the treatment of abdominal ailments. This botanical species is employed in numerous global cultures to address different livestock health conditions. For instance, it is used to support digestive health and cure diarrhea when combined with ghee and salts (Khan et al., 2019). In addition, coughs are treated by giving the animals the powdered form of the substance (Aziz et al., 2018b). The fresh form of Sonchus asper is administered to cattle to promote milk production and treat cutaneous tumors. This illustrates the unique application of this plant species in the research area, as well as the profound traditional knowledge accumulated by the local populace through extensive experience. The plant has been documented in scientific literature as being effective for enhancing wound healing, reducing fever, treating coughs, and combating intestinal infections (Zubair et al., 2023). Veterinary practices involve the use of dried C. oxycantha leaves and branches are used to treat digestive conditions, enhance wound healing, and alleviate weakness in sheep, cows, and buffalo. Indigenous communities from diverse cultural backgrounds reside in the Lesser Himalayas (Pakistan) and utilize W. somnifera is used in the treatment of mastitis in cattle (Abbasi et al., 2013). In Ethiopia, this plant functions to protect animals from evil influences. According to local informants, Anethum graveolens, Amaranthus viridis, and Achyranthes aspera are utilized for treating indigestion and enhancing lactation in cattle. The present study reveals that the dried bark and fruits of Capparis decidua are combined and used for their antidiarrheal, bone-healing, and digestive benefits. Additionally, in various cultural practices across the nation, powdered coal from Capparis decidua wood is given orally to aid in the recovery from bone fractures (Ahmad et al., 2015). A sugar infused decoction of its leaves is applied as an agent for wound healing (Sushila et al., 2010). The study reveals that mustard oil mixed with whey is administered orally as both a tonic and a treatment for skin infections and broken bones. Brassica campestris oil is traditionally used in Pakistan's Himalayan regions as a disinfectant and to relieve muscular pain. In Bajur Agency, an oral solution of Brassica campestris oils is used to relieve abdominal discomfort (Aziz et al., 2018b). The research findings indicate that the same medicinal plants are utilized across various regions of the country; however, their applications vary by area and cultural context. When we look at other studies side by side, we find that the most commonly used medicinal plant species in our study area are Albizia lebbeck, Amaranthus albus, Calotropis procera, Caralluma tuberculata, Cuscuta reflexa, Linum usitatissimum, Opuntia dillenii, and Vitex negundo. According to Barkatullah et al. (2018), different ethnic groups in Malakand Agency use a lot of different plant species, like Acacia modesta, Ailanthus altissima, Calotropis procera, D. viscosa, Euphorbia hirta, Ficus palmata, and Melia azedarach (Figure 8).

Figure 8
Collected wild medicinal plants from Yousaf Baba Hills, NW Pakistan. (a) Acacia modesta; (b) Ajuga bracteosa; (c) Calotropis procera; (d) Canabus sativa; (e) Caralluma tuberculata; (f) Chrozophora tinctoria; (g) Dodonaea viscosa; (h) Echinops echinatus; (i) Justica adhaota; (j) Melia azadarach; (k) Mentha longifolia; and (l) Nerium oleander.

A comparative analysis indicates that more than 15 medicinal plant species are commonly used for ethnoveterinary practices across both regions. Participants in the survey did not detail precise dosing protocols or recovery periods as documented in prior ethnobotanical literature. A substantial issue noted in other research is the lack of accuracy in these traditional methods, contributing to a shift towards modern allopathic remedies for the maintenance of livestock health (Farooq et al., 2008). One of the main issues highlighted by veterinarians is the non-standardization of dosages in traditional herbal practices. While this assessment is acknowledged, it is important to recognize that traditional medicines are not inherently ineffective; they simply require standardization. The introduction of standardized practices could advance the traditional system by lowering risks and reducing the likelihood of adverse effects (Aziz et al., 2018a). Kearns (1995) points out that ethnoveterinary medicine faces notable challenges from modern social theories and critiques. These challenges become clear when looking at the different ways people from various social groups handle animal health. Although traditional animal care methods might not always work as well as modern medicine, they still offer valuable insights despite their limitations (Sharma et al., 2012). Although traditional veterinary medicines frequently demonstrate substantial health benefits, numerous contemporary allopathic drugs are developed based on these traditional practices (Khan et al., 2012). Within this study, certain plant species were found to serve multiple therapeutic functions. Abutilon indicum, for example, was used for its digestive benefits, skin injury treatment, and lice remedy. Monteiro et al. (2011) documented similar findings in Pakistan and Brazil, highlighting that a single medicinal plant is frequently employed for various therapeutic applications. This use of individual plant species for treating multiple ailments is a common practice in ethnoveterinary medicine. Some traditional remedies, on the other hand, involve blending multiple plants with ingredients like sugar, ghee, and whey. These additives are generally incorporated to soften the astringent taste, dilute the remedy, and moderate its potency (Jabbar et al., 2006). Plant-derived therapies warrant further investigation as potential substitutes for synthetic medications, and a detailed evaluation of their therapeutic efficacy is required. It's important to do more in-depth studies on the pharmacology, phytochemistry, and toxicology of many different plant species, including Aerva javanica, Capparis spinosa, Chenopodium ambrosioides, Cocculus pendulus, Leucaena leucocephala, Otostegia limbata, Sonchus asper, Parkinsonia aculeata, and Woodfordia fruticosa. The findings of this study indicate that medicinal plants are used by indigenous populations to address several health conditions. These include digestive issues, skin infections, decreased milk production, retained placenta, wound care, lice, constipation, and diseases affecting the mouth and feet. These prevalent conditions pose significant risks to livestock's health and increase the possibility of zoonotic disease transmission. The local community's use of various animal products exacerbates the risk of diseases crossing from animals to humans. A collaborative framework that integrates ethnoveterinary research with other scientific disciplines could offer a robust approach to addressing diverse health issues affecting both animals and plants.

Ethnoveterinary knowledge is essential in animal healthcare because it integrates traditional practices with cultural heritage, biodiversity conservation, and cost-effective solutions. This body of knowledge, deeply rooted in community traditions, offers a sustainable and accessible alternative to modern veterinary methods, particularly in remote or resource-limited areas. In remote and tribal regions, where access to conventional veterinary services may be limited or nonexistent, ethnoveterinary practices become essential for maintaining animal health and productivity. These traditional practices provide valuable insights into local plant species and treatments that are specifically adapted to the environmental conditions and animal breeds of these regions, thus promoting resilience and self-reliance among communities. Additionally, ethnoveterinary practices can complement contemporary veterinary medicine, offering a more holistic and comprehensive approach to animal care. By preserving and documenting this traditional wisdom, we honor cultural identities and support the unique healthcare needs of remote and tribal populations, while also opening avenues for scientific research and innovation that could lead to new therapeutic options. In essence, ethnoveterinary knowledge enhances animal welfare, supports environmental sustainability, and ensures the continuity of cultural practices, particularly in underserved and isolated communities.

The rich array of indigenous botanical resources in Pakistan offers a valuable opportunity for ethnoveterinary studies that explore traditional plant-based animal healthcare practices. In remote areas, where the livelihoods of inhabitants are largely dependent on agriculture and the harvest of wild plants, these native resources are integral to their daily lives and cultural heritage. Knowledge about these plants, including their use in animal healthcare, is primarily transmitted through oral traditions, which serve as the main method for sharing and preserving ethnoveterinary wisdom. Protecting and documenting this indigenous knowledge is vital for ensuring its conservation and utility for future generations. This entails not only safeguarding the knowledge itself, but also promoting its public dissemination and using it as a foundation for advanced research and conservation efforts. Future research should focus on increasing local awareness about the importance of conserving essential plant species and conducting thorough phytochemical and pharmacological investigations to uncover their potential in developing new therapeutic agents. Such studies could significantly enhance our understanding of traditional animal healthcare practices and lead to novel treatments, thus bridging the gap between traditional wisdom and modern veterinary science.

The study design achieved many of its goals in ethnoveterinary data collection and analysis; however, it faced some limitations. It was difficult to obtain the local names for some plants since many plant species are known by identical name. Additionally, a single plant species might be called by various local names (Powell et al., 2014). Hence, some of the documented names could not be confirmed through reliable sources. Analysis of the local information revealed that some recorded veterinary treatments lacked verification from current studies. Conversely, the plants that were experimentally validated were not consistently used by the informants for the same health issues. This implies that plant usage may vary based on cultural traditions, geographic factors, prevalent health conditions, and the availability of alternative plants with similar therapeutic benefits. This variation can be understood as a result of the medicinal application of plants being primarily influenced by traditional knowledge and practical experience (Barkatullah et al., 2015). Another limitation was the study’s neglect of the impact of invasive species. The adverse impacts of exotic species on local ecosystems are well-documented. The study could have been improved by examining the identification and distribution of alien species. This aspect could be explored in future botanical research. Although this quantitative study does not encompass risk assessment, addressing potential risks and safety measures is crucial. Despite their numerous benefits, some plants contain toxic compounds that could cause severe health issues or even death in animals if consumed improperly. As described by Eiki et al. (2021), the limited seasonal availability of certain plants can create problems in the preparation and application of some traditional veterinary remedies. Cultural veterinary remedies often take longer to produce effects and may be less potent than modern treatments. Therefore, they might be less effective in treating severe epidemic and endemic diseases such as blackquarter, rabies, foot-and-mouth disease, anthrax, and rinderpest. Ethnoveterinary approaches can be impractical for curing large herds. For instance, treating pastoralist herds of 20 to 35 animals with foot-and-mouth disease by washing wounds and applying a mixture of warm ashes and salt involves significant logistical challenges. Additionally, the scientific validation of many ethnoveterinary care methods is lacking, and the time-consuming and cumbersome processes involved in their preparation and application pose significant challenges in animal health care (Worku, 2018). Practices such as burning the vulva of cows to start heat cycles or treat urinary problems, as well as those used for treating infectious diseases, can have harmful effects on animal health. Moreover, there is a significant gap in effective treatments for epidemic diseases like rinderpest and foot-and-mouth disease.

5. Conclusion

The inhabitants of the Yousaf Baba Hills in northwestern Pakistan rely on native plant species. There is a profound interconnection between plants and humans, as evidenced by the local population's positive inclination toward utilizing medicinal plants. Elderly individuals and herbal dealers in the area possess valuable traditional knowledge about livestock diseases. Modernization has left the younger generation largely unaware of this traditional knowledge, with little engagement from their side. As a result, this research aims to ensure the preservation and protection of crucial folk veterinary practices against the threat of disappearance. At the investigation site, 83 medicinal plant species are used to treat 11 prevalent cattle disorders. The Fabaceae family is the most commonly used plant family for treating a variety of livestock disorders. The most widely accepted medicinal plants with the highest use values were Ajuga bracteosa, Mentha longifolia, Brassica campestris, Carthamus oxycantha, and Sonchus asper. Leaves and shoots are the main parts used to prepare traditional remedies for animal illness. The present study lays the foundation for forthcoming pharmacological investigations in veterinary medicine. In contrast, the folkloric application of medicinal plants is transmitted across generations, and as such, these practices are generally regarded as safe. However, modernization threatens to erode this traditional knowledge. This study has generated a comprehensive repository of information that can inform and guide future research and conservation strategies.

Acknowledgements

The authors would like to extend their sincere appreciation to the Researchers Supporting Project Number (RSP2025R134), King Saud University, Riyadh, Saudi Arabia.

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Publication Dates

• Publication in this collection
  31 Jan 2025
• Date of issue
  2024

History

• Received
  27 July 2024
• Accepted
  23 Oct 2024