Ephemeral Mobility: critical appraisal of the facets of indian migration and the <i>maistry</i> mediation in Burma (c. 1880-1940)

Jaiswal, Ritesh Kumar

doi:10.1590/2236-463320181903

Ritesh Kumar Jaiswal

University of Delhi, Delhi- Índia

* I am immensely thankful to the professors and colleagues at the: Dept. of History, University of Delhi; CeMIS, Gottingen University, where I was a global History fellow from Jan-June 2017; and WIGH, Harvard University where I remain as a Fulbright-Nehru fellow. I would also like to thank: Institute for New Economic Thinking (Inet) and the Joint Centre for History and Economics at Harvard and Cambridge University for the “History Project” Research grant and the Charles Wallace India Trust for the Research Fellowship which helped me pursue my archival work. Draft of this article was presented at USP, São Paulo, Brazil, March 2016, and Binghamton University, New York, November 2017. I’m thankful to the commentators for their feedback.

http://orcid.org/0000-0003-3740-6066

*
I am immensely thankful to the professors and colleagues at the: Dept. of History, University of Delhi; CeMIS, Gottingen University, where I was a global History fellow from Jan-June 2017; and WIGH, Harvard University where I remain as a Fulbright-Nehru fellow. I would also like to thank: Institute for New Economic Thinking (Inet) and the Joint Centre for History and Economics at Harvard and Cambridge University for the “History Project” Research grant and the Charles Wallace India Trust for the Research Fellowship which helped me pursue my archival work. Draft of this article was presented at USP, São Paulo, Brazil, March 2016, and Binghamton University, New York, November 2017. I’m thankful to the commentators for their feedback.

Tables (4)

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Table 1
Percentage of Indian cultivating tenants and agricultural labourers in the total population of Burma (1921 Census)²⁸ 28 Certain classes which were in a minority among the agricultural labouring and cultivating tenants’ population are excluded resulting in a mismatch of the total population vis-à-vis the total number of home and immigrant races. ANDREW, E. L. J. Op. Cit., p. 25-26.

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Table 2
Percentage of Indian population in the total population of Burma (excluding Arakan)³³ 33 CHAKRAVARTI, N. R. Op. Cit., 1971. p. 15-18.

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Indian Emigrants Ports and Areas from where emigration occurred Spheres of Production in Burma Telugus Coromandel ports namely Coconada, Vishakhapatnam, Bimlipatam, Calingapatam, Barua and Gopalpur. They mainly belonged to Ganjam, Vishakhapatnam and Godavari regions of Andhra. As unskilled labour employed in mills, factories and shipping companies. As porters, rickshaw pullers and hand-cart men. In crop-cutting operations of the agriculturalists. Telugus from Nellore district provided bulk of the sweepers found in Rangoon, and its suburbs. Oriyas Ganjam district of Madras Presidency (about 66per cent of Oriyas) and coastal districts of Orissa through mainly Coromandal ports. Provided the bulk of the labour required by the Railway and Public Works Department for construction and earthwork. They were also employed in Mills, Dockyards and Foundries both as skilled and as unskilled workers. Tamils Southern districts of the Madras Presidency like Ramnad and Tanjore etc. The lower middle as well as the lower classes were involved in the rice mills and as agricultural workers. The Middle class of Tamils were employed in Government clerical works as well as railway and mercantile offices. Chettyars came largely from Chettinad in Madras Hindustanis United Provinces (Sultanpur and Fyzabad districts). Emigrating via. Calcutta port Comprised of Hindu and Mohammadan Chapraisis, Peons or Darwans. Many were exceptionally successful as petty vendors also. Bengalees 1) Calcutta port - mostly educated men 2) Inland route or through Chittagong port - Mostly Muslim peasants and agricultural labourers. Fewer Bengalees. Educated got employed in a subordinate capacity in railway or local fund service, or in mercantile offices mostly in the clerical line and some even as shop-keepers and traders Chittagonians were largely employed as ship and launch crew labourers as well as sampan-wallah and small craft traffic. They were also employed as Paddy harvesters, and in mills and dockyards as drivers, tindals, oilmen or khalasis. Others Punjabis, Marwaris, Gujratis Multanis, Nepali and Bhutia Punjabis found employment chiefly as artificers, turners, overseers, etc., in railways, motor workshops, dockyards and foundries. Marwaris, Gujratis and Multanis Merchant-Bankers were confined to urban areas - Mandalay, Prome, Rangoon and Moulmein; Nepali and Bhutia were Principally traders

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Economic functions All races Indigenous races Indians Born in Indians Born out Others A. Cultivating land-owners 100 97.07 0.19 1.06 1.68 B. Cultivating tenants 100 95.08 0.61 3.44 0.87 C. Agricultural landlords 100 92.84 1.06 5.05 1.05 D. Herdsmen 100 46.68 3.76 44.05 5.51 E. Fishers and hunters 100 91.91 0.10 4.72 3.27 F. Clerical workers 100 47.50 4.27 37.93 10.30 G. Managers and officials Of organised industrial undertakings 100 57.81 3.53 17.90 20.76 H. Craftsmen 100 66.83 1.83 23.16 8.18 I. Unskilled and semiskilled Labourers excluding sweepers & scavengers 100 47.97 1.80 45.39 4.84 K. Technical experts & Professional classes excluding Medical and religion 100 65.88 1.90 15.18 17.04 L. Traders & shop assistants 100 50.39 2.23 31.04 16.34 M. Rentiers 100 89.86 0.83 5.22 4.09 N. Army, Navy, Air Force and Police. 100 50.12 1.83 41.07 6.98 O. General Public service including Local bodies 100 91.65 0.37 0.99 6.99 P. Religion 100 64.16 0.57 20.33 14.94 Q. Medicine 100 85.45 1.12 9.28 4.15 R. Sweepers 100 3.87 5.38 90.38 0.37 S. Miscellaneous 100 89.86 0.98 7.32 1.84 T. Insufficiently described- Manufacturers, business-men Contractors 100 18.24 4.42 61.20 16.14 U. Others 100 74.46 0.54 21.20 3.80 Source: Confidential Note by Dr. H. Bernardelli on Indian Emigration in Burma, Jan 1940 in Burma- Control of Immigration of Unskilled Labourer, (Part-III, pp. 144-298), Fno. 144-1/38-L&O, 1938, NAI.

Race	Cultivating tenants			Agricultural labourers
Race	Male	Female	Total		Male	Female	Total
Home races	494,032	329,281	823313	97	583,068	402,002	985,070	>96
Immigrant Indians	16,781	1,632	18,413	2	36,255	4,048	40,303	> 4
Total, all races	512,362	331,178	843,540	100	622,185	405,405	1,027,590	100

Census	Total population, excluding Arakan region	Indian population	Percentage of Indians to the total
1881	3,149,253	129,566	4.1
1891	7,426,115	282,908	3.8
1901	9,728,522	394,379	4
1911	11,275,321	545,298	4.8
1921	12,302,946	680,087	5.5
1931	13,658,611	800,024	5.8
1941	15,637,060	6,74,000	4.3

Indian Emigrants	Ports and Areas from where emigration occurred	Spheres of Production in Burma
Telugus	Coromandel ports namely Coconada, Vishakhapatnam, Bimlipatam, Calingapatam, Barua and Gopalpur. They mainly belonged to Ganjam, Vishakhapatnam and Godavari regions of Andhra.	As unskilled labour employed in mills, factories and shipping companies. As porters, rickshaw pullers and hand-cart men. In crop-cutting operations of the agriculturalists. Telugus from Nellore district provided bulk of the sweepers found in Rangoon, and its suburbs.
Oriyas	Ganjam district of Madras Presidency (about 66per cent of Oriyas) and coastal districts of Orissa through mainly Coromandal ports.	Provided the bulk of the labour required by the Railway and Public Works Department for construction and earthwork. They were also employed in Mills, Dockyards and Foundries both as skilled and as unskilled workers.
Tamils	Southern districts of the Madras Presidency like Ramnad and Tanjore etc.	The lower middle as well as the lower classes were involved in the rice mills and as agricultural workers. The Middle class of Tamils were employed in Government clerical works as well as railway and mercantile offices. Chettyars came largely from Chettinad in Madras
Hindustanis	United Provinces (Sultanpur and Fyzabad districts). Emigrating via. Calcutta port	Comprised of Hindu and Mohammadan Chapraisis, Peons or Darwans. Many were exceptionally successful as petty vendors also.
Bengalees	1) Calcutta port - mostly educated men 2) Inland route or through Chittagong port - Mostly Muslim peasants and agricultural labourers. Fewer Bengalees.	Educated got employed in a subordinate capacity in railway or local fund service, or in mercantile offices mostly in the clerical line and some even as shop-keepers and traders Chittagonians were largely employed as ship and launch crew labourers as well as sampan-wallah and small craft traffic. They were also employed as Paddy harvesters, and in mills and dockyards as drivers, tindals, oilmen or khalasis.
Others	Punjabis, Marwaris, Gujratis Multanis, Nepali and Bhutia	Punjabis found employment chiefly as artificers, turners, overseers, etc., in railways, motor workshops, dockyards and foundries. Marwaris, Gujratis and Multanis Merchant-Bankers were confined to urban areas - Mandalay, Prome, Rangoon and Moulmein; Nepali and Bhutia were Principally traders

Economic functions	All races	Indigenous races	Indians Born in	Indians Born out	Others
A. Cultivating land-owners	100	97.07	0.19	1.06	1.68
B. Cultivating tenants	100	95.08	0.61	3.44	0.87
C. Agricultural landlords	100	92.84	1.06	5.05	1.05
D. Herdsmen	100	46.68	3.76	44.05	5.51
E. Fishers and hunters	100	91.91	0.10	4.72	3.27
F. Clerical workers	100	47.50	4.27	37.93	10.30
G. Managers and officials Of organised industrial undertakings	100	57.81	3.53	17.90	20.76
H. Craftsmen	100	66.83	1.83	23.16	8.18
I. Unskilled and semiskilled Labourers excluding sweepers & scavengers	100	47.97	1.80	45.39	4.84
K. Technical experts & Professional classes excluding Medical and religion	100	65.88	1.90	15.18	17.04
L. Traders & shop assistants	100	50.39	2.23	31.04	16.34
M. Rentiers	100	89.86	0.83	5.22	4.09
N. Army, Navy, Air Force and Police.	100	50.12	1.83	41.07	6.98
O. General Public service including Local bodies	100	91.65	0.37	0.99	6.99
P. Religion	100	64.16	0.57	20.33	14.94
Q. Medicine	100	85.45	1.12	9.28	4.15
R. Sweepers	100	3.87	5.38	90.38	0.37
S. Miscellaneous	100	89.86	0.98	7.32	1.84
T. Insufficiently described- Manufacturers, business-men Contractors	100	18.24	4.42	61.20	16.14
U. Others	100	74.46	0.54	21.20	3.80

[1] *
I am immensely thankful to the professors and colleagues at the: Dept. of History, University of Delhi; CeMIS, Gottingen University, where I was a global History fellow from Jan-June 2017; and WIGH, Harvard University where I remain as a Fulbright-Nehru fellow. I would also like to thank: Institute for New Economic Thinking (Inet) and the Joint Centre for History and Economics at Harvard and Cambridge University for the “History Project” Research grant and the Charles Wallace India Trust for the Research Fellowship which helped me pursue my archival work. Draft of this article was presented at USP, São Paulo, Brazil, March 2016, and Binghamton University, New York, November 2017. I’m thankful to the commentators for their feedback.

Brasil

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Ephemeral Mobility: critical appraisal of the facets of indian migration and the maistry mediation in Burma (c. 1880-1940)

Mobilidade efêmera: uma avaliação crítica das facetas da migração indiana e as mediações maistry em Burma (c.1880-1940)

Abstract