EXPLAINING TRANSPHOBIA AND DISCRIMINATION AGAINST TRANS PEOPLE: A REVIEW OF THEORETICAL APPROACHES

Aguirre-Sánchez-Beato, Sara

doi:10.1590/1807-0310/2020v32190274

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Artigo • Psicol. Soc. 32 • 2020 • https://doi.org/10.1590/1807-0310/2020v32190274 copy

EXPLAINING TRANSPHOBIA AND DISCRIMINATION AGAINST TRANS PEOPLE: A REVIEW OF THEORETICAL APPROACHES

EXPLICAR A TRANSFOBIA E A DISCRIMINAÇÃO CONTRA AS PESSOAS TRANS: UMA REVISÃO DE PERSPECTIVAS TEÓRICAS

EXPLICANDO LA TRANSFOBIA Y LA DISCRIMINACIÓN CONTRA LAS PERSONAS TRANS: UNA REVISIÓN DE ENFOQUES TEÓRICOS

Authorship SCIMAGO INSTITUTIONS RANKINGS

Abstract

Transphobia and discrimination against trans people are widespread. In view of growing scientific interest in understanding this type of discrimination and considering that scientific knowledge shapes the way a phenomenon is understood and addressed, this paper aims at identifying theoretical perspectives and categories used in contemporary scientific research (2005-2016) to explain discrimination against trans people. A review of literature and a qualitative content analysis of the selected documents (N = 68) were carried out. Two broad theoretical perspectives were identified: cognitive approaches and discursive approaches. The limitations of the two approaches are discussed in terms of how the problem of transphobia and discrimination is framed and explained and the scope for action offered. To overcome such limitations, a conceptual distinction between gendered practices and transphobic attitudes and ideology is suggested and an alternative theoretical proposal using discursive psychology is presented.

Keywords:
Transgender; Transsexual; Discrimination; Transphobia

Keyword(s) 1	Keyword(s) 2	Scopus	JSTOR	DOAJ	Redalyc	CAIRN
Transgender OR transsexual (OR travesti)	Discrimination	424	612	49	504	21
	Prejudice OR stereotype	130	511	7	688	0
	Exclusion	77	176	19	440	0
Transphobia	-	136	41	19	153	4

Category and subcategory		References
Individual characteristics	Gender	Ali, Fleisher, & Erickson, 2016; Case & Stewart, 2013Case, K. A. & Stewart, B. (2013). Intervention Effectiveness in Reducing Prejudice Against Transsexuals. Journal of LGBT Youth, 10(1/2), 140-158.; Dierckx, Motmans, & Meier, 2014Dierckx, M., Motmans, J., & Meier, P. (2014). Beyond the box. Mesure d’attitudes en matière de sexisme, d’homophobie et de transphobie. Bruxelles: Institut pour l’égalité des femmes et des hommes.; Gazzola & Morrison, 2014Gazzola, S. B. & Morrison, M. A. (2014). Cultural and Personally Endorsed Stereotypes of Transgender Men and Transgender Women: Notable Correspondence or Disjunction? International Journal of Transgenderism, 15(2), 76-99.; Gerhardstein & Anderson, 2010Gerhardstein, K. R. & Anderson, V. N. (2010). There’s more than meets the eye: Facial appearance and evaluations of transsexual people. Sex Roles, 62(5/6), 361-373.; Grigoropoulos & Kordoutis, 2015Grigoropoulos, I. & Kordoutis, P. (2015). Social Factors Affecting Antitransgender Sentiment in a Sample of Greek Undergraduate Students. International Journal of Sexual Health, 27(3), 276-285.; Hill & Willoughby, 2005Hill, D. B. & Willoughby, B. L. B. (2005). The development and validation of the genderism and transphobia scale. Sex Roles, 53(7/8), 531-544.; Huffaker & Kwon, 2016Huffaker, L. & Kwon, P. (2016). A comprehensive approach to sexual and transgender prejudice. Journal of Gay and Lesbian Social Services , 28(3), 195-213.; King, Winter, & Webster, 2009Winter, S. (2009). Lost in transition: Transpeople, transprejudice and pathology in Asia. International Journal of Human Rights, 13(2/3), 365-390.; Nagoshi et al., 2008Nagoshi, J. L., Adams, K. A., Terrell, H. K., Hill, E. D., Brzuzy, S., & Nagoshi, C. T. (2008). Gender differences in correlates of homophobia and transphobia. Sex Roles , 59(7/8), 521-531.; Norton & Herek, 2013Norton, A. T. & Herek, G. M. (2013). Heterosexuals’ Attitudes Toward Transgender People: Findings from a National Probability Sample of U.S. Adults. Sex Roles , 68(11/12), 738-753.; Páez, Hevia, Pesci, & Rabbia, 2015Páez, J., Hevia, G., Pesci, F., & Rabbia, H. H. (2015). Construcción y validación de una escala de actitudes negativas hacia personas trans. Revista de Psicología, 33(1), 151-188.; E. N. Tebbe & Moradi, 2012Tebbe, E. N. & Moradi, B. (2012). Anti-transgender prejudice: a structural equation model of associated constructs. Journal of Counseling Psychology , 59(2), 251-261.; Tee & Hegarty, 2006Tee, N. & Hegarty, P. (2006). Predicting opposition to the civil rights of trans persons in the United Kingdom. Journal of Community and Applied Social Psychology, 16(1), 70-80.; Walch, Ngamake, Francisco, Stitt, & Shingler, 2012Walch, S. E., Ngamake, S. T., Francisco, J., Stitt, R. L., & Shingler, K. A. (2012). The attitudes toward transgendered individuals scale: Psychometric properties. Archives of Sexual Behavior, 41(5), 1283-1291.; Warriner, Nagoshi, & Nagoshi, 2013Warriner, K., Nagoshi, C. T., & Nagoshi, J. L. (2013). Correlates of Homophobia, Transphobia, and Internalized Homophobia in Gay or Lesbian and Heterosexual Samples. Journal of Homosexuality, 60(9), 1297-1314.; Willoughby et al., 2010; Worthen, 2016Worthen, M. G. F. (2016). Hetero-cis-normativity and the gendering of transphobia. International Journal of Transgenderism , 17(1), 31-57.
	Sexual orientation	Ali et al., 2016; Case & Stewart, 2013Case, K. A. & Stewart, B. (2013). Intervention Effectiveness in Reducing Prejudice Against Transsexuals. Journal of LGBT Youth, 10(1/2), 140-158.; Dierckx et al., 2014Dierckx, M., Motmans, J., & Meier, P. (2014). Beyond the box. Mesure d’attitudes en matière de sexisme, d’homophobie et de transphobie. Bruxelles: Institut pour l’égalité des femmes et des hommes.; Páez et al., 2015Páez, J., Hevia, G., Pesci, F., & Rabbia, H. H. (2015). Construcción y validación de una escala de actitudes negativas hacia personas trans. Revista de Psicología, 33(1), 151-188.; Tee & Hegarty, 2006Tee, N. & Hegarty, P. (2006). Predicting opposition to the civil rights of trans persons in the United Kingdom. Journal of Community and Applied Social Psychology, 16(1), 70-80.; Warriner et al., 2013Warriner, K., Nagoshi, C. T., & Nagoshi, J. L. (2013). Correlates of Homophobia, Transphobia, and Internalized Homophobia in Gay or Lesbian and Heterosexual Samples. Journal of Homosexuality, 60(9), 1297-1314.; Willoughby et al., 2010Willoughby, B. L. B., Hill, D. B., Gonzalez, C. A., Lacorazza, A., Macapagal, R. A., Barton, M. E., & Doty, N. D. (2010). Who hates Gender outlaws? A multisite and multinational evaluation of the Genderism and Transphobia Scale. International Journal of Transgenderism , 12(4), 254-271.; Worthen, 2016Worthen, M. G. F. (2016). Hetero-cis-normativity and the gendering of transphobia. International Journal of Transgenderism , 17(1), 31-57.
	Religiosity/religious fundamentalism	Ali et al., 2016; Dierckx et al., 2014Dierckx, M., Motmans, J., & Meier, P. (2014). Beyond the box. Mesure d’attitudes en matière de sexisme, d’homophobie et de transphobie. Bruxelles: Institut pour l’égalité des femmes et des hommes.; Grigoropoulos & Kordoutis, 2015Grigoropoulos, I. & Kordoutis, P. (2015). Social Factors Affecting Antitransgender Sentiment in a Sample of Greek Undergraduate Students. International Journal of Sexual Health, 27(3), 276-285.; Huffaker & Kwon, 2016Huffaker, L. & Kwon, P. (2016). A comprehensive approach to sexual and transgender prejudice. Journal of Gay and Lesbian Social Services , 28(3), 195-213.; King et al., 2009King, M. E., Winter, S., & Webster, B. (2009). Contact reduces transprejudice: A study on attitudes towards transgenderism and transgender civil rights in Hong Kong. International Journal of Sexual Health , 21(1), 17-34.; Nagoshi et al., 2008Nagoshi, J. L., Adams, K. A., Terrell, H. K., Hill, E. D., Brzuzy, S., & Nagoshi, C. T. (2008). Gender differences in correlates of homophobia and transphobia. Sex Roles , 59(7/8), 521-531.; Páez et al., 2015Páez, J., Hevia, G., Pesci, F., & Rabbia, H. H. (2015). Construcción y validación de una escala de actitudes negativas hacia personas trans. Revista de Psicología, 33(1), 151-188.; Tee & Hegarty, 2006Tee, N. & Hegarty, P. (2006). Predicting opposition to the civil rights of trans persons in the United Kingdom. Journal of Community and Applied Social Psychology, 16(1), 70-80.; Warriner et al., 2013Warriner, K., Nagoshi, C. T., & Nagoshi, J. L. (2013). Correlates of Homophobia, Transphobia, and Internalized Homophobia in Gay or Lesbian and Heterosexual Samples. Journal of Homosexuality, 60(9), 1297-1314.; Willoughby et al., 2010Willoughby, B. L. B., Hill, D. B., Gonzalez, C. A., Lacorazza, A., Macapagal, R. A., Barton, M. E., & Doty, N. D. (2010). Who hates Gender outlaws? A multisite and multinational evaluation of the Genderism and Transphobia Scale. International Journal of Transgenderism , 12(4), 254-271.
	Age	Case & Stewart, 2013Case, K. A. & Stewart, B. (2013). Intervention Effectiveness in Reducing Prejudice Against Transsexuals. Journal of LGBT Youth, 10(1/2), 140-158.; Dierckx et al., 2014Dierckx, M., Motmans, J., & Meier, P. (2014). Beyond the box. Mesure d’attitudes en matière de sexisme, d’homophobie et de transphobie. Bruxelles: Institut pour l’égalité des femmes et des hommes.; King et al., 2009King, M. E., Winter, S., & Webster, B. (2009). Contact reduces transprejudice: A study on attitudes towards transgenderism and transgender civil rights in Hong Kong. International Journal of Sexual Health , 21(1), 17-34.
	Educational level	Dierckx et al., 2014Dierckx, M., Motmans, J., & Meier, P. (2014). Beyond the box. Mesure d’attitudes en matière de sexisme, d’homophobie et de transphobie. Bruxelles: Institut pour l’égalité des femmes et des hommes.; Huffaker & Kwon, 2016Huffaker, L. & Kwon, P. (2016). A comprehensive approach to sexual and transgender prejudice. Journal of Gay and Lesbian Social Services , 28(3), 195-213.; King et al., 2009King, M. E., Winter, S., & Webster, B. (2009). Contact reduces transprejudice: A study on attitudes towards transgenderism and transgender civil rights in Hong Kong. International Journal of Sexual Health , 21(1), 17-34.; Norton & Herek, 2013Norton, A. T. & Herek, G. M. (2013). Heterosexuals’ Attitudes Toward Transgender People: Findings from a National Probability Sample of U.S. Adults. Sex Roles , 68(11/12), 738-753.; Páez et al., 2015Páez, J., Hevia, G., Pesci, F., & Rabbia, H. H. (2015). Construcción y validación de una escala de actitudes negativas hacia personas trans. Revista de Psicología, 33(1), 151-188.
	Ethnicity/nationality	Case & Stewart, 2013Case, K. A. & Stewart, B. (2013). Intervention Effectiveness in Reducing Prejudice Against Transsexuals. Journal of LGBT Youth, 10(1/2), 140-158.; Tee & Hegarty, 2006Tee, N. & Hegarty, P. (2006). Predicting opposition to the civil rights of trans persons in the United Kingdom. Journal of Community and Applied Social Psychology, 16(1), 70-80.
	Social dominance	Dierckx et al., 2014Dierckx, M., Motmans, J., & Meier, P. (2014). Beyond the box. Mesure d’attitudes en matière de sexisme, d’homophobie et de transphobie. Bruxelles: Institut pour l’égalité des femmes et des hommes.; Huffaker & Kwon, 2016Huffaker, L. & Kwon, P. (2016). A comprehensive approach to sexual and transgender prejudice. Journal of Gay and Lesbian Social Services , 28(3), 195-213.; Rojas, 2012; E. A. Tebbe et al., 2014Tebbe, E. A., Moradi, B., & Ege, E. (2014). Revised and abbreviated forms of the genderism and transphobia scale: Tools for assessing anti-trans* prejudice. Journal of Counseling Psychology, 61(4), 581-592.b; E. N. Tebbe & Moradi, 2012
	Right-wing authoritarianism / political conservatism	Ali et al., 2016; Grigoropoulos & Kordoutis, 2015Grigoropoulos, I. & Kordoutis, P. (2015). Social Factors Affecting Antitransgender Sentiment in a Sample of Greek Undergraduate Students. International Journal of Sexual Health, 27(3), 276-285.; Huffaker & Kwon, 2016Huffaker, L. & Kwon, P. (2016). A comprehensive approach to sexual and transgender prejudice. Journal of Gay and Lesbian Social Services , 28(3), 195-213., 2016; Nagoshi et al., 2008Nagoshi, J. L., Adams, K. A., Terrell, H. K., Hill, E. D., Brzuzy, S., & Nagoshi, C. T. (2008). Gender differences in correlates of homophobia and transphobia. Sex Roles , 59(7/8), 521-531.; Norton & Herek, 2013Norton, A. T. & Herek, G. M. (2013). Heterosexuals’ Attitudes Toward Transgender People: Findings from a National Probability Sample of U.S. Adults. Sex Roles , 68(11/12), 738-753., 2013; Rottenbacher de Rojas, 2012Rottenbacher Rojas, J. M. (2012). Conservadurismo político, homofobia y prejuicio hacia grupos transgénero en una muestra de estudiantes y egresados universitarios de Lima. Pensamiento Psicológico, 10(1), 23-37.; Tee & Hegarty, 2006Tee, N. & Hegarty, P. (2006). Predicting opposition to the civil rights of trans persons in the United Kingdom. Journal of Community and Applied Social Psychology, 16(1), 70-80.; Warriner et al., 2013Warriner, K., Nagoshi, C. T., & Nagoshi, J. L. (2013). Correlates of Homophobia, Transphobia, and Internalized Homophobia in Gay or Lesbian and Heterosexual Samples. Journal of Homosexuality, 60(9), 1297-1314.; Willoughby et al., 2010Willoughby, B. L. B., Hill, D. B., Gonzalez, C. A., Lacorazza, A., Macapagal, R. A., Barton, M. E., & Doty, N. D. (2010). Who hates Gender outlaws? A multisite and multinational evaluation of the Genderism and Transphobia Scale. International Journal of Transgenderism , 12(4), 254-271.
	Tolerance to ambiguity	Huffaker & Kwon, 2016Huffaker, L. & Kwon, P. (2016). A comprehensive approach to sexual and transgender prejudice. Journal of Gay and Lesbian Social Services , 28(3), 195-213.; E. A. Tebbe et al., 2014Tebbe, E. A., Moradi, B., & Ege, E. (2014). Revised and abbreviated forms of the genderism and transphobia scale: Tools for assessing anti-trans* prejudice. Journal of Counseling Psychology, 61(4), 581-592.b
	Moral dogmatism	Willoughby et al., 2010Willoughby, B. L. B., Hill, D. B., Gonzalez, C. A., Lacorazza, A., Macapagal, R. A., Barton, M. E., & Doty, N. D. (2010). Who hates Gender outlaws? A multisite and multinational evaluation of the Genderism and Transphobia Scale. International Journal of Transgenderism , 12(4), 254-271.
	Self-esteem	Hill & Willoughby, 2005Hill, D. B. & Willoughby, B. L. B. (2005). The development and validation of the genderism and transphobia scale. Sex Roles, 53(7/8), 531-544.; Willoughby et al., 2010
	Aggression proneness	Tebbe et al., 2014Tebbe, E. A., Moradi, B., & Ege, E. (2014). Revised and abbreviated forms of the genderism and transphobia scale: Tools for assessing anti-trans* prejudice. Journal of Counseling Psychology, 61(4), 581-592.b; Warriner et al., 2013Warriner, K., Nagoshi, C. T., & Nagoshi, J. L. (2013). Correlates of Homophobia, Transphobia, and Internalized Homophobia in Gay or Lesbian and Heterosexual Samples. Journal of Homosexuality, 60(9), 1297-1314.
Factors external to individual	Contact with trans people	Hill & Willoughby, 2005Hill, D. B. & Willoughby, B. L. B. (2005). The development and validation of the genderism and transphobia scale. Sex Roles, 53(7/8), 531-544.; Huffaker & Kwon, 2016Huffaker, L. & Kwon, P. (2016). A comprehensive approach to sexual and transgender prejudice. Journal of Gay and Lesbian Social Services , 28(3), 195-213.; King et al., 2009King, M. E., Winter, S., & Webster, B. (2009). Contact reduces transprejudice: A study on attitudes towards transgenderism and transgender civil rights in Hong Kong. International Journal of Sexual Health , 21(1), 17-34.; Norton & Herek, 2013Norton, A. T. & Herek, G. M. (2013). Heterosexuals’ Attitudes Toward Transgender People: Findings from a National Probability Sample of U.S. Adults. Sex Roles , 68(11/12), 738-753.; Tee & Hegarty, 2006Tee, N. & Hegarty, P. (2006). Predicting opposition to the civil rights of trans persons in the United Kingdom. Journal of Community and Applied Social Psychology, 16(1), 70-80.; Walch, Sinkkanen, et al., 2012Walch, S. E., Sinkkanen, K. A., Swain, E. M., Francisco, J., Breaux, C. A., & Sjoberg, M. D. (2012). Using Intergroup Contact Theory to Reduce Stigma Against Transgender Individuals: Impact of a Transgender Speaker Panel Presentation. Journal of Applied Social Psychology, 42(10), 2583-2605.; Willoughby et al., 2010
	Information about trans people	Broockman & Kalla, 2016Broockman, D. & Kalla, J. (2016). Durably reducing transphobia: A field experiment on door-to-door canvassing. Science, 352(6282), 220-224.; Case & Stewart, 2013Case, K. A. & Stewart, B. (2013). Intervention Effectiveness in Reducing Prejudice Against Transsexuals. Journal of LGBT Youth, 10(1/2), 140-158.; Huffaker & Kwon, 2016Huffaker, L. & Kwon, P. (2016). A comprehensive approach to sexual and transgender prejudice. Journal of Gay and Lesbian Social Services , 28(3), 195-213.; Willoughby et al., 2010Willoughby, B. L. B., Hill, D. B., Gonzalez, C. A., Lacorazza, A., Macapagal, R. A., Barton, M. E., & Doty, N. D. (2010). Who hates Gender outlaws? A multisite and multinational evaluation of the Genderism and Transphobia Scale. International Journal of Transgenderism , 12(4), 254-271.
Adherence to other prejudices	Homophobia/ sexual prejudice	Grigoropoulos & Kordoutis, 2015Grigoropoulos, I. & Kordoutis, P. (2015). Social Factors Affecting Antitransgender Sentiment in a Sample of Greek Undergraduate Students. International Journal of Sexual Health, 27(3), 276-285.; Hill & Willoughby, 2005Hill, D. B. & Willoughby, B. L. B. (2005). The development and validation of the genderism and transphobia scale. Sex Roles, 53(7/8), 531-544.; Nagoshi et al., 2008Nagoshi, J. L., Adams, K. A., Terrell, H. K., Hill, E. D., Brzuzy, S., & Nagoshi, C. T. (2008). Gender differences in correlates of homophobia and transphobia. Sex Roles , 59(7/8), 521-531.; Norton & Herek, 2013Norton, A. T. & Herek, G. M. (2013). Heterosexuals’ Attitudes Toward Transgender People: Findings from a National Probability Sample of U.S. Adults. Sex Roles , 68(11/12), 738-753.; Rottenbacher de Rojas, 2012; E. A. Tebbe et al., 2014Tebbe, E. A., Moradi, B., & Ege, E. (2014). Revised and abbreviated forms of the genderism and transphobia scale: Tools for assessing anti-trans* prejudice. Journal of Counseling Psychology, 61(4), 581-592.; E. N. Tebbe & Moradi, 2012; Tee & Hegarty, 2006Tee, N. & Hegarty, P. (2006). Predicting opposition to the civil rights of trans persons in the United Kingdom. Journal of Community and Applied Social Psychology, 16(1), 70-80.; Willoughby et al., 2010; Worthen, 2016Worthen, M. G. F. (2016). Hetero-cis-normativity and the gendering of transphobia. International Journal of Transgenderism , 17(1), 31-57.
	Modern/hostile sexism	Nagoshi et al., 2008Nagoshi, J. L., Adams, K. A., Terrell, H. K., Hill, E. D., Brzuzy, S., & Nagoshi, C. T. (2008). Gender differences in correlates of homophobia and transphobia. Sex Roles , 59(7/8), 521-531.; E. A. Tebbe et al., 2014Tebbe, E. A., Moradi, B., & Ege, E. (2014). Revised and abbreviated forms of the genderism and transphobia scale: Tools for assessing anti-trans* prejudice. Journal of Counseling Psychology, 61(4), 581-592.b; Tee & Hegarty, 2006Tee, N. & Hegarty, P. (2006). Predicting opposition to the civil rights of trans persons in the United Kingdom. Journal of Community and Applied Social Psychology, 16(1), 70-80.; Warriner et al., 2013Warriner, K., Nagoshi, C. T., & Nagoshi, J. L. (2013). Correlates of Homophobia, Transphobia, and Internalized Homophobia in Gay or Lesbian and Heterosexual Samples. Journal of Homosexuality, 60(9), 1297-1314.
	Beliefs about gender	Norton & Herek, 2013Norton, A. T. & Herek, G. M. (2013). Heterosexuals’ Attitudes Toward Transgender People: Findings from a National Probability Sample of U.S. Adults. Sex Roles , 68(11/12), 738-753.; Tee & Hegarty, 2006Tee, N. & Hegarty, P. (2006). Predicting opposition to the civil rights of trans persons in the United Kingdom. Journal of Community and Applied Social Psychology, 16(1), 70-80.
	Beliefs on traditional gender roles	Hill & Willoughby, 2005Hill, D. B. & Willoughby, B. L. B. (2005). The development and validation of the genderism and transphobia scale. Sex Roles, 53(7/8), 531-544.; E. N. Tebbe & Moradi, 2012Tebbe, E. N. & Moradi, B. (2012). Anti-transgender prejudice: a structural equation model of associated constructs. Journal of Counseling Psychology , 59(2), 251-261.; Willoughby et al., 2010

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Lesbian, Gay, Bisexual, and Transgender Careers and Human Resource Development: A Systematic Literature Review. Human Resource Development Review , 14(2), 125-162.; Meadow, 2010Meadow, T. (2010). “A Rose is a Rose” On Producing Legal Gender Classifications. Gender & Society , 24(6), 814-837.; Missé & Coll-Planas, 2010Missé, M. & Coll-Planas, G. (2010). El género desordenado. Críticas entorno a la patologización de la transexualidad. Barcelona; Madrid: Editorial Egales.; Moulin de Souza & de Pádua Carrieri, 2015Moulin Souza, E. & de Pádua Carrieri, A. (2015). When Invisibility Is Impossible: Body, Subjectivity, and Labor Among Travestis and Transsexuals. Journal of Workplace Rights, 5(2), 1-11.; Myers, 2010Myers, P. R. (2010). Jane Doe v. Boeing Company: Transsexuality and Compulsory Gendering in Corporate Capitalism. Feminist Studies , 36(3), 493-517.; Pacheco & Pacheco, 2016Pacheco, R. A. S. & Pacheco, I. S. (2016). Direito, violências e sexualidades: a transexualidade em um contexto de direitos. Revista Estudios Socio-Jurídicos, 18(2), 201-226.; Priola, Lasio, De, & Serri, 2014Priola, V., Lasio, D., De, S., & Serri, F. (2014). The Sound of Silence. Lesbian, Gay, Bisexual and Transgender Discrimination in “Inclusive Organizations.” British Journal of Management, 25(3), 488-502.; Resende Alves & Costa Moreira, 2015Resende Alves, C. E., & Costa Moreira, M. I. (2015). Do uso do nome social ao uso do banheiro: (trans)subjetividades em escolas brasileiras. Quaderns de Psicologia , 17(3), 59-69.; Sawyer, Thoroughgood, & Webster, 2016Sawyer, K., Thoroughgood, C., & Webster, J. (2016). Queering the gender binary: Understanding transgender workplace experiences. In Sexual Orientation and Transgender Issues in Organizations: Global Perspectives on LGBT Workforce Diversity (pp. 21-42). Cham, Switzerland: Springer ; Schilt & Westbrook, 2009Schilt, K. & Westbrook, L. (2009). Doing Gender, Doing Heteronormativity: “Gender Normals,” Transgender People, and the Social Maintenance of Heterosexuality. Gender and Society, 23(4), 440-464.; Spade, 2015Spade, D. (2015). Normal Life: Administrative Violence, Critical Trans Politics and the Limits of Law. USA: Duke University Press. Recuperado de https://books.google.com.br/books/about/Normal_Life.html?id=dIiLRQAACAAJ&redir_esc=y https://books.google.com.br/books/about/... ; Suess, 2014Suess, A. (2014). Cuestionamiento de dinámicas de patologización y exclusión discursiva desde perspectivas trans e intersex. Revista de Estudios Sociales, 49, 128-143.
	Variability	Bento & Pelúcio, 2012Bento, B. & Pelúcio, L. (2012). Despatologização do gênero: a politização das identidades abjetas. Revista Estudos Feministas, 20(2), 569-581.; Connell, 2010Connell, C. (2010). Doing, Undoing, or Redoing Gender? Learning from the Workplace Experiences of Transpeople. Gender & Society, 24(1), 31-55.; Franco & Cicillini, 2015Franco, N. & Cicillini, G. A. (2015). Brazilian trans teachers in their schooling process. Revista Estudos Feministas , 23(2), 325-346.; Gilbert, 2009Gilbert, M. A. (2009). Defeating Bigenderism: Changing Gender Assumptions in the Twenty-First Century. Hypatia, 24(3), 93-112.; Moulin de Souza & de Pádua Carrieri, 2015; Schilt, 2006Schilt, K. (2006). Just One of the Guys? How Transmen Make Gender Visible at Work. Gender & Society , 20(4), 465-490.; Schilt & Westbrook, 2009; Spade, 2015Spade, D. (2015). Normal Life: Administrative Violence, Critical Trans Politics and the Limits of Law. USA: Duke University Press. Recuperado de https://books.google.com.br/books/about/Normal_Life.html?id=dIiLRQAACAAJ&redir_esc=y https://books.google.com.br/books/about/... ; Suess, 2014Suess, A. (2014). Cuestionamiento de dinámicas de patologización y exclusión discursiva desde perspectivas trans e intersex. Revista de Estudios Sociales, 49, 128-143.
	Language	Bento & Pelúcio, 2012Bento, B. & Pelúcio, L. (2012). Despatologização do gênero: a politização das identidades abjetas. Revista Estudos Feministas, 20(2), 569-581.; Bettcher, 2007Bettcher, T. M. (2007). Evil Deceivers and Make-Believers: On Transphobic Violence and the Politics of Illusion. Hypatia, 22(3), 43-65.; Buist & Stone, 2014Buist, C. L. & Stone, C. (2014). Transgender Victims and Offenders: Failures of the United States Criminal Justice System and the Necessity of Queer Criminology. Critical Criminology, 22(1), 35-47.; Currah, 2008Currah, P. (2008). Expecting Bodies: The Pregnant Man and Transgender Exclusion from the Employment Non-Discrimination Act. Women’s Studies Quarterly, 36(3/4), 330-336.; DePalma & Jennett, 2010DePalma, R. & Jennett, M. (2010). Homophobia, transphobia and culture: Deconstructing heteronormativity in English primary schools. Intercultural Education, 21(1), 15-26.; Lehtonen, 2016Lehtonen, J. (2016). Experiências de Jovens Não Heterossexuais e Trans na Escolha de Carreira e no Local de Trabalho. In T. Köllen (Ed.),Sexual Orientation and Transgender Issues in Organizations: Global Perspectives on LGBT Workforce Diversity (pp. 289-306). Cham, Switzerland: Springer.; Loutzenheiser, 2015Loutzenheiser, L. W. (2015). ‘Who are you calling a problem?’ Addressing transphobia and homophobia through school policy. Critical Studies in Education, 56(1), 99-115.; Meadow, 2010Meadow, T. (2010). “A Rose is a Rose” On Producing Legal Gender Classifications. Gender & Society , 24(6), 814-837.; Missé & Coll-Planas, 2010Missé, M. & Coll-Planas, G. (2010). El género desordenado. Críticas entorno a la patologización de la transexualidad. Barcelona; Madrid: Editorial Egales.; Vincenza Priola et al., 2014Priola, V., Lasio, D., De, S., & Serri, F. (2014). The Sound of Silence. Lesbian, Gay, Bisexual and Transgender Discrimination in “Inclusive Organizations.” British Journal of Management, 25(3), 488-502.; Riggs, 2014Riggs, D. W. (2014). What makes a man? Thomas Beatie, embodiment, and “mundane transphobia.” Feminism and Psychology, 24(2), 157-171.
Predominance of gender meanings	Power	Adrian, 2013; Ansara & Hegarty, 2012Ansara, Y. G. & Hegarty, P. (2012). Cisgenderism in psychology: Pathologising and misgendering children from 1999 to 2008. Psychology and Sexuality, 3(2), 137-160.; Bento & Pelúcio, 2012Bento, B. & Pelúcio, L. (2012). Despatologização do gênero: a politização das identidades abjetas. Revista Estudos Feministas, 20(2), 569-581.; Buist & Stone, 2014Buist, C. L. & Stone, C. (2014). Transgender Victims and Offenders: Failures of the United States Criminal Justice System and the Necessity of Queer Criminology. Critical Criminology, 22(1), 35-47.; Currah, 2008Currah, P. (2008). Expecting Bodies: The Pregnant Man and Transgender Exclusion from the Employment Non-Discrimination Act. Women’s Studies Quarterly, 36(3/4), 330-336.; Dean, Victor, & Grimes, 2016Dean, M. A., Victor, E., & Grimes, L. G. (2016). Inhospitable Healthcare Spaces: Why Diversity Training on LGBTQIA Issues Is Not Enough. Journal of Bioethical Inquiry, 13(4), 557-570.; DePalma & Jennett, 2010DePalma, R. & Jennett, M. (2010). Homophobia, transphobia and culture: Deconstructing heteronormativity in English primary schools. Intercultural Education, 21(1), 15-26.; Erni, 2013Erni, J. N. (2013). Legitimating Transphobia: The legal disavowal of transgender rights in prison. Cultural Studies, 27(1), 136-159.; Gilbert, 2009Gilbert, M. A. (2009). Defeating Bigenderism: Changing Gender Assumptions in the Twenty-First Century. Hypatia, 24(3), 93-112.; Lasso Báez, 2014Lasso Báez, R. A. (2014). Transexualidad y servicios de salud utilizados para transitar por los sexos-géneros. CES Psicología, 7(2), 108-125.; Lehtonen, 2016Lehtonen, J. (2016). Experiências de Jovens Não Heterossexuais e Trans na Escolha de Carreira e no Local de Trabalho. In T. Köllen (Ed.),Sexual Orientation and Transgender Issues in Organizations: Global Perspectives on LGBT Workforce Diversity (pp. 289-306). Cham, Switzerland: Springer.; Loutzenheiser, 2015Loutzenheiser, L. W. (2015). ‘Who are you calling a problem?’ Addressing transphobia and homophobia through school policy. Critical Studies in Education, 56(1), 99-115.; Meadow, 2010Meadow, T. (2010). “A Rose is a Rose” On Producing Legal Gender Classifications. Gender & Society , 24(6), 814-837.; Missé & Coll-Planas, 2010Missé, M. & Coll-Planas, G. (2010). El género desordenado. Críticas entorno a la patologización de la transexualidad. Barcelona; Madrid: Editorial Egales.; Molina Rodríguez, Guzmán Cervantes, & Martínez-Guzmán, 2015Molina Rodríguez, N. E., Guzmán Cervantes, O. O., & Martínez-Guzmán, A. (2015). Identidades transgénero y transfobia en el contexto mexicano: Una aproximación narrativa. Quaderns de Psicologia, 17(3), 71-82.; Moulin de Souza & de Pádua Carrieri, 2015; Ozeren, Ucar, & Duygulu, 2016Ozeren, E., Ucar, Z., & Duygulu, E. (2016). Silence speaks in the workplace: Uncovering the experiences of LGBT employees in Turkey. In Sexual Orientation and Transgender Issues in Organizations: Global Perspectives on LGBT Workforce Diversity (pp. 217-232). Cham, Switzerland: Springer ; Priola et al., 2014Priola, V., Lasio, D., De, S., & Serri, F. (2014). The Sound of Silence. Lesbian, Gay, Bisexual and Transgender Discrimination in “Inclusive Organizations.” British Journal of Management, 25(3), 488-502.; Resende Alves & Costa Moreira, 2015Resende Alves, C. E., & Costa Moreira, M. I. (2015). Do uso do nome social ao uso do banheiro: (trans)subjetividades em escolas brasileiras. Quaderns de Psicologia , 17(3), 59-69.; Schilt & Westbrook, 2009Schilt, K. & Westbrook, L. (2009). Doing Gender, Doing Heteronormativity: “Gender Normals,” Transgender People, and the Social Maintenance of Heterosexuality. Gender and Society, 23(4), 440-464.; Spade, 2015Spade, D. (2015). Normal Life: Administrative Violence, Critical Trans Politics and the Limits of Law. USA: Duke University Press. Recuperado de https://books.google.com.br/books/about/Normal_Life.html?id=dIiLRQAACAAJ&redir_esc=y https://books.google.com.br/books/about/... ; Winter, 2009Winter, S. (2009). Lost in transition: Transpeople, transprejudice and pathology in Asia. International Journal of Human Rights, 13(2/3), 365-390.
	Social function	Bettcher, 2007Bettcher, T. M. (2007). Evil Deceivers and Make-Believers: On Transphobic Violence and the Politics of Illusion. Hypatia, 22(3), 43-65.; Faúndes, 2015Faúndes, J. M. M. (2015). Géneros, Transgéneros: Hacia Una Noción Bidimensional De La Injusticia. Andamios. Revista de Investigación Social, 12(27), 257-278.; Franco & Cicillini, 2015Franco, N. & Cicillini, G. A. (2015). Brazilian trans teachers in their schooling process. Revista Estudos Feministas , 23(2), 325-346.; Gilbert, 2009Gilbert, M. A. (2009). Defeating Bigenderism: Changing Gender Assumptions in the Twenty-First Century. Hypatia, 24(3), 93-112.; Loutzenheiser, 2015Loutzenheiser, L. W. (2015). ‘Who are you calling a problem?’ Addressing transphobia and homophobia through school policy. Critical Studies in Education, 56(1), 99-115.; Meadow, 2010Meadow, T. (2010). “A Rose is a Rose” On Producing Legal Gender Classifications. Gender & Society , 24(6), 814-837.; Moulin de Souza & de Pádua Carrieri, 2015; K. Schilt & Westbrook, 2009Schilt, K. & Westbrook, L. (2009). Doing Gender, Doing Heteronormativity: “Gender Normals,” Transgender People, and the Social Maintenance of Heterosexuality. Gender and Society, 23(4), 440-464. Barclay & Scott, 2006Barclay, J. M. & Scott, L. J. (2006). Transsexuals and workplace diversity: A case of “change” management. Personnel Review, 35(4), 487-502.; Collins, McFadden, Rocco, & Mathis, 2015Collins, J. C., McFadden, C., Rocco, T. S., & Mathis, M. K. (2015). The Problem of Transgender Marginalization and Exclusion: Critical Actions for Human Resource Development. Human Resource Development Review, 14(2), 205-226.; Faúndes, 2015Faúndes, J. M. M. (2015). Géneros, Transgéneros: Hacia Una Noción Bidimensional De La Injusticia. Andamios. Revista de Investigación Social, 12(27), 257-278.; Myers, 2010Myers, P. R. (2010). Jane Doe v. Boeing Company: Transsexuality and Compulsory Gendering in Corporate Capitalism. Feminist Studies , 36(3), 493-517.; Spade, 2015Spade, D. (2015). Normal Life: Administrative Violence, Critical Trans Politics and the Limits of Law. USA: Duke University Press. Recuperado de https://books.google.com.br/books/about/Normal_Life.html?id=dIiLRQAACAAJ&redir_esc=y https://books.google.com.br/books/about/... Currah, 2008Currah, P. (2008). Expecting Bodies: The Pregnant Man and Transgender Exclusion from the Employment Non-Discrimination Act. Women’s Studies Quarterly, 36(3/4), 330-336.; Meadow, 2010; Spade, 2015
Effects of gender meanings	Othering	Adrian, 2013; Ansara & Hegarty, 2012Ansara, Y. G. & Hegarty, P. (2012). Cisgenderism in psychology: Pathologising and misgendering children from 1999 to 2008. Psychology and Sexuality, 3(2), 137-160.; Bailey, 2011Bailey, M. (2011). Gender/Racial Realness: Theorizing the Gender System in Ballroom Culture. Feminist Studies, 37(2), 365-386.; Cruz, 2014Cruz, T. M. (2014). Assessing access to care for transgender and gender nonconforming people: A consideration of diversity in combating discrimination. Social Science and Medicine, 110, 65-73.; Currah, 2008Currah, P. (2008). Expecting Bodies: The Pregnant Man and Transgender Exclusion from the Employment Non-Discrimination Act. Women’s Studies Quarterly, 36(3/4), 330-336.; Curtis, 2016Curtis, A. J. (2016). Conformity or nonconformity? Designing legal remedies to protect transgender students from discrimination. Harvard Journal on Legislation, 53(2), 460-497.; Dean et al., 2016Dean, M. A., Victor, E., & Grimes, L. G. (2016). Inhospitable Healthcare Spaces: Why Diversity Training on LGBTQIA Issues Is Not Enough. Journal of Bioethical Inquiry, 13(4), 557-570.; DePalma & Jennett, 2010DePalma, R. & Jennett, M. (2010). Homophobia, transphobia and culture: Deconstructing heteronormativity in English primary schools. Intercultural Education, 21(1), 15-26.; Franco & Cicillini, 2015Franco, N. & Cicillini, G. A. (2015). Brazilian trans teachers in their schooling process. Revista Estudos Feministas , 23(2), 325-346.; Gilbert, 2009Gilbert, M. A. (2009). Defeating Bigenderism: Changing Gender Assumptions in the Twenty-First Century. Hypatia, 24(3), 93-112.; Lehtonen, 2016Lehtonen, J. (2016). Experiências de Jovens Não Heterossexuais e Trans na Escolha de Carreira e no Local de Trabalho. In T. Köllen (Ed.),Sexual Orientation and Transgender Issues in Organizations: Global Perspectives on LGBT Workforce Diversity (pp. 289-306). Cham, Switzerland: Springer.; Loutzenheiser, 2015Loutzenheiser, L. W. (2015). ‘Who are you calling a problem?’ Addressing transphobia and homophobia through school policy. Critical Studies in Education, 56(1), 99-115.; Meadow, 2010Meadow, T. (2010). “A Rose is a Rose” On Producing Legal Gender Classifications. Gender & Society , 24(6), 814-837.; Myers, 2010Myers, P. R. (2010). Jane Doe v. Boeing Company: Transsexuality and Compulsory Gendering in Corporate Capitalism. Feminist Studies , 36(3), 493-517.; Páez et al., 2015Páez, J., Hevia, G., Pesci, F., & Rabbia, H. H. (2015). Construcción y validación de una escala de actitudes negativas hacia personas trans. Revista de Psicología, 33(1), 151-188.; Rasmussen, Sanjakdar, Allen, Quinlivan, & Bromdal, 2015Rasmussen, M. L., Sanjakdar, F., Allen, L., Quinlivan, K., & Bromdal, A. (2015). Homophobia, transphobia, young people and the question of responsibility. Discourse: Studies in the Cultural Politics of Education, 38(1), 30-42.; Winter, 2009Winter, S. (2009). Lost in transition: Transpeople, transprejudice and pathology in Asia. International Journal of Human Rights, 13(2/3), 365-390.
	Unintelligibility	Bailey, 2011Bailey, M. (2011). Gender/Racial Realness: Theorizing the Gender System in Ballroom Culture. Feminist Studies, 37(2), 365-386.; Bettcher, 2007Bettcher, T. M. (2007). Evil Deceivers and Make-Believers: On Transphobic Violence and the Politics of Illusion. Hypatia, 22(3), 43-65.; Buist & Stone, 2014Buist, C. L. & Stone, C. (2014). Transgender Victims and Offenders: Failures of the United States Criminal Justice System and the Necessity of Queer Criminology. Critical Criminology, 22(1), 35-47.; Erni, 2013Erni, J. N. (2013). Legitimating Transphobia: The legal disavowal of transgender rights in prison. Cultural Studies, 27(1), 136-159.; Faúndes, 2015Faúndes, J. M. M. (2015). Géneros, Transgéneros: Hacia Una Noción Bidimensional De La Injusticia. Andamios. Revista de Investigación Social, 12(27), 257-278.; Gilbert, 2009Gilbert, M. A. (2009). Defeating Bigenderism: Changing Gender Assumptions in the Twenty-First Century. Hypatia, 24(3), 93-112.; Lasso Báez, 2014Lasso Báez, R. A. (2014). Transexualidad y servicios de salud utilizados para transitar por los sexos-géneros. CES Psicología, 7(2), 108-125.; Meadow, 2010Meadow, T. (2010). “A Rose is a Rose” On Producing Legal Gender Classifications. Gender & Society , 24(6), 814-837.; Missé & Coll-Planas, 2010Missé, M. & Coll-Planas, G. (2010). El género desordenado. Críticas entorno a la patologización de la transexualidad. Barcelona; Madrid: Editorial Egales.; Molina Rodríguez et al., 2015Molina Rodríguez, N. E., Guzmán Cervantes, O. O., & Martínez-Guzmán, A. (2015). Identidades transgénero y transfobia en el contexto mexicano: Una aproximación narrativa. Quaderns de Psicologia, 17(3), 71-82.; Moulin de Souza & de Pádua Carrieri, 2015; Nadal, Skolnik, & Wong, 2012Nadal, K. L., Skolnik, A., & Wong, Y. (2012). Interpersonal and systemic microaggressions toward transgender people: Implications for counseling. Journal of LGBT Issues in Counseling, 6(1), 55-82.; Pacheco & Pacheco, 2016Pacheco, R. A. S. & Pacheco, I. S. (2016). Direito, violências e sexualidades: a transexualidade em um contexto de direitos. Revista Estudios Socio-Jurídicos, 18(2), 201-226.; Priola et al., 2014Priola, V., Lasio, D., De, S., & Serri, F. (2014). The Sound of Silence. Lesbian, Gay, Bisexual and Transgender Discrimination in “Inclusive Organizations.” British Journal of Management, 25(3), 488-502.; Resende Alves & Costa Moreira, 2015Resende Alves, C. E., & Costa Moreira, M. I. (2015). Do uso do nome social ao uso do banheiro: (trans)subjetividades em escolas brasileiras. Quaderns de Psicologia , 17(3), 59-69.; Spade, 2015Spade, D. (2015). Normal Life: Administrative Violence, Critical Trans Politics and the Limits of Law. USA: Duke University Press. Recuperado de https://books.google.com.br/books/about/Normal_Life.html?id=dIiLRQAACAAJ&redir_esc=y https://books.google.com.br/books/about/... ; Suess, 2014Suess, A. (2014). Cuestionamiento de dinámicas de patologización y exclusión discursiva desde perspectivas trans e intersex. Revista de Estudios Sociales, 49, 128-143.

Associação Brasileira de Psicologia Social Programa de Pós-graduação em Psicologia, Universidade Federal de Pernambuco, Centro de Filosofia e Ciências Humanas (CFCH), Av. da Arquitetura S/N - 7º Andar - Cidade Universitária, Recife - PE - CEP: 50740-550 - Belo Horizonte - MG - Brazil
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