Effect of the incorporation of spent mushroom substrate and remineralizer on the chemical attributes of a Acrisol

Efeito da incorporação de substratos pós-cultivo de cogumelo e remineralizador sobre os atributos químicos de um Argissolo Vermelho-Amarelo

Abstract

We aim was to evaluate the chemical attributes of the soil under the effect of the incorporation of agronomic/lignocellulosic residues, in natura and spent/post-cultivation of mushrooms and the remineralizer from bentonite in Chromic Abruptic Acrisol, in the municipality of Areia, PB, Brazil. The research was carried out in a greenhouse and consisted of 13 treatments, resulting from a 3 × 2 × 2 + 1 factorial arrangement in CRD, with four replications. Data were evaluated for normality and homogeneity of variance using the of Shapiro-Wilk and Bartlett, and when significant then submitted to analysis of variance (ANOVA), Scott-Knott means test, and Dunnett at 5% significance. In addition, principal component analysis (PCA) and Pearson correlation were performed. The incorporation of agronomic wastes under in natura conditions and SMS with the remineralizer increased the fertility variables of the Chromic Abruptic Acrisol, with a significant increase in the levels of exchangeable bases, organic carbon, soil organic matter, cation exchange capacity, base saturation, and phosphorus available. The PCA showed that sugarcane bagasse and banana leaf treatments, both in the in natura condition and without incorporation of remineralizer, were the most correlated with the CEC, SB, and V% variables. Then, the application of lignocellulosic waste in the in natura and spent mushroom substrate (SMS) conditions without the use of a remineralizer increases total organic carbon and cation exchange capacity and phosphorus available.

Keywords:
soil fertility; lignocellulosic wastes; mineral wastes; agronomic wastes

Resumo

Objetivou-se avaliar os atributos químicos do solo sob o efeito da incorporação de resíduos lignocelulósicos, in natura e pós-cultivo de cogumelo (SMS), e de um remineralizador oriundo da extração de bentonita em Argissolo Vermelho-Amarelo, no município de Areia, PB, Brasil. A pesquisa foi realizada em casa de vegetação e constou de 13 tratamentos, resultantes de um esquema fatorial 3 × 2 × 2 + 1 em DIC, com quatro repetições. Os dados foram avaliados quanto à normalidade e homogeneidade de variância pelos testes de Shapiro-Wilk e Bartlett, e quando significativos submetidos à análise de variância (ANOVA), teste de médias de Scott-Knott e Dunnett ao nível de 5% de significância. Além disso, foram realizadas análise de componentes principais (ACP) e correlação de Pearson. A incorporação de resíduos lignocelulósicos em condições in natura e SMS com o remineralizador aumentaram as variáveis ​​de fertilidade do Argissolo Vermelho-Amarelo, com aumento significativo nos teores de bases trocáveis, carbono orgânico, matéria orgânica do solo, capacidade de troca catiônica, saturação por bases e fósforo disponível. A ACP demonstrou que os tratamentos com bagaço de cana-de-açúcar e folha de bananeira, tanto na condição in natura quanto sem incorporação de remineralizador, foram os mais correlacionados com as variáveis ​​CTC, SB e V%. Logo, a aplicação de resíduo lignocelulósico nas condições in natura e pós-cultivo de cogumelo (SMS) sem o uso de remineralizador aumentaram o carbono orgânico total, capacidade de troca catiônica e o fósforo disponível.

Palavras-chave:
fertilidade do solo; resíduos lignocelulósicos; resíduos minerais; resíduos agronômicos

1. Introduction

The increase in population coupled with technological advances has contributed to a significant growth in the generation of solid waste, which is associated with significant environmental and public health risks worldwide (Alfaia et al., 2017). This generation of solid waste has drawn attention to the need to improve the treatment and recycling efficiency of this waste, so that it can have beneficial applications for the environment (Chilakamarry et al., 2022).

In Brazil, due to the growing rate of inhabitants, this has resulted in a corresponding increase in the production of various agricultural products, where it is estimated that the production of grains, cereals and legumes reached around 260.5 million tons in 2021 (Azevedo et al., 2022). And with regard to solid mining waste, it is also estimated that between 2008 and 2019, 3.6 billion tons of this waste was dumped in landfills in Brazil (Carmo et al., 2020).

In the state of Paraíba, the non-metallic minerals industry plays a significant role in regional socio-economic development, mainly through exploration and processing activities (Sousa et al., 2020). In terms of agricultural production in Paraíba, the planted area easily exceeds 80,000 hectares (IBGE, 2021). Both activities generate waste that has a considerable impact on the environment, such as contamination of groundwater, soil, and visual pollution (Sousa et al., 2020).

The generation of agricultural waste and mining by-products is one of the biggest challenges facing industries. This waste remains accumulated in company yards and often in the open, requiring a suitable place for storage and disposal, as it poses risks to human health and the environment (Rodrigues et al., 2017).

The spent mushroom substrate (SMS) is a by-product of fungiculture with a low C/N ratio, organic matter, and bioactive compounds. Worldwide, it is estimated that approximately 5 kg of SMS is generated for every kilo of fresh mushroom produced (Hanafi et al., 2018). In Brazil, the production of Pleurotus ostreatus mushrooms is estimated at 7,475 tons (Zied et al., 2019), which represents around 35,000 tons of SMS. It is therefore of the utmost importance that this waste is properly disposed of in order to mitigate and solve the problem of its generation.

Studies by Leong et al. (2022) provide a survey on the reuse of SMSs, thus citing that it is possible to take advantage of this waste by incorporating it into the soil, as it allows greater retention of water and nutrients, which can effectively improve the physical structure of the soil and the ecological environment of soil microorganisms, which favors its inclusion in circular economy systems.

In another study by Ramos et al. (2022), they showed that an agricultural experiment in which they compared the productive results of various crops, such as corn and sugar cane, using potassium remineralizer with conventional fertilization (NPK) and organic fertilization, found that the results revealed significant changes in soil fertility levels over five years, showing that productivity in plots fertilized with rock dust was equal to or higher (up to 40%) than plots fertilized with chemical fertilization.

In view of the above, there is a need for more studies that include application methods that investigate the application of SMS and remineralizers together in soils undergoing desertification in the state of Paraíba, in order to provide new references for future research and, consequently, to support decision-making in the experimental and/or productive spheres. The objective was to evaluate the chemical attributes of the soil as a result of the incorporation of SMS and bentonite remineralizer in a Chromic Abruptic Acrisol.

2. Material and Methods

2.1. Experiment location

The research was carried out from January to October 2022 in a greenhouse at the Center for Agricultural Sciences (CCA) of the Federal University of Paraíba (UFPB), Campus II, located in the municipality of Areia, in the Brejo Paraibano micro-region, at 6° 57’ 46” S latitude and 35° 41’ 31” W longitude (Fig. 1). The climate is classified as tropical hot and humid - class As, according to Köppen (Alvares et al., 2013). The soil of the study area is classified as Argissolo Vermelho-Amarelo followed the criteria established by the Brazilian Soil Classification System (Santos et al., 2018) and Chromic Abruptic Acrisol (Clayic, Hyperdystric, Ochric) followed the criteria established by the World Reference Base of Soils (IUSS Working Group WRB, 2022).

Figure 1
Location of the municipality of Areia, in the state of Paraíba, Brazil.

2.2. Soil characterization

Soil samples were collected from the 0.00-0.20 m layer of a Red-Yellow Argissolo, located in the Mata do Pau-Ferro state park, a conservation unit in the municipality of Areia, PB, Brazil, which has dense ombrophilous forest vegetation. The soil was then chemically characterized (Table 1), according to Teixeira et al. (2017).

Table 1
Chemical characterization of Argissolo Vermelho-Amarelo (Chromic, Abruptic, Acrisol) in Areia, PB, Brazil.

pH	EC	Ca+2	Mg+2	K+	Na+	Al+3	H+Al	SB	CEC	P	TOC	OM
	(dS m-1)	—————————— cmolc kg-1 ——————————								(mg kg-1)	(mg g-1)	(dag kg-1)
3.80	0.355	0.41	21.93	0.07	0.05	1.14	27.49	22.46	49.95	19.52	27.71	12.06

• pH = hydrogen potential in water at a soil:water ratio of 1:2.5 m/v; EC = electrical conductivity in water at a soil:water ratio of 1:20 m/v; Ca⁺² = exchangeable calcium; Mg⁺² = exchangeable magnesium; K⁺ = exchangeable potassium; Na⁺ = exchangeable sodium; Al⁺³ = exchangeable acidity; H+Al = potencial acidity of soil; SB = sum of bases; CEC = potential cation exchange capacity; P = available phosphorus; TOC = total organic carbon of the soil; OM = organic matter in the soil.

2.3. Substrate characterization

The lignocellulosic waste used was provided by the Edible Mushroom Research & Production Group (GPEC) at Universidade Federal da Paraíba. Table 2 shows the chemical characterization of this waste, both in natura state spent mushroom substrate (Zárate-Salazar, 2022). The remineralizer used was a by-product of bentonite extraction, supplied by a mining company located in the state of Paraíba, Brazil. The chemical characterization (Table 3) of this remineralizer was carried out according to Teixeira et al. (2017), before applying the treatments and setting up the experiment.

Table 2
Chemical characterization of lignocellulosic waste, in natura and spent mushroom substrate.

Lignocellulosic waste	Condition	CC (dag kg-1 MS)	C/N	pH	EC (dS m-1)
Banana leaves	In natura	38.04	35.04	6.23	0.186
	SMS	32.12	24.83	5.46	0.407
Corn stubble	In natura	35.36	31.52	6.90	0.138
	SMS	33.11	20.63	5.58	0.274
Sugarcane bagasse	In natura	38.70	159.27	5.53	0.081
	SMS	37.87	78.42	4.60	0.128

• In natura = in natura lignocellulosic waste; SMS = spent mushroom substrate; CC = carbon content; C/N = carbon-nitrogen ratio; pH = hydrogen potential in water at a soil:water ratio of 1:2.5 m/v; EC = electrical conductivity in water at a soil:water ratio of 1:20 m/v. Mean ± SE, n = 5. Adapted from Zárate-Salazar (2022).

Table 3
Chemical characterization of the remineralizer.

pH	EC	Ca+2	Mg+2	K+	Na+	SB	PES	SAR	P	TOC	OM
	(dS m-1)	—————— cmolc kg-1 —————					(%)		(g kg-1)	(mg g-1)	(%)
7.40	0.41	1.13	15.94	4.07	3.85	24.98	15.40	1.32	1.34	0.99	4.11

• pH = hydrogen potential in water at a soil:water ratio of 1:2.5 m/v; EC = electrical conductivity in water at a soil:water ratio of 1:20 m/v; Ca⁺² = exchangeable calcium; Mg⁺² = exchangeable magnesium; K⁺ = exchangeable potassium; Na⁺ = exchangeable sodium; SB = sum of bases; PES = percentage of exchangeable sodium; SAR = sodium adsorption ratio; P = available phosphorus; TOC = total organic carbon of the soil; OM = organic matter in the soil.

2.4. Experimental treatments

The doses of lignocellulosic waste were based on the organic carbon (OC) of corn stubble in Table 2 and the value of 10 Mg ha^-1 of corn (Lal, 2005). The dose of the remineralizer was based on the studies presented by Souza et al. (2010), Theodoro et al. (2013), and Carvalho et al. (2015), in which the dose (Table 4) used in the experiment was calculated based on the dose of 8 Mg ha^-1 obtained from the average of these studies. The lignocellulosic waste was applied in a single dose equivalent to the content found in 10 Mg ha^-1 of in natura corn stubble (35.36% CO, see Table 2). Using a ratio of quantities considering 1 ha of Chromic Abruptic Acrisol, 0.20 m depth and 1.14 Mg m^-3 of apparent density, the biomasses of lignocellulosic waste incorporated into 1000 g of Chromic Abruptic Acrisol FADS contained in 1 L capacity pots.

Tabela 4
Doses of lignocellulosic waste, in natura, spent mushroom substrate and the remineralizer.

Lignocellulosic waste	Waste condition	Mass (g vase-1)
Sugarcane bagasse	In natura	3.99
	SMS	4.17
Corn stubble	In natura	4.45
	SMS	4.83
Banana leaves	In natura	4.14
	SMS	4.88
Remineralizer	—	3.51

• In natura = in natura lignocellulosic waste; SMS = spent mushroom substrate. Dose of lignocellulosic waste at the same organic carbon content in 10 Mg of in natura corn stubble (OC = 35.36%) incorporated into pots with 1 kg of FADS of Red Yellow Argissolo with f-factor = 1.02 and bulk density (g cm^-3) = 1.14, determined by a ratio of magnitudes for one hectare (10⁴ m²); Referential remineralizer (Mg ha^-1) = 8.00.

2.5. Experimental design

The experiment was conducted over a period of 270 days, from January to October 2022, using a completely randomized design (CRD), in a 3×2×2+1 factorial arrangement, with three lignocellulosic waste products (sugarcane bagasse, banana leaves, and corn stubble), two organic waste conditions (in natura and SMS), two Chromic Abruptic Acrisol soil conditions (with and without remineralizer application), plus a control treatment (soil with only remineralizer), with four replications, totaling 52 experimental units (Table 5). The experimental units consisted of bags containing 1 kg of fine air-dry soil (FADS). The experimental units were incubated at 80% of their field capacity for 270 days.

Table 5
Treatments with lignocellulosic waste, in natura and spent, with and without remineralizer.

Treatments	Lignocellulosic waste	Waste condition	Remineralizer
T1 (SBinWR)	Sugarcane bagasse	In natura	With remineralizer
T2 (SBinWOR)	Sugarcane bagasse	In natura	Without remineralizer
T3 (SBsmsWR)	Sugarcane bagasse	SMS	With remineralizer
T4 (BSsmsWOR)	Sugarcane bagasse	SMS	Without remineralizer
T5 (CSinWR)	Corn stubble	In natura	With remineralizer
T6 (CSinWOR)	Corn stubble	In natura	Without remineralizer
T7 (CSsmsWR)	Corn stubble	SMS	With remineralizer
T8 (CSsmsWOR)	Corn stubble	SMS	Without remineralizer
T9 (BLinWR)	Banana leaves	In natura	With remineralizer
T10 (BLinWOR)	Banana leaves	In natura	Without remineralizer
T11 (BLsmsWR)	Banana leaves	SMS	With remineralizer
T12 (BLsmsWOR)	Banana leaves	SMS	Without remineralizer
T131	—	—	With remineralizer

• ¹
  Additional treatment or control (only soil with remineralizer).
• In natura = in natura lignocellulosic waste; SMS = spent mushroom substrate.

2.6. Installation of the experiment

The experiment was set up in January 2022, when the experimental units (EU) received their respective treatments, according to the calculated doses (Table 4). For 270 days, the EUs were incubated and kept irrigated at 80% of field capacity. Watering was done every other day, always in the morning. The environmental conditions in the greenhouse were recorded daily using a thermo-hygrometer, registering 27.86 ± 0.18 ºC of current temperature, 19.26 ± 0.11 ºC of minimum temperature, 49.10 ± 0.05 ºC of maximum temperature, and 65.32 ± 0.65% of relative air humidity during 270 days of incubation. After this incubation period, soil samples were taken in October 2022 for further analysis.

2.7. Soil fertility analysis

The chemical attributes of the soil were analyzed before the experiment was set up (characterization, see Table 1) and after the experiment was carried out, in order to verify the changes that occurred during the incubation period. The samples were analyzed for chemical properties (pH, EC, TOC, available P, OM, Mg⁺², K⁺, Ca⁺², Na⁺, Al⁺³, and H+Al) and then the CEC at pH = 7, base saturation (V%), sodium adsorption ratio (SAR) and total sodium percentage (TSP) were calculated, according to the methodologies proposed by Teixeira et al. (2017). All the analyses were carried out at the Soil Organic Matter Laboratory, the Organic Chemistry Laboratory, the Fiber Analysis Laboratory, the Soil Microbiology Laboratory, and the Soil Physics Laboratory at the Center for Agricultural Sciences.

2.8. Statistical analysis

The data obtained was assessed for normality and homogeneity of variance using the Shapiro-Wilk and Bartlett tests at 5% significance (p ≥ 0.05), respectively. The data accepted was submitted to analysis of variance (ANOVA) and, when significant, the Scott-Knott test of means was carried out at 5% significance level (P < 0.05). Dunnett test was used to compare each treatment to the control. The chemical and fertility variables were also subjected to principal component analysis (PCA), which is a multivariate technique based on the correlation or covariance matrix of variables and is used to summarize the relationship between variables (Pareyn et al., 2020). The criterion for the participation of a variable in a given principal component was the presence of an eigenvector $\ge \frac{0.5}{\sqrt{autovalue}}$, according to Raghupathi et al. (2002). The analyses were carried out using the R version 4.2.0 software (R Core Team, 2020).

3. Results

3.1. Soil fertility analysis

The three-factor interactions of the factors used had no significant effect (Table 6). The simple effects of the single factors (lignocellulosic waste, condition, and scenario) and their double interactions on the pH in water and the electrical conductivity (EC) of the soil after 270 days of incubation are shown in Table 6. It was found that the pH in water showed a significant effect (P < 0.05) in the lignocellulosic waste × condition interaction, and in the other effects and interactions there was no significance (P ≥ 0.05). As can be seen in Table 6, for EC there was a significant difference (P < 0.05) in the single factor condition. There was no significant difference in pH in water and EC for any treatment compared to the control used in this study, according to Dunnett test (P ≥ 0.05).

Table 6
Analysis of variance for pH and electrical conductivity of the Argissolo Vermelho-Amarelo (Chromic, Abruptic, Acrisol) incorporated with lignocellulosic waste, in natura and spent mushroom substrate, with and without incorporation of remineralizer, during 270 days of soil incubation.

Lignocellulosic waste	Condition	Scenario	pH	EC (dS m-1) a
Sugarcane bagasse	In natura	with remineralizer	4.35 ns	0.601 ns
		without remineralizer	4.42 ns	0.630 ns
	SMS	with remineralizer	4.39 ns	0.755 ns
		without remineralizer	4.43 ns	0.824 ns
Corn stubble	In natura	with remineralizer	4.48 ns	0.696 ns
		without remineralizer	4.36 ns	0.842 ns
	SMS	with remineralizer	4.39 ns	0.822 ns
		without remineralizer	4.45 ns	0.777 ns
Banana leaves	In natura	with remineralizer	4.41 ns	0.637 ns
		without remineralizer	4.45 ns	0.678 ns
	SMS	with remineralizer	4.23 ns	0.848 ns
		without remineralizer	4.32 ns	0.703 ns
Control			4.34	0.775
Lignocellulosic waste			n.s	n.s
Condition			n.s	*
Scenario			n.s	n.s
Lignocellulosic waste × Condition			*	n.s
Lignocellulosic waste × Scenario			n.s	n.s
Condition × Scenario			n.s	n.s
Lignocellulosic waste × Condition × Scenario			n.s	n.s
CV (%)			2.32	6.39

• ^a
  Values transformed to meet the assumptions of normality and homoscedasticity (x + 0.5)^0.5.
• ^ns
  = not significant by Dunnett test.
• In natura = in natura lignocellulosic waste; SMS = spent mushroom substrate; Control = soil with only remineralizer incorporated; pH = hydrogen potential in water at a soil:water ratio of 1:2.5 m/v; EC = electrical conductivity in water at a soil:water ratio of 1:2.5 m/v. Mean, n = 4. n.s = not significant using the Scott-Knott mean test.

There was a significant difference in soil pH in the lignocellulosic waste × condition interaction (Fig. 2A). In the spent mushroom substrate (SMS), the lignocellulosic waste corn stubble (CS) and sugarcane bagasse (SB) reached pH 5 and 4.5%, respectively, higher than the banana leaves (BL), while in the in natura (IN) condition, there was no difference between the same waste. The BL treatment had a lower pH in the spent condition (pH = 4.27) compared to the in natura condition (pH = 4.43). In Fig. 2B, looking at the simple effect of the waste condition, it can be seen that the EC of the soil was significantly 13% lower in the in natura condition compared to the spent condition, regardless of the waste.

Figure 2
pH in water (A) and EC (B) of Red-Yellow Argisol incorporated with lignocellulosic waste (banana leaves - BL; sugarcane bagasse - SB; corn stubble - CS), in two conditions (in natura - IN and spent mushroom substrate - SMS), C - control. Averages followed by the same letters, lower case between wastes in the same condition, upper case between conditions in the same waste, do not differ by the Scott-Knott test (P ≥ 0.05) (A). Averages followed by the same lowercase letter do not differ by the Scott-Knott test (P ≥ 0.05) (B).

Table 7 shows the simple effects of the single factors (lignocellulosic waste, condition, and scenario) and their interactions on exchangeable calcium (Ca⁺²), exchangeable magnesium (Mg⁺²), exchangeable potassium (K⁺), exchangeable sodium (Na⁺), exchangeable acidity (Al⁺³), and potential acidity (H + Al) in the soil after 270 days of incubation. There was no significant difference for any variable in relation to the three-factor interaction (Table 7). There was no significant effect for the Ca⁺² and Al⁺³ variables. A significant effect (P < 0.01) was observed for Mg⁺² in the condition × scenario interaction. K+ showed a significant effect (P < 0.01) on the main factors lignocellulosic waste and condition and on the lignocellulosic waste × condition interaction (P < 0.05). For Na+ there was only a significant effect (P < 0.01) on the condition factor. The variable potential acidity (H+ Al) showed significance (P < 0.01) in the lignocellulosic waste factor.

Table 7
Analyses of variance for calcium, magnesium, potassium, sodium, exchangeable acidity, and potential acidity of the Argissolo Vermelho-Amarelo (Chromic, Abruptic, Acrisol) incorporated with lignocellulosic waste in natura and spent mushroom substrate, with and without incorporation of remineralizer, over 270 days.

Lignocellulosic waste	Condition	Scenario	Ca+2	Mg+2	K+	Na+	Al+3	H+Al
			–––––––––––––––––––––––––––––– cmolc kg-1 ––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––
Sugarcane bagasse	In natura	with remineralizer	0.65 ns	14.31 ns	0.14 ns	0.42 ns	1.03 ns	25.59 ns
		without remineralizer	1.14 ns	16.00 ns	0.12 ns	0.40 ns	1.13 ns	26.20 ns
	SMS	with remineralizer	1.03 ns	14.36 ns	0.16 *	0.46 ns	0.88 ns	24.66 ns
		without remineralizer	0.98 ns	12.19 ns	0.16 ns	0.45 ns	1.03 ns	25.83 ns
Corn stubble	In natura	with remineralizer	0.87 ns	10.32 ns	0.20 *	0.37 ns	0.93 ns	23.97 ns
		without remineralizer	0.65 ns	15.41 ns	0.27 *	0.43 ns	0.98 ns	24.26 ns
	SMS	with remineralizer	1.00 ns	14.06 ns	0.20 *	0.54 ns	1.00 ns	26.15 ns
		without remineralizer	0.87 ns	12.45 ns	0.17 *	0.43 ns	1.00 ns	24.17 ns
Banana leaves	In natura	with remineralizer	1.03 ns	13.36 ns	0.18 *	0.38 ns	0.98 ns	25.83 ns
		without remineralizer	1.14 ns	15.65 ns	0.18 *	0.39 ns	1.05 ns	25.71 ns
	SMS	with remineralizer	0.84 ns	12.55 ns	0.14 ns	0.51 ns	1.10 ns	27.97 ns
		without remineralizer	0.95 ns	12.02 ns	0.13 ns	0.43 ns	0.96 ns	25.95 ns
Control			0.98	12.94	0.11	0.45	1.03	26.20
Lignocellulosic waste			n.s	n.s	**	n.s	n.s	**
Condition			n.s	n.s	*	**	n.s	n.s
Scenario			n.s	n.s	n.s	n.s	n.s	n.s
Lignocellulosic waste × Condition			n.s	n.s	**	n.s	n.s	n.s
Lignocellulosic waste × Scenario			n.s	n.s	n.s	n.s	n.s	n.s
Condition × Scenario			n.s	**	n.s	n.s	n.s	n.s
Lignocellulosic waste × Condition × Scenario			n.s	n.s	n.s	n.s	n.s	n.s
CV (%)			9.64	8.95	2.82	4.33	12.08	4.94

• ^ns
  = not significant by Dunnett test.
• ^*
  significant at the 5% probability level
• ^**
  significant at the 1% probability level
• In natura = in natura lignocellulosic waste; SMS = spent mushroom substrate; Control = soil with only remineralizer incorporated; Ca⁺² = exchangeable calcium, Mg⁺² = exchangeable magnesium, K⁺ = exchangeable potassium, Na⁺ = exchangeable sodium, Al⁺³ = exchangeable acidity, and H+Al = potential acidity. Ca⁺², Mg⁺², K⁺, and Na⁺ = transformed values to meet the assumptions of normality and homoscedasticity (x + 0.5)^0.5. Mean, n = 4. n.s = not significant using the Scott-Knott mean test.

Considering the effect of the condition × scenario interaction, it can be seen that magnesium levels were approximately 24% higher in the in natura condition in the scenario without remineralizer (Mg⁺² = 15.69 cmol_c kg^-1) compared to the scenario with remineralizer (Mg⁺² = 12.66 cmol_c kg^-1), with no difference in the spent mushroom substrate condition (Fig. 3A). The scenario without remineralizer achieved a 12% higher Mg⁺² content in the in natura condition (Mg⁺² = 13.68 cmol_c kg^-1) compared to the spent mushroom substrate condition (Mg⁺² = 12.22 cmol_c kg^-1). Fig. 3B shows that the simple effect of the condition factor, which when analyzed in isolation on Na⁺, showed an 18% increase in its content in the spent mushroom substrate condition, compared to the in natura condition (Na⁺ = 0.40 cmol_c kg^-1), regardless of the organic waste used.

Figure 3
Magnesium (A) and sodium (B) of Red-Yellow Argisol incorporated with lignocellulosic waste in two conditions (in natura - IN and spent mushroom substrate - SMS) and two scenarios (WR - with remineralizer and WOR - without remineralizer). C - Control. Averages followed by the same letters, lower case between scenarios in the same condition, upper case between conditions in the same scenario, do not differ by the Scott-Knott test (P ≥ 0.05) (A). Averages followed by the same lowercase letter do not differ by the Scott-Knott test (P ≥ 0.05) (B).

It can be seen that, considering the interaction between the lignocellulosic waste × condition factors, the K⁺ value was significantly higher for the CS treatment in the in natura condition (K⁺ = 0.235 cmol_c kg^-1), while SB was the lowest compared to the other treatments (Fig. 4A). In the spent mushroom substrate condition, the treatments did not differ from each other. The CS and BL wastes obtained 27 and 35% higher K+ values, respectively, in the in natura condition compared to the spent mushroom substrate condition. With regard to potential acidity, looking at the effect of the lignocellulosic waste factor in isolation, we found that the CS treatment had the lowest value (H⁺ +Al⁺³ = 24.64 cmol_c kg^-1) compared to the other treatments (Fig. 4B).

Figure 4
Exchangeable potassium (A) and potential acidity (B) of Red-Yellow Argissolo incorporated with lignocellulosic waste (banana leaves - BL; sugarcane bagasse - SB; corn stubble - CS), in two conditions (in natura - IN and spent mushroom substrate - SMS). T - Control. Averages followed by the same letters, lower case between substrates in the same condition, upper case between conditions in the same substrate, do not differ by the Scott-Knott test (P ≥ 0.05) (A). Averages followed by the same lowercase letter do not differ by the Scott-Knott test (P ≥ 0.05) (B).

Based on Dunnett statistical test, it was observed (Table 7) that the K⁺ variable showed a significant difference compared to the control in the treatments containing corn stubble in both conditions and scenarios, banana leaves in the in natura condition and in both scenarios, and sugarcane bagasse in the spent condition and with remineralizer. All of the aforementioned treatments had higher K⁺ values than the control (K⁺ = 0.11 cmol_c kg^-1), but the treatment with raw corn stubble and no remineralizer had a significant increase of 145% compared to the control.

The simple effects of the single factors (lignocellulosic waste, condition, and scenario) and their interactions on total organic carbon (TOC), organic matter (OM), and available phosphorus (P) in the soil after 270 days of incubation are shown in Table 8. For TOC, there was a significant effect (P< 0.01) only for the scenario factor. With regard to OM, there was a significant difference (P < 0.05) in the lignocellulosic waste × scenario interaction. For P there was significance in the main (or isolated) factors lignocellulosic waste (P < 0.05) and scenario (P < 0.01).

Table 8
Analyses of variance for total organic carbon, soil organic matter, and available phosphorus of the Argissolo Vermelho-Amarelo (Chromic, Abruptic, Acrisol) incorporated with lignocellulosic waste, in natura and spent mushroom substrate, with and without incorporation of remineralizer, for 270 days.

Lignocellulosic waste	Condition	Scenario	TOC	OM	P
			(g kg-1)	(dag kg-1)	(mg kg-1)
Sugarcane bagasse	In natura	with remineralizer	29.41 ns	11.53 ns	16.60 ns
		without remineralizer	28.78 ns	10.54 ns	10.96 *
	SMS	with remineralizer	30.28 ns	11.94 ns	15.36 ns
		without remineralizer	28.17 ns	11.04 ns	12.42 ns
Corn stubble	In natura	with remineralizer	29.78 ns	11.78 ns	20.22 ns
		without remineralizer	29.02 ns	12.04 ns	16.38 ns
	SMS	with remineralizer	29.33 ns	11.05 ns	23.07 ns
		without remineralizer	29.13 ns	11.72 ns	14.92 ns
Banana leaves	In natura	with remineralizer	30.29 ns	11.75 ns	17.99 ns
		without remineralizer	28.14 ns	11.17 ns	12.92 ns
	SMS	with remineralizer	31.61 *	12.05 ns	14.42 ns
		without remineralizer	28.60 ns	11.11 ns	13.27 ns
Control			28.23	10.82	21.86
Lignocellulosic waste			n.s	n.s	*
Condition			n.s	n.s	n.s
Scenario			**	n.s	**
Lignocellulosic waste × Condition			n.s	n.s	n.s
Lignocellulosic waste × Scenario			n.s	*	n.s
Condition × Scenario			n.s	n.s	n.s
Lignocellulosic waste × Condition × Scenario			n.s	n.s	n.s
CV (%)			5.42	6.24	14.65

• ^ns
  = not significant by Dunnett test.
• ^*
  significant at the 5% probability level
• ^**
  significant at the 1% probability level
• In natura = in natura lignocellulosic waste; SMS = spent mushroom substrate; Control = soil with only remineralizer incorporated; TOC = total organic carbon of the soil; OM = organic matter in the soil; P = available phosphorus; P = transformed values to meet the assumptions of normality and homoscedasticity (x + 0.5)^0.5. Mean, n = 4. n.s. = not significant using the Scott-Knott mean test.

Total organic carbon (Fig. 5A), considering the scenario factor alone, obtained significantly higher values for the scenario with remineralizer (TOC = 30.12 g kg^-1), which was 5.1% more than the scenario without remineralizer (TOC = 28.64 g kg^-1). Fig. 5B shows that soil organic matter (OM) differed significantly between wastes considering the scenario without remineralizer, with CS (OM = 11.88 dag kg^-1) having the highest OM content compared to the BL (OM = 11.14 dag kg^-1) and SB (OM = 10.79 dag kg^-1) treatments. In the scenario with the remineralizer, there was no difference between the wastes. The BL and SB treatments were 6.8 and 8.7% higher, respectively, in the scenario with the presence of the remineralizer compared to the scenario without its presence.

Figure 5
TOC (A) and OM (B) of Red-Yellow Argisol incorporated with lignocellulosic waste (banana leaves - BL; sugarcane bagasse - SB; corn stubble - CS), in two conditions (in natura - IN and spent mushroom substrate - SMS) and two scenarios (with remineralizer - WR and without remineralizer - WOR). T - Control. Averages followed by the same lowercase letter do not differ by the Scott-Knott test (P ≥ 0.05) (A). Averages followed by the same letters, lower case between substrates in the same scenario, upper case between scenarios in the same substrate, do not differ by the Scott-Knott test (P ≥ 0.05) (B).

The available phosphorus (Fig. 6A) compared to the simple effects of the lignocellulosic waste was significantly higher in the CS treatment (P = 18.65 mg kg^-1) compared to the others, representing 15.7% more than the waste with the lowest content (SB). Considering the scenario factor in isolation, P showed a higher average value in the scenario with remineralizer (P = 17.94 mg kg^-1) compared to the scenario without (P = 13.48 mg kg^-1), representing a difference of 14% (Fig. 6B).

Figure 6
Available phosphorus of Red-Yellow Argissolo incorporated with lignocellulosic waste (banana leaves - BL; sugarcane bagasse - SB; corn stubble - CS) (A) in two scenarios (with remineralizer - WR and without remineralizer - WOR) (B). T - Control. Averages followed by the same letters do not differ according to the Scott-Knott test (P ≥ 0.05).

It can also be seen in Table 8 that the TOC and P variables showed significant results for the Dunnett test. The TOC showed that the banana leaves treatment in the spent condition and with remineralizer obtained a 12% increase over the control (TOC = 28.23 g kg^-1). With regard to the P variable, the significant effect was seen in the treatment with sugarcane bagasse in its raw state and without a remineralizer, which resulted in a decrease of around 50% in the available P content compared to the control (P = 21.86 mg kg^-1).

Table 9 shows the simple effects of the single factors (lignocellulosic waste, condition, and scenario) and their interactions on the potential cation exchange capacity (CEC), percentage aluminum saturation (m), percentage base saturation (V), percentage exchangeable sodium (PES) and sodium adsorption ratio (SAR) of the soil after 270 days of incubation. With regard to CEC, there was significance (P < 0.01) in the condition × scenario interaction. Aluminum saturation had no significant effect. In V% there was a significant effect (P < 0.05) on the condition factor and the condition × scenario interaction. The PES and SAR variables were only significant for the condition factor (P < 0.01).

Table 9
Analysis of variance for potential cation exchange capacity, aluminum and base saturation, total sodium percentage and sodium adsorption ratio of Argissolo Vermelho-Amarelo (Chromic, Abruptic, Acrisol) incorporated with lignocellulosic waste in natura and spent mushroom substrate, with and without incorporation of remineralizer, over 270 days.

Lignocellulosic waste	Condition	Scenario	CEC	m	V	PES	SAR
			(cmolc kg-1)	––––––––– % ––––––––
Sugarcane bagasse	In natura	with remineralizer	41.11 ns	6.30 ns	37.66 ns	1.02 ns	0.15 ns
		without remineralizer	43.86 ns	6.12 ns	40.05 ns	0.91 ns	0.14 ns
	SMS	with remineralizer	40.67 ns	5.47 ns	38.81 ns	1.15 ns	0.17 ns
		without remineralizer	39.61 ns	7.05 ns	34.73 ns	1.15 ns	0.18 ns
Corn stubble	In natura	with remineralizer	35.74 ns	7.32 ns	32.96 ns	1.03 ns	0.16 ns
		without remineralizer	41.03 ns	5.65 ns	40.68 ns	1.06 ns	0.15 ns
	SMS	with remineralizer	41.96 ns	6.11 ns	37.23 ns	1.30 ns	0.20 ns
		without remineralizer	38.09 ns	6.96 ns	35.95 ns	1.16 ns	0.17 ns
Banana leaves	In natura	with remineralizer	40.78 ns	6.18 ns	36.66 ns	0.93 ns	0.14 ns
		without remineralizer	43.07 ns	5.95 ns	39.96 ns	0.90 ns	0.14 ns
	SMS	with remineralizer	42.02 ns	7.56 ns	33.31 ns	1.22 ns	0.20 ns
		without remineralizer	39.48 ns	7.05 ns	33.79 ns	1.10 ns	0.17 ns
Control			40.67	6.79	35.51	1.10	0.17
Lignocellulosic waste			n.s	n.s	n.s	n.s	n.s
Condition			n.s	n.s	*	**	**
Scenario			n.s	n.s	n.s	n.s	n.s
Lignocellulosic waste × Condition			n.s	n.s	n.s	n.s	n.s
Lignocellulosic waste × Scenario			n.s	n.s	n.s	n.s	n.s
Condition × Scenario			**	n.s	*	n.s	n.s
Lignocellulosic waste × Condition × Scenario			n.s	n.s	n.s	n.s	n.s
CV (%)			6.90	18.93	10.96	6.58	2.73

• ^ns
  = not significant by Dunnett test.
• ^*
  significant at the 5% probability level
• ^**
  significant at the 1% probability level
• In natura = in natura lignocellulosic waste; SMS = spent mushroom substrate; Control = soil with only remineralizer incorporated; CEC = potential cation exchange capacity; m = percentage of aluminum saturation; V = percentage of base saturation; PES = percentage of exchangeable sodium; SAR = sodium adsorption ratio. PES and SAR = transformed values to meet the assumptions of normality and homoscedasticity (x + 0.5)^0.5. Mean, n = 4. n.s. = not significant using the Scott-Knott mean test.

There was no significant difference in CEC, m, V, PES, and SAR for any treatment compared to the control used in this study, according to Dunnett test (P ≥ 0.05). Looking at the interaction between the factors condition × scenario, it can be seen that the potential CEC increased by 8.7% in the scenario without remineralizer in the in natura condition, while in the spent mushroom substrate condition the scenario with remineralizer (CEC = 41.55 cmol_c kg^-1) obtained a 6% higher value compared to the scenario without (CEC = 39.06 cmol_c kg^-1) (Fig. 7). It can also be seen that the scenario without remineralizer was 8% lower in the spent mushroom substrate condition (CEC = 39.06 cmol_c kg^-1) compared to the in natura condition (CEC = 42.65 cmol_c kg^-1).

Figure 7
Potential cation exchange capacity (CEC) of Red-Yellow Argisol incorporated with lignocellulosic waste in two conditions (in natura - IN and spent mushroom substrate - SMS) and two scenarios (WR - with remineralizer and WOR - without remineralizer). T - Control. Averages followed by the same letters, lower case between scenarios in the same condition, upper case between conditions in the same scenario, do not differ by the Scott-Knott test (P ≥ 0.05).

It can be seen that for base saturation (V), the scenario without remineralizer reached a value 12% higher than the scenario with remineralizer in the in natura condition (IN), while in the spent mushroom substrate condition (SMS) there was no difference between the scenarios (Fig. 8). It can also be seen that the treatment without remineralizer achieved a 15% higher value in the IN condition (V = 40.23%) compared to the SMS condition (V = 34.80%).

Figure 8
Base saturation (V) of Red-Yellow Argisol incorporated with lignocellulosic waste in two conditions (in natura and spent mushroom substrate) and two scenarios (WR - with remineralizer and WOR - without remineralizer). T - Control. Averages followed by the same letters, lower case between scenarios in the same condition, upper case between conditions in the same scenario, do not differ by the Scott-Knott test (P ≥ 0.05).

The percentage of exchangeable sodium, analyzing the condition factor alone, obtained significantly higher values in the in natura condition (PES = 1.29%) compared to the spent mushroom substrate condition (PES = 1.21%) (Fig. 9A). The SAR, considering the condition factor alone, showed values approximately 24% higher in the spent mushroom substrate condition (SAR = 0.18) compared to the in natura condition (SAR = 0.14) (Fig. 9B).

Figure 9
Percentage of exchangeable sodium - PES (A) and sodium adsorption ratio - SAR (B) of Red-Yellow Argisol incorporated with lignocellulosic waste in two conditions (in natura and spent mushroom substrate). T - Control. Averages followed by the same letter do not differ by the Scott-Knott test (P ≥ 0.05).

3.2. Principal component analysis

The principal component analysis (PCA) applied to the correlation matrix of the chemical and fertility variables of the Chromic Abruptic Acrisol incorporated with lignocellulosic waste in natura and spent mushroom substrate, with and without the incorporation of a remineralizer, over 270 days showed that two principal components (PCs) explained 55.62% of the total variance, 33.36% in PC1 and 22.26% in PC2 (Table 10). In PC1, the variables selected based on the criteria of Raghupathi et al. (2002) were pH in water, EC, TOC, OM, P, Ca⁺², Mg⁺², Na⁺, SB, Al⁺³, CEC, m, V, PES, and SAR, while in PC2, the entire group of variables also proved to be important, with the exception of TOC, P, Ca⁺², m, and V.

Table 10
Eigenvalues and eigenvectors of the principal components.

	Component 1	Component 2
Eigenvalues (λ)	5.67	3.78
Variance explained (%)	33.36	22.26
Cumulative variance (%)	33.36	55.62
Eigenvalues
pH	-0.38	-0.70
EC	0.57	0.34
TOC	0.39	0.13
OM	0.32	-0.29
P	0.40	-0.15
Ca+2	-0.35	-0.03
Mg+2	-0.84	0.42
Na+	0.51	0.71
K+	-0.08	-0.36
SB	-0.84	0.44
Al+3	-0.24	0.64
H+Al	0.13	0.83
CEC	-0.60	0.78
m	0.73	-0.04
V	-0.86	0.15
PES	0.76	0.36
SAR	0.82	0.44

• pH: hydrogen potential in water at a soil:water ratio of 1:2.5 m/v; EC: electrical conductivity in water at a soil:water ratio of 1:20 m/v; TOC: total organic carbon of the soil; OM: organic matter in the soil; P: available phosphorus; Ca⁺²: exchangeable calcium; Mg⁺²: exchangeable magnesium; Na⁺: exchangeable sodium; K⁺: exchangeable potassium; SB: sum of bases; Al⁺³: exchangeable acidity; H+Al: potencial acidity of soil; CEC: potential cation exchange capacity; m: aluminum saturation; V: base saturation; PES: percentage of exchangeable sodium; SAR: sodium adsorption ratio.

The Fig. 10 was obtained using principal component analysis (PCA) and indicates that 55.7% of the variance can be explained by the chemical variables and treatments under study, forming a scatter plot representing principal components 1 and 2, consisting of the cloud of variables (indicators), superimposed by the distribution of treatments. It can be seen that the variables V, CEC, SB, and Mg⁺² are positively correlated and in the region of the graph where the treatments SBinWOR (in natura sugarcane bagasse without remineralizer) and BLinWOR (in natura banana leaves without remineralizer) are located, these variables are positive for soil fertility. On the opposite side of the graph are the variables OM, m, and P, which are more correlated with the CSinWR treatment (in natura corn stubble with remineralizer).

Figure 10
Principal component analysis of chemical and fertility variables in Red-Yellow Argisol incorporated with lignocellulosic waste in natura and spent mushroom substrate, with and without incorporation of remineralizer, over 270 days.

The variables H+Al, Na⁺, SAR, PES, EC, and TOC were positively correlated with each other and close to the treatments BLsmsWR (banana leaves spent mushroom substrate with remineralizer) and CSsmsWOR (corn stubble spent mushroom substrate with remineralizer) and negatively correlated with the variables pH in water and K⁺. The treatments SBinWR, SBsmsWR, CSinWOR, BLinWR, BLsmsWOR, SBsmsWOR, and the control were not associated with any of the variables analyzed (Fig. 10).

4. Discussion

The pH in soil water controls the processes that take place in the soil, such as the availability of nutrients for plants. When measuring pH, an increase in soil pH was observed, especially with the incorporation of CS (corn stubble) and SB (sugarcane bagasse) wastes. This suggests that organic acids from lignocellulosic wastes inserted into the soil were decomposed as a result of the complexation of free H⁺ and Al⁺³ with anionic organic compounds in the waste (Pavinato and Rosolem, 2008). However, the increase in pH may be associated with the neutralization of H⁺ activity caused by the release of exchangeable cations (Landell et al., 2013). However, the pH was still below the range of 6.0 and 6.5 indicated by greater nutrient availability.

Chintala et al. (2014), analyzing the chemical properties of an Acrisol, applied doses of corn straw biochar, switchgrass biochar, and lime, in four doses (0, 52, 104, and 156 Mg ha^-1), leaving it incubated in the soil for a period of 165 days, finding a significant increase in soil pH with the treatment with corn straw biochar at all application rates. Thus, the corn straw biochar, due to its higher concentration and release of basic cations, had a greater capacity to neutralize protons (H⁺) in the soil.

Soil salinity is measured through electrical conductivity (EC) and EC values > 2 dS m^-1 can damage crop yields, influencing the development of most plants (Abuelgasim and Ammad, 2019). The results showed that the application of lignocellulosic waste was below this harmful limit. Regarding the effect of the waste conditions in isolation, the in natura condition decreased by approximately 13% compared to the SMS condition, regardless of the lignocellulosic waste used. This difference can be explained by the chemical characteristics of the lignocellulosic waste obtained under the different conditions. Table 2 shows lower values for the in natura condition.

Similar results were obtained by Paredes et al. (2016), when evaluating the electrical conductivity of a loamy soil in an experiment using four treatments, two types of spent mushroom substrate waste (SMS), one from Agaricus bisporus and the other from a mixture of SMS from A. bisporus and Pleurotus, a mineral fertilizer and a control. It was noted that there was a decrease in EC after the incorporation of these wastes, due to the absorption of nutrients by the crop.

With regard to the exchangeable bases (Ca⁺², Mg⁺², K⁺, and Na⁺), there was a significant increase in the levels of Ca⁺², K⁺, and Na⁺ compared to the characteristics of the original soil (untreated, see Table 1). This may have been due to the incorporation of the remineralizer, which contained considerable levels of exchangeable bases in its composition (Table 3). However, the same did not happen with Mg⁺². A study by Ribeiro et al. (2010) also found no increase in Mg⁺² content after the application of rock materials, which means that the remineralizer may or may not have a significant effect on the soil, depending on its chemical nature.

In an experiment carried out by Basak et al. (2021), using legume straw, cow manure and mineral rock dust, incubated in the laboratory for a period of 90 days, it was found that the treatment with organic materials contributed to the bioavailability of K from the rock dust during incubation, through the solubilization of organic acids from the decomposition of the organic material.

It is likely that the soil incubation period was not sufficient to completely solubilize all the nutrients present in the remineralizer in this study. From this perspective, according to Swoboda et al. (2022), remineralizers have a slow release of nutrients and their effects as a soil corrective are noticeable in the medium to long term. In general, the results showed significant responses, as the soil base content increased significantly compared to the original soil (untreated, see Table 1), making these nutrients more available to the plants, with the exception of Mg⁺².

Total organic carbon (TOC) is a source of energy for microorganisms and an excellent indicator of soil quality. In this study, there was an increase in the TOC content in the scenario with the incorporation of remineralizer; this performance possibly occurred due to the interaction of the remineralizer with the lignocellulosic waste, regardless of the condition, which contains significant TOC contents (Tables 2 and 3). Similar results were found by Carpio et al. (2023) when evaluating changes in the physicochemical parameters of two different soils with treatments using spent mushroom substrate waste (SMS) and rock dust over two years. The authors found that the TOC content in soils amended with SMS and rock dust was higher than in uncertified soils, due to the TOC content found in the waste applied.

Organic matter (OM) is important for the soil because it contributes to its biophysical aspects, improving soil structure, promoting water infiltration and retention, increasing microbiota and making nutrients available (Paredes et al., 2016; Carpio et al., 2023). The increase in OM content with the presence of the remineralizer, associated with residues in general, can be explained by the interaction between these agronomic resources added to the soil. Similar results were found in studies by Carpio et al. (2023) after incorporating both SMS and remineralizer into two types of soil, one silty loam and the other sandy loam. Paredes et al. (2016) also noticed an increase in OM content after incorporating SMS into a loamy-clay soil.

Phosphorus is a fundamental macronutrient for plant growth, which is why it is one of the main elements sold in fertilizers. With regard to available P, this study found a higher P content in the treatments with remineralizer incorporation (P = 17.94 mg kg^-1) compared to the treatments without incorporation (P = 13.48 mg kg^-1). However, on the other hand, there was a decrease in the available P content compared to the control (P = 21.86 mg kg^-1). This is due to the high fixation capacity of P in soils with a high degree of weathering, such as Acrisol, whose P is retained in the solid/mineral phase of the soil, consequently becoming unavailable to plants and microorganisms. The results are similar to those found by Jacobson and Bustamante (2019) who found that P levels did not increase due to the high P fixation that occurs in Ferrasols. Theodoro et al. (2021) also put forward the hypothesis that the macronutrient P did not increase in content due to the probable capture of P atoms in the structure of kaolinitic clays in Ferrasols.

In highly weathered tropical soils, the dominant clay types are 1:1, predominantly kaolinite and iron and aluminium oxides, which are colloids with a variable charge, i.e. pH-dependent. This may justify the fact that the soil CEC was significantly higher in the treatment without remineralizer in the IN condition (CEC = 42.65 cmol_c kg^-1), since the average pH values without remineralizer were predominantly higher, as can be seen in Table 6. In the SMS condition, with the greater release of organic acids, the presence of the remineralizer resulted in a higher CEC (CEC = 41.55 cmol_c kg^-1) compared to the condition without remineralizer (CEC = 39.06 cmol_c kg^-1).

Analyzing the application of biochar and rock dust in three types of soil (Ferrasols, Acrisol, and Entisols), Chaves and Mendes (2016) observed a decrease in CEC after 100 days of incubation in all soils. Considering that potential CEC refers to the sum of exchangeable cations and potential acidity at pH 7.0, this result was attributed to the increase in potential acidity caused by the treatments, to a greater extent than the release of exchangeable cations.

The behavior of V% was similar to that of CEC, with the lignocellulosic waste in the IN condition without the remineralizer (V = 40.23%) obtaining higher values compared to the scenario with the remineralizer (V = 35.76%) and compared to the SMS condition. This superiority in base saturation values is probably due to the higher organic carbon content of these materials in the in natura condition compared to the SMS condition, as can be seen in Table 2. These results are contrary to those found by Collela et al. (2019), possibly due to the differences in evaluation time and nature of the waste between the studies.

The PES and SAR parameters, both taking into account the condition factor, showed different results. For the PES, the lignocellulosic waste in the IN condition obtained statistically higher values compared to the SMS condition, however, the highest value was 1.3%, not presenting a risk of sodification, which according to the FAO (2000), would be above 15%. In SAR, although the highest values were obtained in the SMS condition (0.18%), they also do not represent any risk of damage to the soil, since only values above 13 have a potential negative effect on the soil (Pereira, 1998).

The principal component analysis (PCA) showed that the SBinWOR and BLinWOR treatments are the most suitable for use as a substrate, as they are more correlated with the soil fertility variables, but for best results, it is recommended to use some source of OM and P. Chintala et al. (2014) in their study comparing the application of lignocellulosic waste, also found an increase in the content of variables related to soil fertility, such as CEC, and found that the increase may have occurred due to the concentration of base cations in the waste. The CSsmsWR treatment was more closely related to salinity variables such as EC, H+Al, and Na⁺, and this treatment is not recommended for use due to its potential to increase salinity. Similar results were obtained in the study by Kabirinejad et al. (2014) where it was observed that the application of lignocellulosic waste to the soil increased the salinity of the soil solution, due to the decomposition of the waste which can promote the increased release of ions into the soil solution.

Comparing the treatments with the OM and P variables, the highest correlation was shown in the CSsmsWOR and CSinWR treatments, probably due to the decomposition of the corn waste used and also to the fact that this waste is rich in nutrients. Coulibaly et al. (2020), in their study on the release of nutrients from crop residues incorporated into the soil, also showed that there was an increase in the available P content after the incorporation of corn, sorghum, rice straw, and millet residues.

5. Conclusions

The application of lignocellulosic waste in the in natura and spent mushroom substrate (SMS) conditions without the use of a remineralizer improves total organic carbon and cation exchange capacity. The presence of the remineralizer, combined with the lignocellulosic waste, increased the levels of available P, but there was no increase in relation to the original soil. The reuse of agricultural waste results in a reduction in the impact of agriculture on the environment. Principal component analysis showed that the sugarcane bagasse and banana leaves treatments, both in their raw state and without incorporation of a remineralizer, were the most correlated with the CEC, SB, and V% variables, although it is recommended that complementary sources of organic matter and P be added for use.

Acknowledgements

The authors would like to thank Coordination for the Improvement of Higher Education Personnel (CAPES) for providing the scholarship first author.

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Publication Dates

• Publication in this collection
  31 Jan 2025
• Date of issue
  2024

History

• Received
  11 Sept 2024
• Accepted
  05 Nov 2024