Spatial Variability of Soil Properties in Archeological Dark Earth Sites under Cacao Cultivation

Silva, Douglas Marcelo Pinheiro da; Campos, Milton César Costa; Franciscon, Uilson; Alho, Leandro Coutinho; Santos, Luis Antônio Coutrim dos; Paula Neto, Pérsio de; Bergamin, Anderson Cristian; Souza, Zigomar Menezes de

doi:10.1590/18069657rbcs20140816

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Division – Soil Processes and Properties • Rev. Bras. Ciênc. Solo 40 • 2016 • https://doi.org/10.1590/18069657rbcs20140816 copy

Spatial Variability of Soil Properties in Archeological Dark Earth Sites under Cacao Cultivation

Authorship SCIMAGO INSTITUTIONS RANKINGS

ABSTRACT

Soils with an A horizon formed by human activity, an anthropogenic A horizon, are found in the Amazon Region. Few studies have examined the spatial distribution of the properties of these soils. We mapped the spatial variability of some soil properties in an area of Archaeological Dark Earth (ADE) in the Brazilian Amazon. A sampling grid was defined over an area of 42 × 88 m under cacao cultivation in which sampling points were established at a spacing of 6 × 8 m, for a total of 88 points. Samples were collected from the 0.00-0.05, 0.05-0.10, 0.10-0.20, and 0.20-0.30 m depth layers. Soil texture, aggregate stability, and organic carbon (OC) analyses were performed on disturbed soil samples. Undisturbed samples were used to determine soil macroporosity (Macro), microporosity (Micro), total porosity (TP), and soil resistance to penetration (RP). The results were analyzed by descriptive statistic, Pearson correlation (p<0.01), and geostatistics. Soil bulk density, total pore volume, and geometric mean diameter are dependent on the total amount of OC in the ADE area. Increased soil bulk density and RP are proportional to a decrease in OC content and lower Micro and TP. Moreover, soil resistance to penetration is influenced by soil water and clay content with depth.

Indian Dark Earth; management systems; Amazon soils; anthropogenic soils

Descriptive statistic	Macro	Micro	TP	BD	GMD	OC
	-------------------------- % --------------------------			Mg m^-3	mm	g kg^-1
0.00-0.05 m
Mean	19.0	49.0	69	0.9	2.6	114
Median	19.0	49.0	68	0.8	2.6	114
SD⁽¹⁾	5.6	4.4	4.7	0.1	0.5	8.1
Variance	31.8	19.3	22.7	0.1	0.2	65.9
CV (%)⁽²⁾	28.0	9.0	7	11	19	7
Ass⁽³⁾	0.4	-0.7	0.2	04	-0.3	-0.1
Kurtosis	-0.5	1.5	0.9	0.2	0.9	-0.8
d⁽⁴⁾	0.07*	0.07*	0.08*	0.09*	0.09*	0.07*
0.05-0.10 m
Mean	19	47	66	0.9	2.5	105
Median	18	47	65	0.9	2.5	104
SD⁽¹⁾	5.3	4.8	4.3	0.1	0.4	4.7
Variance	28.1	23.2	19.0	0.1	0.2	21.9
CV (%)⁽²⁾	27	10	6	9	17	4
Ass⁽³⁾	0.6	-0.3	-0.2	0.2	0.1	1.0
Kurtosis	0.1	1.3	4.1	0.4	0.6	1.8
d⁽⁴⁾	0.07*	0.07*	0.05*	0.10*	0.05*	0.04*
0.10-0.20 m
Mean	22	43	65	0.9	2.5	107
Median	22	42	66	0.9	2.6	101
SD⁽¹⁾	5.2	3.8	4.3	0.1	0.4	6.4
Variance	27.5	14.7	18.5	0.1	0.2	41.4
CV (%)⁽²⁾	23	8	6	10	16	6
Ass⁽³⁾	-0.2	-0.1	-0.6	0.6	-0.6	0.7
Kurtosis	-0.3	1.1	0.7	0.3	0.1	0.4
d⁽⁴⁾	0.07*	0.08*	0.08*	0.09*	0.02*	0.07*
0.20-0.30 m
Mean	21	41	63	1.0	2.5	101
Median	21	41	63	0.9	2.5	101
SD⁽¹⁾	4.7	3.6	4.1	0.1	0.4	6.6
Variance	22.9	12.9	16.9	0.1	0.2	44.6
CV (%)⁽²⁾	22	8	6	13	18	6
Ass⁽³⁾	-0.1	0.3	-0.2	-1.4	-0.2	-0.3
Kurtosis	-0.2	0.7	-0.1	9.2	0.2	0.8
d⁽⁴⁾	0.05*	0.05*	0.07*	0.09*	0.09*	0.10*

Descriptive statistic	Sand	Silt	Clay	RP	Moisture (vol)
	------------------------------ g kg^-1 ------------------------------			MPa	m³ m^-3
0.00-0.05 m
Mean	221	573	206	0.89	0.49
Median	217	577	205	0.84	0.48
SD⁽¹⁾	49.6	32.0	44.1	0.3	4.3
Variance	2458.2	1024.5	1941.3	0.1	19.2
CV (%)⁽²⁾	22	5	21	32	8
Ass.⁽³⁾	0.3	-0.5	-0.03	0.3	-0.7
Kurtosis	-0.3	1.1	0.10	-0.4	1.5
d⁽⁴⁾	0.06*	0.09*	0.08*	0.08*	0.09*
0.05 - 0.10 m
Mean	196	534	270	0.91	0.46
Median	192	544	265	0.85	0.47
SD⁽¹⁾	38.7	34.5	53.4	0.3	4.8
Variance	1499.6	1192.1	2850.0	0.1	23.4
CV (%)⁽²⁾	19	6	20	30	10
Ass.⁽³⁾	0.3	-0.1	0.5	-0.1	-0.3
Kurtosis	-0.1	0.8	0.4	-0.5	1.3
d⁽⁴⁾	0.07*	0.09*	0.07*	0.07*	0.06*
0.10-0.20 m
Mean	188	527	285	1.1	0.43
Median	181	536	275	1.1	0.42
SD⁽¹⁾	36.1	37.6	47.9	0.3	3.8
Variance	1302.4	1413.8	2300.9	0.1	14.7
CV (%)⁽²⁾	19	7	17	41	8
Ass.⁽³⁾	0.5	0.4	-0.1	0.5	-0.1
Kurtosis	0.1	1.2	-0.8	-0.4	1.1
d⁽⁴⁾	0.09*	0.07*	0.06*	0.07*	0.09*
0.20 – 0.30 m
Mean	185	511	304	1.13	0.41
Median	182	516	301	1.12	0.41
SD⁽¹⁾	32.0	48.6	65.3	0.3	3.6
Variance	1025.9	2359.3	4269.2	0.1	13.2
CV (%)⁽²⁾	17	9	21	38	8
Ass.⁽³⁾	0.5	0.1	0.1	0.4	0.3
Kurtosis	0.1	0.4	-0.4	-0.3	0.6
d⁽⁴⁾	0.06*	0.08*	0.05*	0.08*	0.05*

Parameter	Macro	Micro	TP	BD	GMD	OC
0.00-0.05 m
Model	Exp	Lin	Exp	Exp	Exp	Lin
Nugget effect	2.60	-	1.50	0.0009	0.041	-
Landing	27.80	-	16.0	0.0089	0.221	-
Reach (m)	24	-	21	22	35	-
R²⁽¹⁾	0.94	-	0.80	0.83	0.94	-
DSD (%)⁽²⁾	9	-	9	10	19	-
CV (%)⁽³⁾	0.74	-	0.71	0.81	0.70	-
0.05-0.10 m
Model	Exp	Lin	Sph	Exp	Exp	Exp
Nugget effect	3.0	-	3.2	0.0008	0.018	2.70
Landing	20.5	-	14.9	0.0006	0.135	22.67
Reach (m)	24	-	20	30	26	26
R²⁽¹⁾	0.84	-	0.96	0.89	0.94	0.85
DSD (%)⁽²⁾	15	-	22	13	13	12
CV (%)⁽³⁾	0.63	-	0.60	0.80	0.80	0.70
0.10-0.20 m
Model	Exp	Lin	Sph	Exp	Sph	Exp
Nugget effect	6.3	-	5.3	0.0008	0.009	4.90
Landing	20.5	-	13.8	0.0008	0.194	42.85
Reach (m)	30	-	27	28	43	25
R²⁽¹⁾	0.86	-	0.95	0.97	0.97	0.90
DSD (%)⁽²⁾	31	-	38	10	5	11
CV (%)⁽³⁾	0.61	-	0.70	0.75	0.99	0.75
0.20-0.30 m
Model	Exp	Exp	Sph	Exp	Sph	Exp
Nugget effect	1.56	1.1	5.0	0.0015	0.017	4.20
Landing	22.4	11.4	16.2	0.0096	0.162	45.63
Reach (m)	22	20	21	20	31	24
R²⁽¹⁾	0.62	0.93	0.92	0.95	0.94	0.91
DSD (%)⁽²⁾	7	10	31	16	11	9
CV (%)⁽³⁾	0.62	0.73	0.93	0.71	0.76	0.85

Geostatistical parameter	RP	Moisture (vol)	Sand	Silt	Clay
	MPa	%	---------------------------- g kg^-1 ----------------------------
0.05-0.10 m
Model	Exp	Exp	Sph	Sph	Exp
Nugget effect	0.015	2.80	519	256	256
Landing	0.121	17.74	2235	937	1942
Reach (m)	20	20	30	23	26
R²⁽¹⁾	0.90	0.91	0.97	0.95	0.84
DSD (%)⁽²⁾	12	16	23	27	13
CV (%)⁽³⁾	0.89	0.70	0.85	0.87	0.95
0.05-0.10 m
Model	Exp	Lin	Exp	Exp	Exp
Nugget effect	0.02	-	104	91	484
Landing	0.09	-	1091	910	2245
Reach (m)	34	-	54	31	51
R²⁽¹⁾	0.97	-	0.96	0.94	0.99
DSD (%)⁽²⁾	22	-	9.5	10	21.6
CV (%)⁽³⁾	0.75	-	0.90	0.91	0.96
0.10-0.20 m
Model	Exp	Lin	Exp	Exp	Exp
Nugget effect	0.012	-	67	148	138
Landing	0.110	-	1081	1539	1735
Reach (m)	24	-	35	26	54
R²⁽¹⁾	0.90	-	0.96	0.95	0.94
DSD (%)⁽²⁾	11	-	6	10	8
CV (%)⁽³⁾	0.87	-	0.94	0.78	0.94
0.20-0.30 m
Model	Sph	Exp	Exp	Exp	Exp
Nugget effect	0.044	1.72	129	449	356
Landing	0.110	13.30	863	1880	3392
Reach (m)	26	22	54	21	29
R²⁽¹⁾	0.90	0.84	0.94	0.96	0.98
DSD (%)⁽²⁾	40	13	15	24	11
CV (%)⁽³⁾	0.89	0.62	0.91	0.76	0.89

	RP	BD	Macro	Micro	TP	GMD	OC
0.00-0.05 m
SRP	1.00	0.54*	-0.57*	0.20	-0.49*	0.04	-0.51
SBD		1.00	-0.66*	0.10	-0.79*	0.10	-0.63*
Macro			1.00	-0.57	-0.65*	-0.14	0.68*
Micro				1.00	0.25	0.08	0.02
TP					1.00	-0.09	0.61*
GMD						1.00	0.71*
OC							1.00
0.05-0.10 m
SRP	1.00	0.53*	-0.54*	0.25	-0.55*	-0.01	-0.44*
SBD		1.00	-0.62*	-0.15	-0.68*	-0.04	-0.55*
Macro			1.00	-0.63	-0.52*	-0.01	0.49*
Micro				1.00	0.34	-0.03	0.26
TP					1.00	-0.04	0.55*
GMD						1.00	0.60*
OC							1.00
0.10-0.20 m
SRP	1.00	0.43*	-0.49*	0.07	-0.49*	-0.15	-0.47*
SBD		1.00	-0.44*	0.10	-0.53*	-0.05	-0.51*
Macro			1.00	-0.59*	0.69*	-0.02	0.44*
Micro				1.00	0.17	-0.09	0.04
TP					1.00	-0.11	0.49*
GMD						1.00	0.51*
OC							1.00
0.20-0.30 m
SRP	1.00	0.41*	-0.43*	-0.20	-0.44*	-0.05	-0.44*
SBD		1.00	-0.57*	-0.17	-0.82*	-0.21	-0.45*
Macro			1.00	-0.55*	0.68*	0.01	0.47*
Micro				1.00	0.23	0.18	0.05
TP					1.00	0.16	0.44*
GMD						1.00	0.56*
OC							1.00

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[1] * Corresponding author: E-mail: mcesar@ufam.edu.br