Phytodesalination of a moderately saline soil combined with two inorganic amendments

ABSTRACT

The shortage of water and the increasing salinity are the main limiting environmental factors that directly affect the establishment and the development of crops. In this research, phytodesalination capacity of Sesuvium verrucosum was evaluated alone and in combination with agricultural gypsum (CaSO₄·2H₂O) and Polisul-C, in order to remedy a moderately saline soil at greenhouse level and under nonleaching conditions. The treatments studied were the following: T1 (soil), T2 (soil + S. verrucosum), T3 (soil +S. verrucosum + Polisul-C), T4 (soil + S. verrucosum + CaSO₄·2H₂O). Polyvinyl chloride (PVC) tubes filled with 8 kg of clay soil with an electrical conductivity of the saturation paste extract (ECe) of6.21 dS.m^-1 were used. Soil samples were analyzed to determine the ECe, and the soluble and interchangeable cations (Na⁺, K⁺, Ca²⁺ and Mg²⁺) content. Then, the halophytic plants were divided into root and aerial parts and the content of Na⁺, K⁺, Ca²⁺ and Mg²⁺ was determined. In summary, S. verrucosum showed potential to desalinate its rhizosphere. Moreover, S. verrucosum desalination capacity significantly increases when used in combination with either of the tested amendments. This increase occurred mainly in the upper layers of the clay soil (0-30 cm). CaSO₄·2H₂O was shown to be the most effective amendment, since a greater gain in biomass and a large accumulation of sodium (Na⁺) in the aerial part of S. verrucosum was observed as a consequence of the soil improved physico-chemical properties caused by this chemical.

Key words
gypsum; halophyte; nonleaching; Polisul-C; salinity; Sesuvium verrucous

INTRODUCTION

Drought and salinity are conditions that limit worldwide crop production and soil fertility (Ruiz and Terenti 2012). Crops exposed to salinity exhibit a series of detrimental effects such as: a) ionic stress (Hasanuzzaman et al. 2014), b) osmotic stress (Chávez and Álvarez 2011), c) disruption of homeostasis (Türkan and Demiral 2009) and a series of morphological, physiological and biochemical changes, which altogether adversely affect the acquisition of nutrients and the transpiration and function of the photosynthetic apparatus. Such effects cause a reduction in plant growth and, generally, plant death (Munns and Tester 2008), which ultimately translates into economic losses (Manzano et al. 2014). A number of studies have proven that the use of halophyte species in agriculture may facilitate crop adaptation to increased salinization while contributing to the improvement of the edaphic quality of the soil derived from low water availability (Nouri et al. 2017). Phytodesalination consists in the use of certain halophytic species’ ability to extract large amountsof sodium (Na⁺) from the affected environment and remove it through its absorption and translocation to harvestable parts (Al-Nasir 2009). Some species used in phytodesalination studies have shown a greater accumulation of salts in their tissues, such as Suaeda salsa (1.9 Mg Na⁺·ha^-1), Suaeda fruticosa (0.8 Mg Na⁺·ha^-1), Arthrocnemum indicum(0.8 Mg Na⁺·ha^-1), Sesuvium portulacastrum (0.5 Mg Na⁺·ha^-1), and Suaeda maritima (0.5 Mg Na⁺·ha^-1) (Rabhi et al. 2015). Phytodesalination capacity is species-dependent and is also affected by soil properties (salinity, sodicity andporosity) and climatic conditions (mainly rainfall)(Rabhi et al. 2010).

On the other hand, there are different chemical methods to reclaim salty soils, including the use of agricultural gypsum (CaSO₄·2H₂O) and polysulfides of sulfur, which have been shown to improve the physical and chemical characteristics of soils. They contribute to soil stabilization and permeability by replacing sodium (Na⁺) by calcium (Ca²⁺) in soil colloids, they stimulate soil microbial activity and increase the availability of a number of nutrients (Kim et al. 2018). Furthermore, these chemicals are low-cost and easy to apply. Moreover, there are studies that compare their effectiveness with the potential of some halophyte species – Atriplex halimus, Atriplex lentiformis, and Atriplex amnicola – to extract large amounts of sodium (Na+) from the affected environment (Abdel-Fattah 2015).

However, in some places, soil salinity and sodicity are not too high, and soils are not sandy. Such conditions could cause, that the amount of sodium eliminated could not accumulate exclusively in the halophyte outbreaks, since a considerable part could be leached (Zorrig et al. 2012; Rabhi et al. 2009), hence the need to carry out research at the greenhouse level and under nonleaching conditions. The aim of this work was to evaluate the ability of Sesuvium verrucosum to desalinate its rhizosphere alone and in combination with agricultural gypsum and Polisul-C, to improve the physicochemical conditions of a moderately saline clay soil.

MATERIAL AND METHODS

Physical and chemical characteristics of the soil

The soil showed a clayey texture (clay 60%, silt 12%, sand 28%); 6.21 electrical conductivity (ECe), 8.18 pH, 4.12% organic matter (% OM), 41 g·kg^-1 CaCO₃, 1.02 g·m^-3 apparent density (AD), porosity percentage 61.21, 120% water retention capacity (WRC), sodium adsorption ratio (SAR) of 42.39 (mmol_c·L^-1)^1/2, total nitrogen of 0.23%, available phosphorus of 26.65 mg·kg^-1, 156 of Na⁺ mmol_c·L^-1,9.37 of K⁺ mmol_c·L^-1, 16.37 of Ca²⁺ mmol_c·L^-1, 24.69 ofMg²⁺ mmol_c·L^-1, 4.13 of HCO₃^- mmol_c·L^-1, 308.7 ofCl^{- 1}mmol_c·L^-1, Sulfates of 67.5 mmol_c·L^-1, Cation-Exchange Capacity (CEC) of 34.87 cmol_c·kg^-1, 13.79 of Na⁺ cmol_c·kg^-1, 4.28 of K⁺ cmol_c·kg^-1, 9.47 of Ca²⁺ cmol_c·kg^-1, 12.58 ofMg²⁺ cmol_c·kg^-1 and Exchangeable Sodium Percentage (ESP) of 39.54.

Greenhouse experiments under non-leaching conditions

Approximately 500 kg of soil were collected at 0-30 cm depth of a parcel in Villamar, Michoacán, México (20° 03’ 6.725” N lat and -102° 36’ 19.515” W long), at a 1540 m a.s.l. altitude (SMN 2017). They were dried under shade and, at room temperature, transferred to polyvinyl chloride (PVC) pipes of 50-cm length and 16-cm internal diameter.The pipes were not perforated and were filled with 8 kg of soil each. A completely randomized design was used with 10 experimental units per treatment; therefore, four treatments and ten repetitions were considered for a total of 40 PVC pipes. The evaluated treatments were: T1 (soil), T2 (soil +S. verrucosum), T3 (soil + S. verrucosum + Polisul C),T4 (soil + S. verrucosum + CaSO₄·2H₂O). Temperature and relative humidity conditions in the greenhouse were in average, 38/10 °C (day/night) and 60% (± 10%), respectively. The greenhouse experiment under nonleaching conditions was repeated three times.

Plant material

One hundred plants of Sesuvium verrucosum were collected from a location known as Los Negritos, a geothermal zone belonging to the municipality of Villamar, Michoacán, México (20° 03’ 46.267” N lat and -102° 36’ 46.569” W long). One plant (50 ± 0.59 g FW) was transplanted in each PVC pipe, which were watered with tap water up to 70% of the container’s capacity (1.4 liters applied every 12 days in each PVC pipe). Following the protocol of Rahbi et al. (2009), the experiment was completed 170 days after the transplantation of the plant material. Table 1 shows the content of cations ofthe halophyte species S. verrucosum at the beginning of the experiment.

Table 1
The content of Na⁺, K⁺, Ca²⁺ and Mg²⁺ at the beginning of the experiment in the root (R) and aerial parts (TH) of the halophyte species S. verrucosum.

Organ	Mg.g-1 DW
	Na+	K+	Ca2+	Mg2+
R	6.84 ± 0.25b	2.63 ± 0.13b	3.51 ± 0.27b	1.87 ± 0.16b
TH	19.37 ± 1.52a	7.67 ± 0.33a	8.42 ± 0.48a	5.59 ± 0.37a

• In each column, different letters mean significant differences according to Tukey’s test (p ≤ 0.05), values indicated as Mean ± SE (n=30); (R: roots;TH: leaves and stems).

Chemical proportions of Polisul-C

Polisul-C contains: 4.6% calcium, 16% colloidal sulfur, 13% sulfur as sulfide, 2% sulfur as thiosulfate, 1% sulfur as sulfate, 5% nitrogen, 53.4% intermediates and inert ingredients.

Fifteen days prior to the experiment, 0.4 mL of Polisul-C were applied to the soil transferred to the PVC pipes, in accordance with the manufacturer specifications, and one watering was conducted up to container’s capacity.

Agricultural gypsum requirements (CaSO₄·2H₂O) (GR)

The agricultural gypsum requirement (GR) to decrease the soil initial ESP from 39.54% to 20% at 30-cm depth was calculated as follows (Lebron et al. 2002):

$$GR=\left[0.00086FDsPb\left(CEC\right)\right]\left[\frac{ESPi-ESPf}{100}\right]$$

where GR = is the agricultural gypsum requirement (kg·m^-2),F = The efficiency of Ca²⁺ to be exchanged for Na⁺. In this case, it is assumed as 0.97 (in accordance with the product quality specifications). Pb = soil apparent density,Ds = depth of soil to reclaim, ESPi = soil’s initial exchangeable sodium percentage, ESPf = soil’s final exchangeable sodium percentage (target), CEC = soil’s cation-exchange capacity.

The agricultural gypsum requirement obtained per m² was extrapolated to the surface of each PVC pipe (0.02 m^-2), so that, 58 g of gypsum were mixed with the soil before filling each of the PVC tubes. Fifteen days prior to theexperiment started, a watering was carried out up tothe container’s capacity.

Physicochemical characteristics of the water

Watering was manual; the physical and chemical characteristics of the irrigation water were: ECe 0.5 dS·m^-1,8.81 pH, sodium adsorption ratio (SAR) 1.93, Total Dissolved Solids (TDS) 155 mg·L^-1, Ca²⁺ 0.42 mmol_c·L^-1, Mg²⁺3.61 mmol_c·L^-1, Na⁺ 2.75 mmol_c·L^-1, K⁺ 0.26 mmol_c·L^-1, CO₃^-21.47 mmol_c·L^-1, HCO₃^- 5.01 mmol_c·L^-1, SO₄^-2 0.153 mmol_c·L^-1.

Physicochemical analysis of soil and plants

Soil particle size analysis was performed in accordance with the Gee and Bauder (1996) method and the organic matter was analyzed following the Walkley-Black (1934) method. Soil samples were randomly taken, dried, grounded and passed through a 2-mm mesh sieve before the addition of distilled water until saturation. Saturated pastes were covered with aluminum paper and left over night at room temperature. After this period, a vacuum extraction was performed on them. Finally, electrical conductivity (ECe), pH and Na⁺, Ca²⁺ and Mg²⁺ concentration was measured in the extracts. Sodium adsorption ratio (SAR), cation exchange capacity (CEC) and interchangeable sodium percentage (ESP) were calculated using the following formulas:

$$SAR=\frac{N{a}^{+}}{\sqrt{{\displaystyle \frac{C{a}^{2+}+M{g}^{2+}}{2}}}}$$

where SAR = Sodium adsorption ratio [(mmol_c·L^-1)^1/2].

$$CEC=200xVxN$$

where CEC = Cation-exchange capacity (cmol_c·kg^-1),V = volume (ml) of HCl, N = normality of HCl

$$ESP=\frac{Na{i}^{+}}{CEC}x100$$

where ESP = Exchangeable sodium percentage, Nai⁺ = Sodium exchangeable (mmol_c·L^-1).

For the chemical analysis of plant material, the plants were washed with distilled water; roots and aerial parts (stems and leaves) were separated and fresh and dry weight were measured (g). The samples were dried in an oven at70 °C during 48 h before crushing. An Anton Paar’s Multiwave GO was used for the acid digestion of the samples. Extracts were filtered through filter paper and the Na⁺, K⁺, Mg²⁺ and Ca²⁺ concentrations were analyzed through atomic absorption spectroscopy (Allen 1989), using a SensAA GBC spectrometer, both for soil and plant samples.

Phytodesalination capacity (PHC)

Phytodesalination capacity of the halophyte evaluated in the different treatments was calculated from the amount of sodium accumulated in the aerial part and the dry weight achieved after 170 days of being transplanted in the PVC pipes. Phytodesalination Capacity (CPH) was calculated using the following equation (Rabhi et al. 2010):

$$CPH=\left[\left(N{a}_f^{+}-N{a}_i^{+}\right)\mathrm{Leaves}\mathrm{and}\mathrm{Stems}\times \left({\mathrm{DW}}_{\mathrm{f}}-{\mathrm{DW}}_{\mathrm{i}}\right)\mathrm{Leaves}\mathrm{and}\mathrm{Stems}\right]$$

where Na⁺ _f-Na⁺ _i = Difference between the amount of sodium accumulated at the beginning and the end of the experiment (mg.g^-1), DWf - DWi = Difference between the dry weight at the beginning and at the end of the experiment (g).

Data analysis

An analysis of variance was performed to examine the effects of the factors studied in each of the variables evaluated. Then a Tukey test, with a significant threshold of p ≤ 0.05, was used to determine whether the mean values of each variable analyzed significantly vary among the treatments. All analyses were performed with the SAS 9.1 software (SAS Institute 2004).

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

Cations determination in plants

When halophytic species grow in soils with high levels of salinity, concentration of sodium (Na⁺) in their tissues increases (Jlassi et al. 2013). This phenomenon was observed in the root and in the aerial parts of the plants grown under the treatments evaluated, being the combination of soil +S. verrucosum + CaSO₄·2H₂O (T4) the one that accumulated, in the aerial part, the highest concentrations of all monitored cations (Table 2). Rabhi et al. (2010) and Zorrig et al. (2012) reported that Sesuvium portulacastrum, Tecticornia indica (Willd.) subsp. indica and Suaeda fruticosa (Forssk.) are able to accumulate high amount of Na⁺, which confirm the capacity of halophytic species to regulate the sodium inflowing in the xylem stream reported by Flowers & Colmer (2008). On the other side, Distichlis spicata, Suaeda aegyptiaca and Suaeda vermiculata were able to adsorb K⁺, Ca²⁺ and Mg²⁺ cations (Sefidanzadeh et al. 2015; Sabzalian et al. 2018). According to Shabala and Munns (2017), these cations exert a positive function in the energy metabolism of halophytic species, because they allow to carry out photosynthesis and maintain the cellular turgor, the osmotic adjustment and the cellular expansion in saline stress.

Table 2
Content of Na⁺, K⁺, Ca²⁺ and Mg²⁺ in the root (R) and aerial part (TH) of the halophyte species S. verrucosum.

Treatments (dS·m-1)	Organ	Mg.g-1 DW
		Na+	K+	Ca2+	Mg2+
T2	R	15.13 ± 0.87f	5.59 ± 0.38e	7.34 ± 0.51f	4.45 ± 0.43e
	TH	57.36 ±2.04c	14.46 ± 0.47c	18.19 ± 0.70c	9.76 ± 0.77c
T3	R	19.96 ± 1.36e	11.95 ± 0.71d	10.36 ± 0.68e	5.87 ± 0.56e
	TH	72.26 ±2.38b	22.48 ± 1.93b	26.01 ± 2.17b	17.65 ± 1.64b
T4	R	28.35 ±1.49d	14.37 ± 0.68c	14.37 ± 0.97d	7.81 ± 0.61d
	TH	83.04 ± 3.31a	24.39 ± 1.70a	29.65 ± 1.43a	22.11 ± 2.08a

• In each column, different letters mean significant differences according to Tukey’s test (p ≤ 0.05): values indicate mean ± SE (n=10); (R: roots; TH: leaves and stems).

Soil remediation

Concerning the soil, evaluated treatments at depths of 0-10 and 11-30 cm showed a large capacity to reduce the pH, ECe, SAR and ESP with respect to the initial soil (T1). Efficienty of evaluated treatments can be resumed as follows: T4>T3>T2>T1. The results showed that T4 was the most efficient even at depths of 31-40 cm (Table 3). These results are consistent with the findings of Abdel-Fattah (2015), where the application of agricultural gypsum in combination with various halophytic species, such as Atriplex halimus, Atriplex lentiformis and Atriplex amnicola, was more effective for improving the soil characteristics (pH, ECe, SAR and ESP) as in an isolated manner. According to Ahmad et al. (2003), Kharel et al. (2018) and López Aguilar et al. (2012), the process of exchanging Ca²⁺/Na⁺ during phytodesalination is driven by the ability and the architecture of the roots to: i) increase the dissolution rate of calcium, ii) enhance changes in the structure of the soil, iii) modify the ionic and osmotic balance in the rhizosphere and iv) extract sodium from the soil and take it to the shoots. In the case of treatment T3,the reductions could be explained by the fact that large part of the sulfur of Polisul-C tends to oxidize, due to the action of soil bacteria and the reaction that comes up with the irrigation water to form sulfuric acid, which, in turn, reacts with carbonates and bicarbonates in the soil to become leachable sodium sulfate (Brady and Weil 1999), where the roots absorb and translocate it towards the harvestable parts (Rahbi et al. 2010). These results are consistent with the statements made by Cifuentes and Lindemann (1993) and Chapman (1990), who affirm that sulfur is an acid former that allows the decreasing of pH and ECe of the soil in a fast way, under humidity conditions and favorable temperatures (Table 3).

Table 3
Physicochemical properties of the soil at the beginning (I) and at the end (F) of phytodesalination.

Parameters	Depths (cm)	T1		T2	T3	T4
		I	F	F	F	F
pH	0 – 10	8.15 ± 0.02a	8.08 ± 0.02b	7.75 ± 0.03c	7.56 ± 0.03d	7.47 ± 0.04e
	11 – 30	8.18 ± 0.03b	8.26 ± 0.02a	7.87 ± 0.02c	7.81 ± 0.02d	7.64 ± 0.03e
	31 – 40	8.21 ± 0.01b	8.32 ± 0.04a	8.13 ± 0.05c	7.95 ± 0.04d	7.82 ± 0.03e
	Mean	8.18 ± 0.02b	8.22 ± 0.02a	7.91 ± 0.02c	7.78± 0.03d	7.64 ± 0.04e
ECe (dS.m-1)	0 – 10	6.21± 0.01a	5.87± 0.04b	2.77 ± 0.14c	1.93 ± 0.07d	1.21 ± 0.11e
	11 – 30	6.24± 0.03b	6.51± 0.07a	3.06 ± 0.08c	2.75 ± 0.08d	2.18 ± 0.09e
	31 – 40	6.19± 0.05b	6.76± 0.04a	6.12 ± 0.06b	4.84 ± 0.12c	3.78 ± 0.23d
	Mean	6.21± 0.04a	6.38± 0.03b	3.93 ± 0.04c	2.87 ± 0.05d	2.39 ± 0.06e
SAR (mmolc.L-1)1/2	0 – 10	33.83± 0.72a	33.40± 0.42a	16.48± 0.57b	6.17± 0.47c	4.85± 0.35d
	11 – 30	34.6± 0.90a	35.09± 0.63a	20.31± 0.72b	14.05± 0.53c	9.39± 0.44d
	31 – 40	34.96± 0.82a	35.78± 0.51a	26.67± 0.88b	16.74± 0.71c	15.46± 0.٥4d
	Mean	34.46± 0.65a	34.75± 0.37a	21.15± 0.28b	12.65± 0.36c	9.90± 0.44d
ESP	0 – 10	38.96± 0.52a	38.13± 0.62a	15.71± 0.53b	5.28± 0.44c	3.45± 0.61d
	11 – 30	40.16± 0.57a	39.93± 0.82a	23.30± 0.75b	13.95± 0.53c	10.12± 0.37d
	31 – 40	39.53± 0.41a	41.66± 0.59a	32.64± 0.64b	22.61± 0.86c	18.76± 0.78d
	Mean	39.55± 0.39a	39.91± 0.41a	23.88± 0.45b	13.94± 0.59c	10.56± 0.42d

• In each row, different letters mean significant differences according to Tukey’s test (p ≤ 0.05): values indicate mean ± SE (n = 10).

On the other hand, the reductions of treatment T2 could be explained, both due to the activity of the roots to absorb Na⁺ cations of the soil (Qadir et al. 2004), and the morphology, the volume and the depth of penetration from the same roots (Torres-Guerrero et al. 2013).

According to Abdel-Fattah (2018), another factor that could explain the reductions in treatment T2 is due to the ability of Na⁺ to form NaOH when it reacts with irrigation water, since, when combined with free CO₂ in the soil, it tends to transform into sodium carbonate, a compound that can be diluted between the less mobile layers of the soil (Table 3) (Abdel-Fattah 2018).

On the other hand, halophytes with large biomass production, along with the ability to withstand high levels of salinity and periodic flooding, are suitable species to improve the physicochemical conditions of saline soils (Qadir et al. 2002). Such process is observed with the halophytic species S. verrucosum in the evaluated different treatments, showing significant differences (p ≤ 0.05) in their phytodesalination capacity (Table 4). The greater gain in biomass content and accumulation of sodium (Na⁺) in the harvestable part were obtained in the treatment T4; possibly, the adaptation mechanisms that this species has developed, as is the case of the formation of successive changes in its ontogenetic system, allows it to have greater mechanical resistance, flexibility and compartmentalization of ions in the vacuole and organic solutes in the cytoplasm (Elbar 2015). Hence, among its main structural modifications, there are patterns of secondary thickening and formation of the internal phloem (Rajput et al. 2008).

Table 4
Biomass content and phytodesalination capacity of the halophytic species S. verrucosum (CPH).

Parameters	Treatments
	T2	T3	T4
Final FW per plant (g)	325.09 ±15.85c	496.44 ± 21.85b	562.79 ± 17.43a
Final DW per plant (g)	58.19 ± 2.31c	72.48 ± 3.25b	78.92 ± 1.89a
Biomass FW / DW	5.58 ± 0.47b	6.84 ± 0.19a	7.13 ± 0.24a
CPH (g.plant -1)	2.02 ± 0.07c	3.56 ± 0.21b	4.70 ± 0.27a

• In each row, different letters mean significant differences according to Tukey’s test (p ≤ 0.05): values indicate mean ± SE (n = 10)

Although, the phytodesalination capacity of the species S. verrucosum was lower than other reported species, such as Mesambryanthemum crystallinum (179.08 mg·g^-1 DM) (Atzori et al. 2017), it was higher than Suaeda paradoxa (44.27 mg·g^-1 DM) (Hidri et al. 2016) or Atriplex lentiformi (46.2 mg·g^-1 DM) (Diaz et al. 2013) to mention just a few; however, the duration of the process, the properties of the soil (salinity, sodicity and porosity), the number and the initial weight of the species per experimental unit could explain such discrepancy (Rahbi et al. 2010).

CONCLUSION

S. verrucosum has the ability to improve the physicochemical properties of a moderately saline and clay-textured soil, mainly at a depth of 0-30 cm. This desalinization capacity is increased when S. verrucosum is used in combination with the chemical amendments CaSO₄·2H₂O and Polisul-C. In addition, it was confirmed that the CaSO₄·2H₂O was more efficient than Polisul-C (as acid forming substance) to remedy a heavy textured saline soil.

Also, S. verrucosum showed an enormous adaptation potential and a high growth rate under conditions of moderate salinity, which could contribute to rehabilitation of degraded lands and safeguard food security inthe most vulnerable sectors, specifically in regions with low production systems because of salinity conditions.

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

This study was funded by Consejo Nacional de Ciencia y Tecnología (CONACYT) (PN-2015-01-1165). The authors thank to M.O.E, M.V.R. and L.Y.A. for their technical assistant in laboratory; the first author thanks CONACYT for the scholarship granted to carry out PhD studies.

REFERENCES

• Abdel-Fattah, M. K. (2015). Potential Use of Halophytes in Combination with Gypsum to Reclaim and Restore Saline-Sodic Soils in Egypt. Malaysian Journal of Soil Science, 19, 131-139.
• Abdel-Fattah, M. K. (2018). Reclamation of Saline-Sodic Soils for Sustainable Agriculture in Egypt. Springer, 77. https://doi.org/10.1007/698_2018_310
  » https://doi.org/10.1007/698_2018_310
• Ahmad, S., Ghafoor, A., Qadir, M., and Khan, M. Z. (2003). Effect of phytoremediation on chemical characteristics of a calcareous sahne-sodic soil. Pakistan Journal of Biological Sciences, 6, 1159-1162. https://doi.org/10.3923/pjbs.2003.1159.1162
  » https://doi.org/10.3923/pjbs.2003.1159.1162
• Al-Nasir, F. (2009). Bioreclamation of a saline sodic soil in a semi arid region/Jordan. American Eurasian Journal Agricultural and Environmental Science, 5, 701-706.
• Atzori, G., Vos, A. C., van Rijsselberghe, M., Vignolini, P., Rozema, J., Mancuso, S., and van Bodegom, P. M. (2017). Effects of increased seawater salinity irrigation on growth and quality of the edible halophyte Mesembryanthemum crystallinum L. under field conditions. Agricultural Water Management, 187, 37-46. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.agwat.2017.03.020
  » https://doi.org/10.1016/j.agwat.2017.03.020
• Brady, N. C., and Weil, R. R. (1999). The nature and properties of soils. 12^th edition. New Jersey: Printice Hall Inc.
• Chapman, S. J. (1990). Thiobacillus populations in some agricultural soils. Soil Biology and Biochemistry, 22, 479-482. https://doi.org/10.1016/0038-0717(90)90181-X
  » https://doi.org/10.1016/0038-0717(90)90181-X
• Chavez, L., and Álvarez, A. (2011). The selection of tolerant varieties: an alternative for the rehabilitation of salt affected soils. Revista Granma Ciencia. 15.
• Cifuentes, F. R., and Lindemann W. C. (1993). Organic matter stimulation of elemental sulfur oxidation in a calcareous soil. Soil Science Society of America Journal Abstract, 57, 727-731. https://doi.org/10.2136/sssaj1993.03615995005700030017x
  » https://doi.org/10.2136/sssaj1993.03615995005700030017x
• Elbar, O. H. A. (2015). Development of the successive cambia in Sesuvium verrucosum Raf (Aizoaceae). Annals of Agricultural Sciences, 60, 203-208. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.aoas.2015.07.001
  » https://doi.org/10.1016/j.aoas.2015.07.001
• Flowers, T. J., and Colmer, T. D. (2008). Salinity tolerance in halophytes. New Phytologist, 179, 945-963. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1469-8137.2008.02531.x
  » https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1469-8137.2008.02531.x
• Flowers, T. J., and Colmer, T. D. (2015). Plant salt tolerance: adaptations in halophytes. Annals of Botany, 115, 327-331. https://doi.org/10.1093/aob/mcu267
  » https://doi.org/10.1093/aob/mcu267
• Gee, W., and Bauder, W. (1986). Particle size analysis. In A. Klute (Ed.), Methods of Soil Analysis, Part 1 Physical and Mineralogical Methods. 2 ed. Soil Science Society of America Inc.(p. 383-411). Madison, Wisconsin, USA: American Society of Agronomy.
• Hasanuzzaman, M., Nahar, K., Alam, M. M., Bhowmik, P. C., Hossain, M. A., Rahman, M. M., and Fujita, M. (2014). Potential Use of Halophytes to Remediate Saline Soils. BioMed Research International, 2014, 1-12. https://doi.org/10.1155/2014/589341
  » https://doi.org/10.1155/2014/589341
• Hidri, R., Barea, J. M., Mahmoud, O. M. B., Abdelly, C., and Azcón, R. (2016). Impact of microbial inoculation on biomass accumulation by Sulla carnosa provenances, and in regulating nutrition, physiological and antioxidant activities of this species under non-saline and saline conditions. Journal of Plant Physiology, 201, 28-41. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jplph.2016.06.013
  » https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jplph.2016.06.013
• Jlassi, A., Zorrig, W., Khouni, A. E., Lakhdar, A., Smaoui, A., Abdelly, C., and Rabhi, M. (2013). Phytodesalination of a moderately salt affected soil by Sulla carnosa International Journal of Phytoremediation, 15, 398-404. https://doi.org/10.1080/15226514.2012.716104
  » https://doi.org/10.1080/15226514.2012.716104
• Kharel T. P., Clay, D.E., Reese, C., DeSutter, T., Malo, D., and Clay, S. (2018). Do Precision Chemical Amendment Applications Impact Sodium Movement in Dryland Semiarid Saline Sodic Soils? Agronomy Journal, 110, 1103-1110. https://doi.org/10.2134/agronj2017.07.0416
  » https://doi.org/10.2134/agronj2017.07.0416
• Kim, H. S., Kim, K. R., Lee, S. H., Kunhikrishnan, A., Kim, W. I., and Kim, K. H. (2018). Effect of gypsum on exchangeable sodium percentage and electrical conductivity in the Daeho reclaimed tidal land soil in Korea – a field scale study. Journal Soils Sediments, 18, 336-341. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11368-016-1446-x
  » https://doi.org/10.1007/s11368-016-1446-x
• Lebron, I., Suarez, D. L., and Yoshida, T. (2002). Gypsum effect on the aggregate size and geometry of three sodic soils under reclamation. Soil Science American Journal, 66, 92-98. https://doi.org/10.2136/sssaj2002.9200
  » https://doi.org/10.2136/sssaj2002.9200
• López-Aguilar, R., Rodríguez-Quezada, G., Naranjo-Murillo, A., Beltrán-Morales, L. F., Troyo-Diéguez, E., Casanova-Cruz, A., and Peralta-Patrón, O. (2012). Uso de yeso para una agricultura orgánica sustentable en zonas áridas y semiáridas. Interciencia, 37, 594-601.
• Manzano, J. I., Rivera, P., Briones, F., and Zamora, C. (2014). Rehabilitación de suelos salino-sódicos: estudio de caso en el Distrito de Riego 086, Jiménez, Tamaulipas, México. Revista Terra Latinoamericana, 32, 211-220
• Munns, R., and Tester, M. (2008). Mechanisms of salinity tolerance. Annual Review of Plant Biology, 59, 651-681. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev.arplant.59.032607.092911
  » https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev.arplant.59.032607.092911
• Nikalje, G. C., Srivastava, A. K., Pandey, G. K., and Suprasanna, P. (2018). Halophytes in biosaline agriculture: Mechanism, utilization, and value addition. Land Degradation & Development, 29, 1081-1095. https://doi.org/10.1002/ldr.2819
  » https://doi.org/10.1002/ldr.2819
• Nouri, H., Borujeni, S. C., Nirola, R., Hassanli, A., Beecham, S., Alaghmand, S., and Mulcahy, D. (2017). Application of green remediation on soil salinity treatment: a review on halophytoremediation. Process Safety and Environmental Protection, 107, 94-107. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.psep.2017.01.021
  » https://doi.org/10.1016/j.psep.2017.01.021
• Oster J. D., and Frenkel, H. (1980). The Chemistry of the Reclamation of Sodic Soils with Gypsum and Lime. Soil Science American Journal. 44, 41-45. https://doi.org/10.2136/sssaj1980.03615995004400010010x
  » https://doi.org/10.2136/sssaj1980.03615995004400010010x
• Qadir, M., Qureshi, R. H., and Ahmad, N. (2002). Amelioration of calcareous saline sodic soils through phytoremediation and chemical strategies. Soil Use Manage, 18, 381-385. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1475-2743.2002.tb00256.x
  » https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1475-2743.2002.tb00256.x
• Qadir, M., and Oster, J. D. (2004). Crop and irrigation management strategies for saline-sodic soils and waters aimed at environmentally sustainable agriculture. Science of the Total Environment, 323, 1-9. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2003.10.012
  » https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2003.10.012
• Rabhi, M., Atia, A., Abdelly, C., and Smaoui, A. (2015). New parameters for a better evaluation of vegetative bioremediation, leaching, and phytodesalination. Journal of Theoretical Biology, 383, 7-11. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jtbi.2015.07.027
  » https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jtbi.2015.07.027
• Rabhi, M., Ferchichi, S., Jouini, J., Hamrouni, M. H., Koyro, H. W., Ranieri, A., and Smaoui, A. (2010). Phytodesalination of a salt-affected soil with the halophyte Sesuvium portulacastrum L. to arrange in advance the requirements for the successful growth of a glycophytic crop. Bioresource Technology, 101, 6822-6828. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.biortech.2010.03.097
  » https://doi.org/10.1016/j.biortech.2010.03.097
• Rabhi, M., Hafsi, C., Lakhdar, A., Hajji, S., Barhoumi, Z., Hamrouni, M. H., and Smaoui, A. (2009). Evaluation of the capacity of three halophytes to desalinize their rhizosphere as grown on saline soils under nonleaching conditions. African Journal of Ecology, 47, 463-468. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1365-2028.2008.00989.x
  » https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1365-2028.2008.00989.x
• Rajput, K. S., Patil, V. S., and Shah, D. G. (2008). Formation of successive cambia and stem anatomy of Sesuvium sesuvioides (Aizoaceae). Botanical Journal of the Linnean Society, 158, 548-555. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1095-8339.2008.00867.x
  » https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1095-8339.2008.00867.x
• Ruiz, M., and Terenti, O. (2012). Germinación de cuatro pastos bajo condiciones de estrés salino. Phyton, 81, 169-176.
• Sabzalian, M. R., Dayani, S., Torkian, M., and Leake, J. E. (2018). Comparison of Distichlis spicata and Suaeda aegyptiaca in response to water salinity: Candidate halophytic species for saline soils remediation. International Journal of Phytoremediation, 20, 995-1006. https://doi.org/10.1080/15226514.2018.1452185
  » https://doi.org/10.1080/15226514.2018.1452185
• Sefidanzadeh, S., Ziarati, P., and Motamed, S. M. (2015). Chemical composition of Suaeda vermiculata seeds grown in hormozgan in the south of Iran. Biosciences Biotechnology Research Asia, 12, 1923-1929. https://doi.org/10.13005/bbra/1858
  » https://doi.org/10.13005/bbra/1858
• SAS Institute Inc. (2004). SAS 9.1.3 help and documentation. SAS Institute Inc., Cary; NC, USA.
• Shabala, S., and Munns, R. (2017). Estrés salino: restricciones fisiológicas y mecanismos adaptativos. Fisiología del estrés vegetal, 2. ed. (p. 24-63). Wallingford: CABI.
• Suárez, D. L. (2001). Sodic soil reclamation: Modelling and field study. Soil Research, 39, 1225-1246. https://doi.org/10.1071/SR00094
  » https://doi.org/10.1071/SR00094
• Torres-Guerrero, C. A., Etchevers, B., J. D., Fuentes-Ponce, M. H., Govaerts, B., León-González, F. D., and Herrera, J. M. (2013). Influencia de las raíces sobre la agregación del suelo. Terra Latinoamericana, 31, 71-84.
• Türkan, I., and Demiral, T. (2009). Recent developments in understanding salinity tolerance. Environmental and Experimental Botany, 67, 2-9. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.envexpbot.2009.05.008
  » https://doi.org/10.1016/j.envexpbot.2009.05.008
• Walkley, A., and Black, I. A. (1934). An examination of the Degtjareff method for determining soil organic matter, and proposed modification of the chromic acid titration method. Soil Science, 37, 29-38.
• Zorrig, W., Rabhi, M., Ferchichi, S., Smaoui, A., and Abdelly, C. (2012). Phytodesalination: a solution for salt-affected soils in arid and semi-arid regions. Journal Arid Land Studies, 22, 299-302.

Publication Dates

• Publication in this collection
  13 Dec 2019
• Date of issue
  Oct-Dec 2019

History

• Received
  01 Jan 2019
• Accepted
  29 Apr 2019