Structural analysis of clastic dikes using Structure from Motion - Multi-View Stereo: a case-study in the Paraná Basin, southeastern Brazil

Viana, Camila Duelis; Grohmann, Carlos Henrique; Busarello, Mariana dos Santos Toledo; Garcia, Guilherme Pereira Bento

doi:10.1590/2317-4889201800201898

Camila Duelis Viana ^**Corresponding author.

Institute of Geosciences, Universidade de São Paulo - São Paulo (SP), Brazil. E-mails: camila.duelis@gmail.com, mariana.busarello@gmail.com, guilherme.pereira.garcia@usp.br

http://orcid.org/0000-0001-7093-0244

Carlos Henrique Grohmann

Institute of Energy and Environment, Universidade de São Paulo - São Paulo (SP), Brazil. E-mail: guano@usp.br

http://orcid.org/0000-0001-5073-5572

Mariana dos Santos Toledo Busarello

Institute of Geosciences, Universidade de São Paulo - São Paulo (SP), Brazil. E-mails: camila.duelis@gmail.com, mariana.busarello@gmail.com, guilherme.pereira.garcia@usp.br

http://orcid.org/0000-0002-4399-0804

Guilherme Pereira Bento Garcia

Institute of Geosciences, Universidade de São Paulo - São Paulo (SP), Brazil. E-mails: camila.duelis@gmail.com, mariana.busarello@gmail.com, guilherme.pereira.garcia@usp.br

http://orcid.org/0000-0003-1209-7842

*Corresponding author.

Figures (6)
Tables (1)

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Figure 1.
Study area location in Brazil (inset). Positioning of the total station (TS), fixed points (FX01 and FX02) and targets distributed on the outcrop surface (blue points).

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Figure 2.
Perspective view of generated Digital Outcrop Model (DOM). See Supplemental Material for camera positions and ground control points (GCPs) (^{Suppl. Fig. S5} Supplementary data associated with this article can be found in the online version: Supplementary Table: S1 and Supplementary figures S1-S8. ).

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Figure 3.
Rose diagrams: (A) measurements from Turra (2009Turra B.B. 2009. Diques clásticos da Formação Corumbataí, Bacia do Paraná, no contexto da tectônica permotriássica do Gondwana Ocidental. MS Dissertation. Instituto de Geociências, Universidade de São Paulo, São Paulo. https://doi.org/10.11606/D.44.2009.tde-06072009-111626
https://doi.org/10.11606/D.44.2009.tde-0... ); (B) all field measurements; (C) Digital Outcrop Model (DOM) measurements (punctual); (D) DOM measurements (surface). All diagrams have 10º petals.

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Figure 4.
Simplified flowchart showing the main steps involved on a Digital Outcrop Model (DOM) generation using Structure from Motion - Multi-View Stereo workflow.

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Figure 5.
Digital Outcrop Models (DOMs) sections showing the difference between medium- and high-quality processing options of Agisoft PhotoScan. Sections were generated using CloudCompare (CloudCompare 2018CloudCompare. 2018. Cloudcompare 2.9.1. Available at: <Available at: https://www.cloudcompare.org >. Accessed on: August, 2018.
https://www.cloudcompare.org... ). (A) Entire DOM showing location of inset (B) highlighted in yellow. (B) Inset of DOM showing location of sections (profiles) A-A’ and B-B’. (C) Section A-A’, high quality DOM. (D) Section B-B’, high quality DOM. (E) Section A-A’, medium quality DOM. (F) Section B-B’, medium quality DOM.

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Figure 6.
Stereonets: (A) poles of planes measured in the field (grey) and digital measurement in “punctual” mode (blue); (B) poles of planes measured in the field (grey) and digital measurement in “surface” mode (red). Small circles represent a ± 5º error tolerance for each measurement.

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Table 1.
Examples of Structure from Motion - Multi-View Stereo (SfM-MVS) applications in the geosciences.

Subject	Application	References
Structural geology and geotechnics	Structural mapping	Gates & Haneberg (2012Gates W.C.B., Haneberg W.C. 2012. Comparison of Standard Structural Mapping Results to 3-D Photogrammetric Model Results: Boundary Transformer Banks Rockfall Mitigation Project, Metaline Falls, Washington. In: US Rock Mechanics / Geomechanics Symposium, 46. Annals… Chicago: American Rock Mechanics Association.)
	Extraction of the orientations of the discontinuities	Deb et al. (2008Deb D., Hariharan S., Rao U., Ryu C.H. 2008. Automatic detection and analysis of discontinuity geometry of rock mass from digital images. Computers and Geosciences, 34(2):115-126. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cageo.2007.03.007 https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cageo.2007.03.... ), Sturzenegger & Stead (2009Sturzenegger M., Stead D. 2009. Close-range terrestrial digital photogrammetry and terrestrial laser scanning for discontinuity characterization on rock cuts. Engineering Geology, 106(3-4):163-182. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.enggeo.2009.03.004 https://doi.org/10.1016/j.enggeo.2009.03... ), Assali et al. (2014Assali P., Grussenmeyer P., Villemin T., Pollet N., Viguier F. 2014. Surveying and modeling of rock discontinuities by terrestrial laser scanning and photogrammetry: Semi-automatic approaches for linear outcrop inspection. Journal of Structural Geology 66:102-114. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jsg.2014.05.014 https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jsg.2014.05.01... ), Vasuki et al. (2014Vasuki Y., Holden E.J., Kovesi P., Micklethwaite S. 2014. Semi-automatic mapping of geological Structures using UAV-based photogrammetric data: An image analysis approach. Computers and Geosciences, 69:22-32. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.cageo.2014.04.012 http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.cageo.2014.0... ), Buyer & Schubert (2016Buyer A., Schubert W. 2016. Extraction of discontinuity orientations in point clouds. In: Ulusay R., Gercek H., Hindistan M.A., Aydan O., Tuncay E. (Eds.), Rock Mechanics and Rock Engineering: from the Past to the Future. Ürgüp: CRC Press, p. 1133-1138.), Viana et al. (2016Viana C.D., Endlein A., da Cruz Campanha G.A., Grohmann C.H. 2016. Algorithms for extraction of structural attitudes from 3D outcrop models. Computers and Geosciences, 90(Part A):112-122. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cageo.2016.02.017 https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cageo.2016.02.... ), Riquelme et al. (2017Riquelme A., Cano M., Tomás R., Abellán A. 2017. Identification of Rock Slope Discontinuity Sets from Laser Scanner and Photogrammetric Point Clouds: A Comparative Analysis. Procedia Engineering, 191:838-845. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.proeng.2017.05.251 https://doi.org/10.1016/j.proeng.2017.05... )
	Surveys of trenches, rock exposures and hand specimens for paleo-seismology and structural geology	Bemis et al. (2014Bemis S.P., Micklethwaite S., Turner D., James M.R., Akciz S., Thiele S.T., Bangash H.A. 2014. Ground-based and UAV-Based photogrammetry: A multi-scale, high-resolution mapping tool for structural geology and paleoseismology. Journal of Structural Geology, 69(Part A):163-178. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jsg.2014.10.007 https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jsg.2014.10.00... )
	Fault analysis	Tavani et al. (2016Tavani S., Corradetti A., Billi A. 2016. High precision analysis of an embryonic extensional fault-related fold using 3D orthorectified virtual outcrops: The viewpoint importance in structural geology. Journal of Structural Geology, 86:200-210. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jsg.2016.03.009 https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jsg.2016.03.00... )
	Geo-mechanical classification	Riquelme et al. (2016Riquelme A.J., Tomás R., Abellán A. 2016. Characterization of rock slopes through slope mass rating using 3D point clouds. International Journal of Rock Mechanics and Mining Sciences, 84:165-176. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijrmms.2015.12.008 https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijrmms.2015.12... )
	Kinematic analysis of rock slopes	Jorda-Bordehore et al. (2017Jordá-Bordehore L., Riquelme A., Cano M., Tomás R. 2017. Comparing manual and remote sensing field discontinuity collection used in kinematic stability assessment of failed rock slopes. International Journal of Rock Mechanics and Mining Sciences, 97:24-32. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijrmms.2017.06.004 https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijrmms.2017.06... )
	Accuracy of SfM and LiDAR for structural measurements	Cawood et al. (2017Cawood A.J., Bond C.E., Howell J.A., Butler R.W., Totake Y. 2017. LiDAR, UAV or compass-clinometer? Accuracy, coverage and the effects on structural models. Journal of Structural Geology, 98:67-82. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jsg.2017.04.004 https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jsg.2017.04.00... )
	Orientation measurements of complex folds	Zachariah & Terry (2018Zachariah D.F., Terry L.P. 2018. An orientation based correction method for SfM-MVS point clouds. Implications for field geology. Journal of Structural Geology, 113:76-89. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jsg.2018.05.014 https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jsg.2018.05.01... )
Topography and bathymetry	Extracting shallow stream bathymetry	Dietrich (2017Dietrich J.T. 2017. Bathymetric Structure-from-Motion: extracting shallow stream bathymetry from multi-view stereo photogrammetry. Earth Surface Processes and Landforms, 42(2):355-364. https://doi.org/10.1002/esp.4060 https://doi.org/10.1002/esp.4060... )
	Topography with UAVs	James & Robson (2014James M.R., Robson S. 2014. Mitigating systematic error in topographic models derived from UAV and ground-based image networks. Earth Surface Processes and Landforms, 39(10):1413-1420. https://doi.org/10.1002/esp.3609 https://doi.org/10.1002/esp.3609... ), James et al. (2017James M.R., Robson S., d’Oleire-Oltmanns S., Niethammer U. 2017. Optimising UAV topographic surveys processed with structure-from-motion: Ground control quality, quantity and bundle adjustment. Geomorphology, 280:51-66. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.geomorph.2016.11.021 https://doi.org/10.1016/j.geomorph.2016.... )
	Generation of high-resolution DEM	James & Robson (2012James M.R., Robson S. 2012. Straightforward reconstruction of 3D surfaces and topography with a camera: Accuracy and geoscience application. Journal of Geophysical Research: Earth Surface, 117(F3):1-17. https://doi.org/10.1029/2011JF002289 https://doi.org/10.1029/2011JF002289... ), Carbonneau & Dietrich (2017Carbonneau P.E., Dietrich J.T. 2017. Cost-effective non-metric photogrammetry from consumer-grade sUAS: implications for direct georeferencing of structure from motion photogrammetry. Earth Surface Processes and Landforms, 42(3):473-486. https://doi.org/10.1002/esp.4012 https://doi.org/10.1002/esp.4012... ), Mali & Kuiry (2018Mali V.K., Kuiry S.N. 2018. Assessing the accuracy of high-resolution topographic data generated using freely available packages based on SfM-MVS approach. Measurement: Journal of the International Measurement Confederation, 124:338-350. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.measurement.2018.04.043 https://doi.org/10.1016/j.measurement.20... )
General geology	Building a virtual outcrop (3D geology)	Tavani et al. (2014Tavani S., Granado P., Corradetti A., Girundo M., Iannace A., Arbués P., Munõz J., Mazzoli S. 2014. Building a virtual outcrop, extracting geological information from it, and sharing the results in Google Earth via OpenPlot and Photoscan: An example from the Khaviz Anticline (Iran). Computers and Geosciences, 63:44-53. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cageo.2013.10.013 https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cageo.2013.10.... ), Zahm et al. (2016Zahm C., Lambert J., Kerans C. 2016. Use of Unmanned Aerial Vehicles (UAVs) to create Digital Outcrop Models: an example from the Cretaceous Cow Creek Formation, Central Texas. Gulf Coast Association of Geological Societies Journal, 5:180-188. Available at: <Available at: http://archives.datapages.com/data/gcags-journal/data/005/005001/pdfs/180.htm >. Accessed on: August, 2018. http://archives.datapages.com/data/gcags... )
General geology	UAVs for mapping dolomite geobodies	Madjid et al. (2018Madjid M., Vandeginste V., Hampson G., Jordan C., Booth A. 2018. Drones in carbonate geology: Opportunities and challenges, and application in diagenetic dolomite geobody mapping. Marine and Petroleum Geology, 91:723-734. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.marpetgeo.2018.02.002 https://doi.org/10.1016/j.marpetgeo.2018... )
Reservoir analysis	Geomechanical and fluid flow models	Bisdom et al. (2017Bisdom K., Nick H.M., Bertotti G. 2017. An integrated workflow for stress and flow modelling using outcrop-derived discrete fracture networks. Computers and Geosciences, 103:21-35. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cageo.2017.02.019 https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cageo.2017.02.... )
Reservoir analysis	Characterization of reservoir analogs	Biber et al. (2018Biber K., Khan S.D., Seers T.D., Sarmiento S., Lakshmikantha M. 2018. Quantitative characterization of a naturally fractured reservoir analog using a hybrid lidar-gigapixel imaging approach. Geosphere, 14(2):710-730. https://doi.org/10.1130/GES01449.1 https://doi.org/10.1130/GES01449.1... )

[1] *Corresponding author.

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Structural analysis of clastic dikes using Structure from Motion - Multi-View Stereo: a case-study in the Paraná Basin, southeastern Brazil

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