Characterization of selected strains of mucorales using fatty acid profiles

Caracterização de linhagens de mucorales através do perfil de ácidos graxos

Abstracts

The fatty acid profiles of several fungi of the order Mucorales (Zygomycetes), including Backusella lamprospora (Lendner) Benny and R.K. Benj., Benjaminiella youngii P.M. Kirk, Circinella simplex van Tieghem, Cunninghamella blakesleeana Lendner, Mortierella ramanniana (Möller) Linnem., Mucor circinelloides f. janssenii (Lendner) Schipper, Mycotypha microspora Fenner, Rhizomucor miehei (Cooney and R. Emerson) Schipper and Rhizomucor pusillus (Lindt) Schipper, and of Volutella sp. Fr., from the class Ascomycetes, were qualitatively analysed by gas-liquid chromatography in order to determine the taxonomic value of these chemotaxonomic markers. The fatty acids present in all strains were palmitic (16:0), oleic (18:1), linoleic (18:2) and <FONT FACE="Symbol">g</FONT>-linolenic (18:3) acid, with the exception that the latter was not found in Volutella sp. Chemotaxonomic markers for some species and genera were obtained, including a non-identified fatty acid, FAME8 (minimum and maximum retention times of 27.92 and 28.28 minutes) for Rhizomucor miehei CCT 2236 and Rhizomucor pusillus CCT 4133, and FAME3 (minimum and maximum of 16.53 and 16.61 minutes) for Benjaminiella youngii CCT 4121. The chemotaxonomic marker of the order Mucorales was the fatty acid 18:3<FONT FACE="Symbol">w</FONT>6, confirming previous data from literature. The results of the present study suggest that qualitative fatty acid analysis can be an important chemotaxonomic tool for the classification of fungi assigned to the order Mucorales (Zygomycetes).

taxonomy; chemotaxonomic marker; fatty acids; Mucorales

O perfil de ácidos graxos de Backusella lamprospora (Lendner) Benny e R.K. Benj., Benjaminiella youngii P.M. Kirk, Circinella simplex van Tieghem, Cunninghamella blakesleeana Lendner, Mortierella ramanniana (Möller) Linnem., Mucor circinelloides f. janssenii (Lendner) Schipper, Mycotypha microspora Fenner, Rhizomucor miehei (Cooney e R. Emerson) Schipper e Rhizomucor pusillus (Lindt) Schipper, da ordem Mucorales (Zygomycetes), e Volutella sp. Fr., da classe Ascomycetes, foram analisados qualitativamente por cromatografia gás-líquida, tendo como objetivo determinar o valor taxonômico destes marcadores quimiotaxonômicos. Os ácidos palmítico (16:0), oléico (18:1), linoléico (18:2) e <FONT FACE="Symbol">g</FONT>-linolênico (18:3) foram encontrados em todas as linhagens, com exceção do último, o qual não foi encontrado na linhagem de Volutella analisada. Foram obtidos marcadores quimiotaxonômicos para algumas espécies e gêneros estudados, incluindo um ácido graxo não-identificado, FAME8 (tempos de retenção mínimo e máximo de 27,92 e 28,28 minutos) para Rhizomucor miehei CCT 2236 e Rhizomucor pusillus CCT 4133 e FAME3 (tempos de retenção mínimo e máximo de 16,53 e 16,61 minutos) para Benjaminiella youngii CCT 4121. Para a ordem Mucorales, o marcador quimiotaxonômico obtido foi o ácido graxo 18:3<FONT FACE="Symbol">w</FONT>6, confirmando dados da literatura. Os resultados do presente estudo sugerem que a análise qualitativa do perfil de ácidos graxos pode ser uma ferramenta importante na classificação de fungos da ordem Mucorales (Zygomycetes).

taxonomia; marcador quimiotaxonômico; ácidos graxos; Mucorales

CHARACTERIZATION OF SELECTED STRAINS OF MUCORALES USING FATTY ACID PROFILES

^*21

¹Departamento de Ciência de Alimentos, Faculdade de Engenharia de Alimentos, UNICAMP, Campinas, SP, Brasil; ²Fundação Tropical de Pesquisas e Tecnologia "André Tosello", Campinas, SP, Brazil Submitted: September 16, 1997; Returned to authors for corrections: April 09, 1998;

Approved: September 19, 1998

ABSTRACT

Backusella lamprosporaBenjaminiella youngiiCircinella simplexCunninghamella blakesleeanaMortierella ramanniana Mucor circinelloides jansseniiMycotypha microsporaRhizomucor mieheiRhizomucor pusillusVolutella Volutella Rhizomucor miehei Rhizomucor pusillusBenjaminiella youngii

Key words: taxonomy, chemotaxonomic marker, fatty acids, Mucorales

RhizopusRhizomucor mieheiRhizomucor miehei R. pusillus, Rhizopus Mortierella Mucor

The classification and identification of fungi are traditionally based on morphological criteria. However, the study of closely related, non-sporulating fungi and of those with unknown life cycle is limited by scarce differential morphological features (2). Biochemical and molecular methods, such as fatty acid profiles, protein and nucleic acid sequencing have been of great value to overcome these limitations (3,23).

Fatty acids are useful taxonomical markers which have been widely used in the classification of several groups of microorganisms (27). However, fatty acid composition has been applied to the characterization of relatively few fungal taxa, including Ganoderma australe (15), Mortierella spp. (1), phytopathogenic (10,11,12) and endomycorrhizal fungi (6,19).

Reproducible fatty acids profiles can be obtained under rigorous control of growth temperature, incubation time and culture media formulation (4, 14, 18). The early studies applying fatty acids analysis as a taxonomic tool for filamentous fungi were accomplished in the 60´s by Shaw (21, 22, 23, 24). This author investigated the presence of g-linolenic fatty acid in fungi from different classes, delimiting two taxonomic groups on that basis (21); one group included representatives from the class Oomycetes, Zygomycetes and Chytridiomycetes, and the other representatives from the class Ascomycetes and Basidiomycetes. Similar results were observed in later studies (30), where Zygomycetes were characterized by the presence of w6 series of C18 polyunsaturated fatty acids, in particular g-linolenic acid.

The classical characterization of Mucorales includes morphological characteristics and cultural features (1,2,6). The objective of this study was to assess the potential of fatty acid profiles in the differentiation of selected species belonging to the order Mucorales (Zygomycetes), focusing mainly on economically important taxa (Mortierella spp., Mucor spp. and Rhizomucor spp.).

FungiBackusella lamprospora Benjaminiella youngii Circinella simplexCarinianaCunninghamella blakesleeana Mortierella ramanniana Araucaria angustifolia Mucor circinelloides jansseniiMycotypha microspora Rhizomucor miehei Rhizomucor pusillus Volutella

Culture methods. Fungal strains were cultivated on Potato Carrot Agar medium (25) for 7 to 10 days at 28°C. Biomass for fatty acid analysis was grown in 250 ml Erlenmeyer flasks containing 100 ml of Saboraud Dextrose Broth (20), seeded with inocula from solid cultures, and incubated at 28°C on a rotatory shaker at 150 rpm for 3 to 4 days. Biomass was harvested by filtration using 8 µm cellulose acetate membranes (Millipore) and lyophilized.

Extraction and analysis of fungal fatty acids. Fatty acids were extracted and derivitised as recommended in the protocols of the MIDI chromatographic system (20), with minor modifications. The extraction procedure included a saponification step using 1.0 ml of NaOH 3,75 M - methanol 50% (1:1, v/v) and 100 mg of powdered dry biomass. The tubes were mixed by vortexing for 5 to 10 s, and heated in a boiling water bath for exactly 5 min. Tubes were further vortexed for 5 to 10 s, returned to the boiling water bath for an additional 25 min, then cooled to room temperature. The saponificate was acidified and methylated by addition of 2.0 ml of HCl 6.0 N (titrated) - 100% methanol (13:11, v/v), followed by vortexing for 5 to 10 s, heating for 10 ±1 min at 80°C, and rapid cooling. The fatty acid methyl esters (FAMEs) were extracted by adding 1.25 ml of hexane - methyl tert-butyl ether (1:1, v/v) and gentle mixing by continuous inversion for 10 min. The top phase containing the organic solvent with the extracted FAMEs was removed with a Pasteur pipette and transferred to a new set of tubes. A final washing step was performed by addition of 3.0 ml of NaOH 0.3 M and gentle mixing by continuous inversion for 5 min. Approximately 2/3 of the organic phase were transferred to chromatographic vials, sealed and stored at -20°C until analysis.

Prior to FAMEs analyses, the samples were evaporated under nitrogen and resuspended in 50 µl of hexane. The analyses were carried out in triplicate in a Shimadzu GC-14A gas chromatograph equipped with a flame ionization detector and a split/splitless injector using a 30 m x 0.32 mm, 0.25 µm internal diameter, polar Omegawax

^TM

The chromatograms were recorded in a Shimadzu Model C-R4A Chromatopac integrator. The identification of individual FAMEs was based on the retention times relative to a mixture of FAMEs standards (Matreya, Inc. n° 4232), including lauric acid (12:0), myristic acid (14:0), pentadecanoic acid (15:0), palmitic acid (16:0), palmitoleic acid (16:1), margaric acid (17:0), stearic acid (18:0), oleic acid (18:1), linoleic acid (18:2), g-linolenic acid (18:3 w6), nonadecanoic acid (19:0), arachidic acid (20:0), gadoleic acid (20:1), eicosadienoic acid (20:2), dihomo-g-linolenic acid (20:3), arachidonic acid (20:4), behenic acid (22:0). The identified and non-identified fatty acids which reproductively amounted up to at least 1% of the total peak area in the samples were used for taxonomic characterization of the strains in a tabular format.

Volutella Cunninghamella blakesleeana

Out of twenty fatty acids present in the fungi studied, ten could not be identified by comparison with the fatty acid standard mixture used; these were named FAME1 to FAME10 according to their retention times (Table 1). The qualitative fatty acid profiles, including identified and non-identified fatty acids, are presented in Table 2. Palmitic acid (16:0), oleic acid (18:1), linoleic acid (18:2) and g-linolenic acid (18:3) were present in all strains analysed, with the exception that the latter was not present in Volutella sp. Pentadecanoic acid (15:0), margaric acid (17:0), nonadecanoic acid (19:0), arachidic acid (20:0), gadoleic acid (20:1), dihomo-g-linolenic acid (20:3) and arachidonic acid (20:4) were absent in all strains analysed. The remaining fatty acids were discontinuosly distribuited among the strains analysed (Table 2).

The fatty acid profiles obtained were, in most of the cases, comparable to data derived from the literature. The fatty acid profile of Mucor circinelloides f. janssenii CCT 4396 was identical to that of Mucor circinelloides CBS 478.70, identified by Westhuizen et al. (30), except for the presence of 20:2 in strain CCT 4396. Strains of Rhizomucor miehei CCT 2236 showed the same fatty acid profile as the strains analysed by Sumner and Morgan (26) and Westhuizen et al. (30). The 16:0, 16:1, 18:1, 18:2 and 18:3w6. The 16:0, 16:1, 18:0, 18:1, 18:2 and 18:3w6 fatty acids present in Rhizomucor pusillus CCT 4133 had already been verified in other Rhizomucor pusillus strains by Sumner and Morgan (26), Mumma et al. (17) and Westhuizen et al. (30).

Rhizomucor pusillus CCT 4133 and Rhizomucor miehei CCT 2236 could be differentiated on the basis of their fatty acid profiles by the absence of 18:0 in the latter. The non-identified FAME8 was restricted to these two species only, and thus could be considered as a chemotaxonomic marker for the genus Rhizomucor.

Backusella lamprospora CCT 3480 was characterized by a fatty acid profile including all the identified fatty acids present in the other fungi. The presence of 22:0 was restricted to this fungus and to the strains of Rhizomucor analysed.

Amano et al. (1) differentiated representatives of the subgenus Micromucor and Mortierella by the occurrence of polyunsaturated C20 fatty acids in the latter group. The C20 polyunsaturated fatty acids were characteristically absent in the strains of Mortierella ramanniana var. ramanniana, which belong to the subgenus Micromucor. The fatty acid profile of Mortierella ramanniana var. ramanniana was composed by 16:0, 18:0, 18:1, 18:2 and 18:3w6 (1). In a later study, Westhuizen et al. (30) identified 14:0, 16:0, 16:1, 18:0, 18:1, 18:2, 18:3w6, 20:0, 20:1, 20:2 and 20:4 in Mortierella ramanniana var. ramanniana CBS 243.58. Nevertheless, the presence of fatty acids from the C20 series in strain CBS 243.58 may have been influenced by growth temperatures used in the study. CBS 243.58 was grown at 21°C, whereas strains analysed by Amano et al. (1) were grown at 28°C. Mortierella ramanniana CCT 4428 was also grown at 28°C and presented a similar composition of identified fatty acids to the CBS 243.58 strain, except by the occurrence of small amounts of 20:2 (approx. 3.2% of relative proportional average) in the former strain. The discrepant results from the different studies indicate that synthesis of C20 fatty acids by Mortierella ramanniana is temperature dependent.

A smaller number of fatty acids were detected in Benjaminiella youngii CCT 4121. FAME3 (Table 2) was found exclusively in this strain, suggesting that this fatty acid may be a potential chemotaxonomic marker for Benjaminiella youngii.

The fatty acid profile of Mycotypha microspora CCT 4126 (A) was identical to that of Mycotypha microspora CCT 4127 (B), showing that there are no differences between strains of the same species. Similarly, the fatty acid profiles of Cunninghamella blakesleeana CCT 4123, derived from duplicate cultures, showed no significant difference, demonstrating the reproducibility of the method. The presence of the fatty acids 16:0, 18:1, 18:2 and 18:3 in the Cunninghamella blakesleeana CCT 4123 was previously observed by Shaw (22) in Cunninghamella blakesleeana IMI 6387.

One species of the genus Volutella, included in this study as a reference organism different from the studied Zygomycetes, showed a profile with the smallest number of fatty acids. This organism was the only one that did not present the fatty acid 18:3(w6), g-linolenic acid, characteristic of the Zygomycetes fungi, in accordance with earlier reports (14,16,30).

In general, the major Ascomycetes and Basidiomycetes fatty acids are 16:0, 18:1 and 18:2(w6) (9,10,14,15). Ascomycetes and their asexual representatives can be characterized by the presence of 18:3(w3), which does not occur in Zygomycetes, or by a profile composed of up to 18:2(w6) fatty acid (13,23,30). From the identified fatty acids of Volutella sp. CCT 2995 it can be observed that, as a member of Ascomycetes, this strain is characterized by the absence of 18:3(w6) and the presence of 18:2(w6), corroborating the previous investigations.

According to Amano et al. (1), the fatty acids can provide valuable information to establish an accurate taxonomic system for fungi. However, the fatty acid profiles, as any other taxonomic character, should not be considered isolatedly. In combination with taxonomic information from different sources, including morphological, molecular and biochemical data, the analysis of fatty acid profiles can be considered a valuable tool for the polyphasic taxonomy of fungi (5,13,28,29).

The results of the present study suggest that qualitative fatty acid analysis can be an important chemotaxonomic tool for the classification of fungi assigned to the order Mucorales (Zygomycetes). Fatty acid profiles allowed the differentiation of closely related species assigned to the same genus (Rhizomucor miehei CCT 2236 and Rhizomucor pusillus CCT 4133) whereas strains from the same species (Mycotypha microspora CCT 4126 and 4127), as well as duplicate cultures of the same organism (Cunninghamella blakesleeana CCT 4123), showed identical profiles.

Chemotaxonomic markers that could be potentially used for the identification at species and genus were also found. A non-identified fatty acid, FAME8, was only detected in the strains of the genus Rhizomucor, whereas non-identified fatty acid FAME3 was characteristic for Benjaminiella youngii. The fatty acid 18:3w6 was confirmed as chemotaxonomic marker for strains belonging to the order Mucorales studied in the present investigation.

RESUMO

Caracterização de linhagens de Mucorales através do perfil de ácidos graxos

O perfil de ácidos graxos de Backusella lamprospora (Lendner) Benny e R.K. Benj., Benjaminiella youngii P.M. Kirk, Circinella simplex van Tieghem, Cunninghamella blakesleeana Lendner, Mortierella ramanniana (Möller) Linnem., Mucor circinelloides f. janssenii (Lendner) Schipper, Mycotypha microspora Fenner, Rhizomucor miehei (Cooney e R. Emerson) Schipper e Rhizomucor pusillus (Lindt) Schipper, da ordem Mucorales (Zygomycetes), e Volutella sp. Fr., da classe Ascomycetes, foram analisados qualitativamente por cromatografia gás-líquida, tendo como objetivo determinar o valor taxonômico destes marcadores quimiotaxonômicos. Os ácidos palmítico (16:0), oléico (18:1), linoléico (18:2) e g-linolênico (18:3) foram encontrados em todas as linhagens, com exceção do último, o qual não foi encontrado na linhagem de Volutella analisada. Foram obtidos marcadores quimiotaxonômicos para algumas espécies e gêneros estudados, incluindo um ácido graxo não-identificado, FAME8 (tempos de retenção mínimo e máximo de 27,92 e 28,28 minutos) para Rhizomucor miehei CCT 2236 e Rhizomucor pusillus CCT 4133 e FAME3 (tempos de retenção mínimo e máximo de 16,53 e 16,61 minutos) para Benjaminiella youngii CCT 4121. Para a ordem Mucorales, o marcador quimiotaxonômico obtido foi o ácido graxo 18:3w6, confirmando dados da literatura. Os resultados do presente estudo sugerem que a análise qualitativa do perfil de ácidos graxos pode ser uma ferramenta importante na classificação de fungos da ordem Mucorales (Zygomycetes).

Palavras-chave: taxonomia, marcador quimiotaxonômico, ácidos graxos, Mucorales.

Mortierella Mycotaxon,

2. Blomquist, G.; Andersson, B.; Andersson, K.; Brondz, I. Analysis of fatty acids. A new method for characterization of molds. J. Microbiol. Meth., 16: 59-68, 1992.

3. Böttger, E.C. Approaches for identification of microorganisms. Despite longer experience with fatty acid profiles, DNA-based analysis offers several advantages. Am. Soc. Microbiol. N., 62: 247-250, 1996.

4. Brondz, I.; Olsen, I. Review. Chemotaxonomy of selected species of the Actinobacillus-Haemophilus-Pasteurella group by means of gas chromatography, gas chromatography-mass spectrometry and bioenzymatic methods. J. Chromat., 380: 1-17, 1986.

5. Farag, R.S.; Youssef, A.M.; Khalil, F.A.; Taha, R.A. The lipids of various fungi grown on an artificial medium. J. Am. Oil Chem. Soc., 58: 765-768. 1981.

6. Graham, J.H.; Hodge, N.C.; Morton, J.B. Fatty acid methyl ester profiles for characterization of Glomalean fungi and their Endomycorrhizae. Appl. Environ. Microbiol., 61: 58-64, 1995.

7. Gravesen, S.; Frisvad, J.; Samson, R.A. Microfungi. Munksgaard, Copenhagen, 1994, 168p.

8. Hawksworth, D.L.; Kirk, P.M.; Sutton, B.C.; Pegler, D.N. Ainsworth & Bisby’s Dictionary of the Fungi., 8th ed. CAB International, Wallingford, 1995, 616p.

9. Jabaji-Hare, S. Lipid and fatty acid profiles of some vesicular-arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi: contribution to taxonomy. Mycologia, 80: 622-629. 1988.

10. Johnk, J.S.; Jones, R.K. Determination of whole-cell fatty acids in isolates of Rhizoctonia solani AG-1 IA. Phytopath., 82: 68-72, 1992.

11. Johnk, J.S.; Jones, R.K. Comparison of whole-cell fatty acid compositions in intraspecific groups of Rhizoctonia solani AG-1. Phytopath., 84: 271-275, 1994.

12. Johnk, J.S.; Jones, R.K.; Shew, H.D.; Carling, D.E. Characterization of populations of Rhizoctonia solani AG-3 from potato and tobacco. Phytopath., 83:854-858, 1993.

13. Lechevalier, H; Lechevalier, M.P. Chemotaxonomic use of lipids - an overview. In: C. Ratledge; Wilkinson, S.G. (eds) Microbial Lipids, vol. 1. Academic Press, New York, 1988, p.869-902.

14. Lösel, D.M. Fungal lipids. In: C. Ratledge; Wilkinson, S.G. (eds). Microbial Lipids, vol. 1. Academic Press, New York, 1988, p.699-806.

15. Martínez, A.T.; Barrasa, J.M.; Prieto, A.; Blanco, M.N. Fatty acid composition and taxonomic status of Ganoderma australe from Southern Chile. Mycol. Res., 95: 782-784, 1991.

16. Müller, M.M.; Kantola, R.; Kitunen, V. Combining sterol and fatty acid profiles for the characterization of fungi. Mycol. Res., 98: 593-603, 1994.

17. Mumma, R.O.; Sekura, R.D.; Fergus, C.L. Thermophilic fungi: II. Fatty acid composition of polar and neutral lipids of thermophilic and mesophilic fungi. Lipids, 6: 584-588, 1971

18. Ratledge, C. Microbial oils and fats: an assessment of their commercial potential. In: Bull, M.J. (eds). Progress in Industrial Microbiology, 1982, p.119-206.

19. Sancholle, M.; Dalpé, Y. Taxonomic relevance of fatty acids of arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi and related species. Mycotaxon, 49: 187-193, 1993.

20. Sasser, M. Identification of bacteria by gas chromatography of cellular fatty acids. Technical note 101. Microbial ID Inc., Newark, Del., 1990.

21. Shaw, R. The occurrence of g-linolenic acid in fungi. Bioch. Bioph. Acta, 98: 230-237, 1965.

22. Shaw, R. The fatty acids of phycomycetes fungi, and the significance of the g-linolenic acid component. Comparat. Bioch. Physiol., 18: 325-331, 1966a.

23. Shaw, R. The polyunsaturated fatty acids of microorganisms. Adv. Lip. Res., 4: 107-174, 1966b.

24. Shaw, R. Fatty acids of fruiting bodies of Basidiomycetes. Nature, 7: 86-87, 1967.

25. Smith, D. & Onions, H.S.A. The preservation and maintenance of living fungi. Surrey, Commonwealth Mycological Institute, 1985, 51p.

26. Sumner, J.L.; Morgan, E.D. The fatty acid composition of sporangiospors and vegetative mycelium of temperature adapted fungi in the order Mucorales. J. Gen. Microbiol., 59: 215-221, 1969.

27. Suzuki, K; Goodfellow, M.; O’Donnell, A.G. Cell envelopes and classification. In: M. Goodfellow; O’Donnell, A.G. (eds). Handbook of New Bacterial Systematics. Academic Press, London, 1993, p.195-249.

28. Tyrrell, D. Biochemical systematics and fungi. Bot. Rev., 35: 305-316, 1969.

29. Tyrrell, D. The fatty acid composition of some Entomophthoraceae. III. Can. J. Microbiol., 17: 1115-1118, 1971.

30. Westhuizen, J.P.J. van der; Kock, J.LF.; Botha, A.; Botes, P.J. The distribution of the w3- and w6-series of cellular long-chain fatty acids in fungi. Syst. Appl. Microbiol., 17: 327-345, 1994.

• ¹
  Amano, N.; Shinmen, Y.; Akimoto, K.; Kawashima, H.; Amachi, T.; Shimizu, S.; Yamada, H. Chemotaxonomic significance of fatty acid composition in the genus Mortierella (Zygomycetes, Mortierellaceae). Mycotaxon, 44: 257-265, 1992.
• ²
  Blomquist, G.; Andersson, B.; Andersson, K.; Brondz, I. Analysis of fatty acids. A new method for characterization of molds. J. Microbiol. Meth., 16: 59-68, 1992.
• ³
  Böttger, E.C. Approaches for identification of microorganisms. Despite longer experience with fatty acid profiles, DNA-based analysis offers several advantages. Am. Soc. Microbiol. N., 62: 247-250, 1996.
• ⁴
  Brondz, I.; Olsen, I. Review. Chemotaxonomy of selected species of the Actinobacillus-Haemophilus-Pasteurella group by means of gas chromatography, gas chromatography-mass spectrometry and bioenzymatic methods. J. Chromat., 380: 1-17, 1986.
• ⁵
  Farag, R.S.; Youssef, A.M.; Khalil, F.A.; Taha, R.A. The lipids of various fungi grown on an artificial medium. J. Am. Oil Chem. Soc., 58: 765-768. 1981.
• ⁶
  Graham, J.H.; Hodge, N.C.; Morton, J.B. Fatty acid methyl ester profiles for characterization of Glomalean fungi and their Endomycorrhizae. Appl. Environ. Microbiol., 61: 58-64, 1995.
• ⁷
  Gravesen, S.; Frisvad, J.; Samson, R.A. Microfungi Munksgaard, Copenhagen, 1994, 168p.
• ⁸
  Hawksworth, D.L.; Kirk, P.M.; Sutton, B.C.; Pegler, D.N. Ainsworth & Bisby’s Dictionary of the Fungi, 8th ed. CAB International, Wallingford, 1995, 616p.
• ⁹
  Jabaji-Hare, S. Lipid and fatty acid profiles of some vesicular-arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi: contribution to taxonomy. Mycologia, 80: 622-629. 1988.
• ¹⁰
  Johnk, J.S.; Jones, R.K. Determination of whole-cell fatty acids in isolates of Rhizoctonia solani AG-1 IA. Phytopath., 82: 68-72, 1992.
• ¹¹
  Johnk, J.S.; Jones, R.K. Comparison of whole-cell fatty acid compositions in intraspecific groups of Rhizoctonia solani AG-1. Phytopath., 84: 271-275, 1994.
• ¹²
  Johnk, J.S.; Jones, R.K.; Shew, H.D.; Carling, D.E. Characterization of populations of Rhizoctonia solani AG-3 from potato and tobacco. Phytopath., 83:854-858, 1993.
• ¹³
  Lechevalier, H; Lechevalier, M.P. Chemotaxonomic use of lipids - an overview. In: C. Ratledge; Wilkinson, S.G. (eds) Microbial Lipids, vol. 1. Academic Press, New York, 1988, p.869-902.
• ¹⁴
  Lösel, D.M. Fungal lipids. In: C. Ratledge; Wilkinson, S.G. (eds). Microbial Lipids, vol. 1. Academic Press, New York, 1988, p.699-806.
• ¹⁵
  Martínez, A.T.; Barrasa, J.M.; Prieto, A.; Blanco, M.N. Fatty acid composition and taxonomic status of Ganoderma australe from Southern Chile. Mycol. Res., 95: 782-784, 1991.
• ¹⁶
  Müller, M.M.; Kantola, R.; Kitunen, V. Combining sterol and fatty acid profiles for the characterization of fungi. Mycol. Res., 98: 593-603, 1994.
• ¹⁷
  Mumma, R.O.; Sekura, R.D.; Fergus, C.L. Thermophilic fungi: II. Fatty acid composition of polar and neutral lipids of thermophilic and mesophilic fungi. Lipids, 6: 584-588, 1971
• ¹⁸
  Ratledge, C. Microbial oils and fats: an assessment of their commercial potential. In: Bull, M.J. (eds). Progress in Industrial Microbiology, 1982, p.119-206.
• ¹⁹
  Sancholle, M.; Dalpé, Y. Taxonomic relevance of fatty acids of arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi and related species. Mycotaxon, 49: 187-193, 1993.
• ²⁰
  Sasser, M. Identification of bacteria by gas chromatography of cellular fatty acids. Technical note 101. Microbial ID Inc., Newark, Del., 1990.
• ²¹
  Shaw, R. The occurrence of g-linolenic acid in fungi. Bioch. Bioph. Acta, 98: 230-237, 1965.
• ²²
  Shaw, R. The fatty acids of phycomycetes fungi, and the significance of the g-linolenic acid component. Comparat. Bioch. Physiol., 18: 325-331, 1966a.
• ²³
  Shaw, R. The polyunsaturated fatty acids of microorganisms. Adv. Lip. Res., 4: 107-174, 1966b.
• ²⁴
  Shaw, R. Fatty acids of fruiting bodies of Basidiomycetes. Nature, 7: 86-87, 1967.
• ²⁵
  Smith, D. & Onions, H.S.A. The preservation and maintenance of living fungi. Surrey, Commonwealth Mycological Institute, 1985, 51p.
• ²⁶
  Sumner, J.L.; Morgan, E.D. The fatty acid composition of sporangiospors and vegetative mycelium of temperature adapted fungi in the order Mucorales. J. Gen. Microbiol., 59: 215-221, 1969.
• ²⁷
  Suzuki, K; Goodfellow, M.; O’Donnell, A.G. Cell envelopes and classification. In: M. Goodfellow; O’Donnell, A.G. (eds). Handbook of New Bacterial Systematics. Academic Press, London, 1993, p.195-249.
• ²⁸
  Tyrrell, D. Biochemical systematics and fungi. Bot. Rev., 35: 305-316, 1969.
• ²⁹
  Tyrrell, D. The fatty acid composition of some Entomophthoraceae. III. Can. J. Microbiol., 17: 1115-1118, 1971.
• ³⁰
  Westhuizen, J.P.J. van der; Kock, J.LF.; Botha, A.; Botes, P.J. The distribution of the w3- and w6-series of cellular long-chain fatty acids in fungi. Syst. Appl. Microbiol., 17: 327-345, 1994.

Publication Dates

• Publication in this collection
  27 May 1999
• Date of issue
  Oct 1998

History

• Received
  16 Sept 1997
• Reviewed
  09 Apr 1998
• Accepted
  19 Sept 1998