P ET CO2 and SpO2 allow adequate ventilatory adjustment in morbidly obese patients

Abstracts

JUSTIFICATIVA E OBJETIVOS: Apesar das diversas propostas ventilatórias para anestesia em pacientes obesos mórbidos, um consenso não foi estabelecido. Este estudo avaliou o ajuste ventilatório nestes pacientes durante anestesia baseado na oximetria e capnografia. MÉTODO: O consentimento prévio foi obtido da Comissão de Ética e dos pacientes. Excluíram-se tabagistas e portadores de doença cardíaca ou pulmonar. Foram estudados 11 pacientes com índice de massa corpórea (IMC) de 59,2 ± 8,3 submetidos à gastroplastia sob anestesia geral (Grupo O). Oito não-obesos (IMC 20,2 ± 3,9) submetidos à gastrectomia formaram o grupo controle (NO). Ajustou-se a ventilação visando dióxido de carbono expiratório final (P ET CO2) menor que 40 mmHg e saturação periférica de oxigênio (SpO2) maior que 95%. Não se utilizou PEEP. Através de monitor respiratório CO2SMO Plus, mediu-se espaços mortos fisiológico, alveolar e de vias aéreas (VD phy, VD alv e VD aw) e o volume corrente alveolar (VT alv). Amostras de sangue arterial e venoso central permitiram calcular PaO2/FIO2 e VD phy/VT. Os dados foram comparados e analisados por ANOVA (p < 0,05). RESULTADOS: Volumes corrente foram de 4,2 ± 0,4 ml.kg-1 no Grupo O e 7,9 ± 2,3 ml.kg-1 no Grupo NO para o peso medido, e de 11,5 ± 1,8 no Grupo O e 6,6 ± 1,1 ml.kg-1 no Grupo NO para o peso ideal. A PaO2 mostrou-se menor e o VT alveolar mostrou-se maior nos obesos (p < 0,008 e 0,0001, respectivamente). Não foi encontrada diferença em PaCO2, VD phy, VD alv ou VD aw. CONCLUSÕES: A SpO2 e a P ET CO2 parecem garantir ventilação adequada, a qual pode ser obtida em pacientes com obesidade mórbida com volumes corrente ajustados ao peso ideal.

DOENÇAS; VENTILAÇÃO

SCIENTIFIC ARTICLE

P_ETCO₂ and SpO₂ allow adequate ventilatory adjustment in morbidly obese patients^*

P_ETCO₂ y SpO₂ permiten ajuste de ventilación adecuada en pacientes obesos mórbidos

Fábio Ely Martins Benseñor, M.D.^I; José Otávio Costa Auler Júnior, TSA, M.D.^II

^IMédico Assistente, Doutor em Anestesiologia - FMUSP

^IIProfessor Titular da Disciplina de Anestesiologia - FMUSP

^{Correspondence}

SUMMARY

BACKGROUND AND OBJECTIVES: Ventilation strategies for anesthesia in morbidly obese patients have been investigated, but an agreement has not been achieved yet. This study aimed at clinically evaluating ventilation adjustments based on oximetry and capnography readings in these patients during anesthesia.

METHODS: Consent was obtained from the Institutional Ethics Committee and from patients. Smokers and respiratory or cardiac disease patients were excluded. Eleven patients with Body Mass Index (BMI) of 59.2 ± 8.3 undergoing gastroplasty under general anesthesia were studied (Group O), with a control group (NO) composed of 8 non-obese patients (BMI 20.2 ± 3.9) submitted to gastrectomy. Ventilator was adjusted to keep P_ETCO₂ below 40 mmHg and SpO₂ above 95%. PEEP was not used. Through a CO₂SMO Plus respiratory monitor, airway, alveolar and physiologic dead spaces (respectively VD aw, VD phy and VD alv), as well as alveolar tidal volume (TV alv) were measured. Arterial and central venous blood samples were used to calculate PaO₂/FIO₂ and VD phy/TV relationships. Data were compared and evaluated by ANOVA (p < 0.05).

RESULTS: Tidal volume was 4.2 ± 0.4 mL.kg^-1 in Group O and 7.9 ± 2.3 mL.kg^-1 in Group NO for measured weight, and 11.5 ± 1.8 mL.kg^-1 in Group O and 6.6 ± 1.1 mL.kg^-1 in Group NO for ideal weight. PaO₂ was lower and TV alv was higher in Group O (p < 0.008 and 0.0001, respectively). No difference was found in PaCO₂, VD phy, VD alv and VD aw.

CONCLUSIONS: SpO₂ and P_ETCO₂ seem to assure adequate ventilation, which can be achieved in morbidly obese patients with tidal volumes adjusted to ideal weight.

Key Words: DISEASES: morbid obesity; VENTILATION: controlled mechanical

RESUMEN

JUSTIFICATIVA Y OBJETIVOS: A pesar de las diversas propuestas de ventilación para anestesia en pacientes obesos mórbidos, un consenso no fue establecido. Este estudio evaluó el ajuste de ventilación en estos pacientes durante anestesia fundamentado en la oximetria y capnografia.

MÉTODO: El consentimiento previo fue obtenido de la Comisión de Ética y de los pacientes. Fueron excluidos fumantes y portadores de enfermedad cardíaca o pulmonar. Fueron estudiados once pacientes con índice de masa corpórea (IMC) de 59,2 ± 8,3 sometidos a gastroplastia bajo anestesia general (Grupo O). Ocho no obesos (IMC 20,2 ± 3,9) sometidos a gastrectomia formaron el grupo control (NO). Se ajustó la ventilación visando el dióxido de carbono expiratorio final (P_ETCO₂) menor que 40 mmHg y saturación periférica de oxígeno (SpO₂) mayor que 95%. No se utilizó PEEP. A través de monitor respiratorio CO₂SMO Plus, se midió espacios muertos fisiológico, alveolar y de vías aéreas (VD phy, VD alv y VD aw) y el volumen corriente alveolar (VT alv). Muestras de sangre arterial y venoso central permitieron calcular PaO₂/FIO₂ y VD phy/VT. Los datos fueron comparados y analizados por ANOVA (p < 0,05).

RESULTADOS: Volúmenes corrientes fueron de 4,2 ± 0,4 ml.kg^-1 en el Grupo O y 7,9 ± 2,3 ml.kg^-1 en el Grupo NO para el peso medido, y de 11,5 ± 1,8 en el Grupo O y 6,6 ± 1,1 ml.kg^-1 en el Grupo NO para el peso ideal. La PaO₂ se mostró menor y el VT alveolar se mostró mayor en los obesos (p < 0,008 y 0,0001, respectivamente). No fue encontrada diferencia en PaCO₂, VD phy, VD alv o VD aw.

CONCLUSIONES: La SpO₂ y la P_ETCO₂ parecen garantir ventilación adecuada, la cual puede ser obtenida en pacientes con obesidad mórbida con volúmenes corrientes ajustados al peso ideal.

INTRODUCTION

Exaggeratedly or not, obesity has been considered a major 21^st Century epidemics¹.

Although there is no specific information on the prevalence of obesity in Brazil, including those individuals classified as morbidly obese (Body Mass Index - BMI - > 40), an expressive increase in their number has been observed in major centers among the population submitted to elective or emergency procedures. This impression confirms previous studies^2,3.

The high prevalence of perioperative complications^4,5 and pre-existing chronic diseases, including diabetes mellitus, systemic hypertension, vascular and cardiopulmonary diseases in such patients^6,7 are issues to be considered when providing perioperative care to morbidly obese patients.

The tidal volume to be used during anesthesia for obese patients and the search for its optimal value have generated discussions in the medical literature. Bardoczky et al.⁸ have compared ventilation with tidal volumes between 13 and 22 mL per kg of ideal weight and have shown that high volumes during anesthesia have generated hypocapnia, not followed by significant partial oxygen tension increase though. Tidal volumes between 15 and 20 mL per kg of ideal weight have also been proposed as adequate⁵.

Aiming at establishing parameters to safely guide anesthesiologists during intraoperative care of morbidly obese patients, this study has evaluated, through ventilation and perfusion analysis, the safety of relatively low cost/complexity methods (pulse oximetry, capnography and arterial gases analysis) to determine adequate ventilatory adjustment during morbidly obese patients anesthesia.

METHODS

The Institutional Ethics Committee has approved the study and patients gave their written consent the day before surgery. Exclusion criteria were smokers in the last 12 months and patients with clinical evidence of heart or lung disease.

Patients were divided in two groups according to body mass index (BMI): Obese Group (O), with BMI ³ 40, and Non-Obese Group (NO), with BMI < 30.

Group O included 11 morbidly obese female patients, submitted to gastroplasty through laparotomy. Group NO consisted of 8 patients (5 males and 3 females), seven of them undergoing open gastric surgery due to neoplastic disease, and one to open colon resection.

All patients were submitted to general anesthesia. Anesthetic doses were calculated based on ideal weight (ideal weight = height in centimeters less 100 for males and less 105 for females)¹⁰.

Patients were premedicated with muscular midazolam (0.1 mg.kg^-1) 45 minutes before surgery. In the operating room, patients were monitored with continuous ECG (CS-5 lead), noninvasive blood pressure and pulse oximetry. After spontaneous ventilation with 100% oxygen, anesthesia was induced with etomidate (0.3 mg.kg^-1) and fentanyl (5 µg.kg^-1), followed by tracheal intubation facilitated by pancuronium (0.08 mg.kg^-1) to group NO and succinylcholine (1 mg.kg^-1) to Group O. Monitoring after induction consisted of invasive blood pressure, right atrium pressure and esophageal temperature. Alveolar ventilation variables were measured with ventilatory monitor combining infrared capnographer, pressure differential flow sensor through fixed hole and red/infrared pulse oximetry (CO₂SMO Plus respiratory profile monitor, Novametrix, CT, USA).

Patients were ventilated with Linea (Intermed, São Paulo, Brazil) anesthesia machine in volume-controlled mode through a ventilatory system open to the room thru a unidirectional valve. Predetermined protocol conditions required that patients be ventilated with tidal volume equal to 8 mL per kg of ideal weight and respiratory rate of 10 cycles per minute. If end tidal CO₂ (P_ETCO₂) was above 40 mmHg or oxygen peripheral saturation was below 95%, respiratory rate and/or tidal volume would be adjusted at the anesthesiologist's discretion. Positive end expiratory pressure (PEEP) was not used.

Anesthesia was maintained with 2% to 4% sevoflurane in a mixture of air and oxygen in equal parts. Inspired and expired gases were analyzed with Capnomac Ultima respiratory monitor (Datex Instrumentarium, Helsinki, Finland).

Gases exchanges evaluation and arterial/venous blood samples collection were performed with patients in the supine position during surgical procedure pauses, at five moments: first sample (AI: after anesthetic induction) was collected 15 minutes after tracheal intubation and before surgical incision; second sample (PO: after peritoneum opening), was collected immediately after abdominal wall opening; third sample (PO1h) was collected one hour after abdominal opening; fourth sample (PC: peritoneum closing) was collected immediately after peritoneum closing; fifth and last sample (SC: surgery completion), was collected immediately after surgical incision dressing.

Before each sampling, muscle relaxation was checked by means of a neuromuscular function monitor (TOF-GUARD, Organon-Tecnika NV, Turnhout, Belgium) and, when necessary, additional pancuronium doses were given. After 5 respiratory cycles with fresh gases flow closed, a set of measurements was performed by CO₂SMO Plus, checking airways dead spaces (VD aw), alveolar tidal volume (TV alv), mean expired CO₂ in one minute adjusted to patient's weight (VCO₂/kg) and partial CO₂ pressure (PeCO₂), and the amount of CO₂ in one expiration divided by expired volume.

Arterial and central venous blood samples were simultaneously collected and analyzed by i-Stat portable clinical analyzer (i-Stat Corporation, East Windsor, NJ, USA) measuring arterial oxygen and carbon dioxide pressures (PaO₂ and PaCO₂), as well as arterial pH, which allowed for the calculation of physiological dead space (VD phy), alveolar dead space (VE alv), relationship between physiological dead space and tidal volume (VD/TV phy) and relationship between arterial oxygen pressure and oxygen inspired fraction (PaO₂/FIO₂).

Values are presented in mean ± standard deviation (SD). Non-paired Student's "t" test (p < 0.05) was used to compare demographics of obese and non-obese patients, as well as surgery duration. Fisher's Exact test was used to check patients distribution by gender between groups. To verify differences between the five sampling moments, either within the same group or between groups in the same moments, Analysis of Variance (ANOVA) for repetitive measures was used, followed by Tukey's test. Significance level was established to 5%.

RESULTS

All patients evolved normally after surgery and were discharged according to schedule. No study-related complication has been observed and there were no complaints about participating in the study.

There were no statistical differences between groups in age (45.4 ± 14.3 years for obese and 38.6 ± 8.4 years for non obese, p = 0.21), height (160 ± 9 cm for obese and 163 ± 13 cm for non obese) and surgery duration (325.6 ± 150.4 minutes and 325 ± 42.7 minutes respectively for Groups O and NO, p = 0.991). However, Groups O and NO have differed in weight (151 ± 16.6 kg for obese and 55.1 ± 13.7 kg for non obese, p < 0.001), BMI (59.2 ± 8.3 kg.m^-2 for obese and 20.6 ± 4 for non obese, p < 0.001) and gender distribution (11 females in Group O, 5 males and 3 females in Group NO, p < 0.001).

Results were grouped into three different aspects, according to the variables used to evaluate respiratory function: 1) tidal volume and oxygenation, including PaO₂ and PaO₂/F_iO₂ ratio; 2) carbon dioxide production, including PaCO₂, VCO₂/kg and P_ETCO₂; 3) ventilation-perfusion ratio, including VD aw, TV alv, VD phy, VD alv and VD/TV phy ratio.

For tidal volume and oxygenation, Group O patients were ventilated with mean tidal volume of 4.2 ± 0.4 mL.kg^-1 of measured weight or 11.51 ± 1.8 mL.kg^-1 of ideal weight, while Group NO was ventilated with 7.9 ± 2.3 mL.kg^-1 of measured weight, or 6.6 ± 1.1 mL.kg^-1 of ideal weight to remain within previously established limits for SpO₂ and P_ETCO₂.

PaO₂ has not changed during surgery for both groups when the five moments were compared. Group NO, however, has shown statistically higher PaO₂ in all measurements as compared to Group O (respectively 238.3 ± 50.6 and 157.6 ± 48 mmHg for AI, 216.1 ± 68.1 and 145.5 ± 47.5 mmHg for PO, 202.9 ± 69.7 and 158.3 ± 56.3 mmHg for PO1h, 219.1 ± 55.5 and 179.8 ± 40 mmHg for PC, 236.6 ± 51.6 and 180.1 ± 49 mmHg for SC, p = 0.08). There have been no changes in PaO₂/F_iO₂ ratio among moments for Group NO. Group O has shown significant increases between initial and final moments (respectively 261.7 ± 76.9 and 316.1 ± 88.4 mmHg, p = 0.02). When both groups were compared for PaO₂/F_iO₂ ratio, Group O had statistically higher values in moments AI (411.7 ± 92.2 and 261.7 ± 76.9 mmHg, p = 0.0008), PO (374 ± 123.5 and 249.2 ± 81.3 mmHg, p = 0.01) and SC (413.8 ± 95.5 and 316.1 ± 88.4 mmHg, p = 0.02). Oxygenation data are shown in figure 1.

Brazilian Journal of Anesthesiology, 2004; 54: 4: 542 - 552

P_ETCO₂ and SpO₂ allow adequate ventilatory adjustment in morbidly obese patients

Fábio Ely Martins Benseñor; José Otávio Costa Auler Júnior

CO₂ production and excretion analysis, as expected, has shown no differences between groups in all five comparisons, probably due to the research protocol which required ventilatory parameters adjustments to maintain P_ETCO₂ below 40 mmHg. Nevertheless, PaCO₂ was significantly increased in Group NO between moments AI and PO (p = 0.02), PO and PO1h (p = 0.007) and AI and SC (p = 0.005). PaCO₂ values measured in such moments were 34 ± 5.1 mmHg in AI, 36.5 ± 5.2 mmHg in PO, 39.7 ± 7.2 mmHg in PO1h and 38.8 ± 6.4 mmHg in SC.

VCO₂/kg has shown lower values for Group O as compared to Group NO (respectively 1.2 ± 0.2 and 1.9 ± 0.3 mL.kg^-1 in AI, 1.3 ± 0.1 and 1.8 ± 0.4 mL.kg^-1 in PO, 1.2 ± 0.2 and 1.9 ± 0.4 mL.kg^-1 in PO1h, 1.3 ± 0.3 and 1.8 ± 0,3 mL.kg^-1 in PC and 1.3 ± 0.2 and 1.9 ± 0.4 mL.kg^-1 in SC, p = 0.0001). When comparing moments within the same group, no differences were detected among Group NO patients, while in Group O such differences were significant between moments PO and PO1h and PO1h and PC (p = 0.02 and 0.03, respectively). PeCO₂ has not changed for both groups throughout the procedure, but levels were higher for Group O in the five moments: 27.8 ± 2.3 and 22.3 ± 4 in AI, 26.9 ± 1.8 and 22.7 ± 3.4 in PO, 26.1 ± 2.8 and 22.9 ± 2.3 in PO1h, 26.4 ± 1.7 and 21.3 ± 3.4 in PC and 27.2 ± 3.4 and 22.4 ± 3.1 in SC, p = 0.0001 for al moments. CO₂ production data are shown in figure 2.

Brazilian Journal of Anesthesiology, 2004; 54: 4: 542 - 552

P_ETCO₂ and SpO₂ allow adequate ventilatory adjustment in morbidly obese patients

Fábio Ely Martins Benseñor; José Otávio Costa Auler Júnior

Ventilation-perfusion variables have not shown differences between groups in airways dead space (VD aw). Nevertheless, both groups have shown increased VD aw between moments AI and PO (75.6 ± 22 and 84.6 ± 24 mL in Group O, 90.6 ± 15.5 and 98.3 ± 19.4 mL in Group NO, p = 0,01) and between moments PO and PO1h, being PO1h values equal to 91.4 ± 20.5 and 103.8 ± 19.4 mL respectively for Groups O and NO (p = 0.02). On the other hand, both groups had decreased VD aw between moments PC and SC (97.8 ± 19.4 and 84.91 ± 18.8 mL for Group O and 109 ± 26.4 and 104.4 ± 24.6 mL for Group NO, p = 0.004).

There have also been significant increases between moments AI and SC (p = 0.004). Alveolar dead space (VD alv) was not different between groups or among moments in the same group, the same being true for physiological dead space (VD phy). Alveolar tidal volume (TV alv), which is really involved in gaseous exchanges, was calculated by CO₂SMO Plus by subtracting expired volume from airways dead space. TV alv was statistically higher in Group O as compared to Group NO in the five sampled moments, respectively 439.7 ± 104.3 and 309.6 ± 59.3 in AI, 443.4 ± 95.6 and 291.2 ± 58.3 in PO, 425.3 ± 88.3 and 290.4 ± 69.7 in PO1h, 425.9 ± 72.9 and 318 ± 84.8 in PC, 404.2 ± 85.2 and 293.2 ± 62.6 in SC (p = 0.0001 in all moments). There have been no differences among moments in both groups. VD/BT phy ratio was higher in Group NO in the five moments, respectively 0.35 ± 0.1 and 0.25 ± 0.1 in AI, 0.38 ± 0.1 and 0.26 ± 0.1 in PO, 0.42 ± 0.1 and 0.25 ± 0.1 in PO1h, 0.45 ± 0.1 and 0.27 ± 0.1 in PC, 0.40 ± 0.1 and 0.26 ± 0.1 in SC (p = 0.002 in all moments). There have been no differences among moments in both groups. Ventilation/perfusion ratio data are shown in figure 3.

Brazilian Journal of Anesthesiology, 2004; 54: 4: 542 - 552

P_ETCO₂ and SpO₂ allow adequate ventilatory adjustment in morbidly obese patients

Fábio Ely Martins Benseñor; José Otávio Costa Auler Júnior

DISCUSSION

Standard ventilation monitoring based on pulse oximetry, capnography and periodic blood gases analyses has shown to be safe and enough during morbidly obese patients care. Ventilator adjustment based on those two variables has shown that adequate intraoperative respiratory rate and tidal volume for obese patients can be achieved in a similar manner to that used for patients with lower BMI, provided ideal weight is used as reference.

The first part of this analysis was related to adequate oxygenation via tidal volume adjustment. Both groups have received adequate oxygen supply during the five evaluation moments. In spite of statistically higher PaO₂ and PaO₂/F_iO₂ values in Group NO, in line with the literature^4,5,9,11, it is worth highlighting that values collected in the five moments for both groups are within normal ranges. As to oxygen supply, the conclusion was that morbidly obese patients may be adequately ventilated with 11 mL per kg of ideal weight, value similar to that used by several anesthesiologists for patients with lower BMI.

High oxygen fractions in the gaseous mixture administered during anesthesia promote atelectasis¹² and such effect seems to be exacerbated in obese patients, specially morbidly obese ones¹³. Hedenstierna et al.¹⁴ have described decreased functional residual capacity (FRC) promoted by general anesthesia and muscle paralysis under mechanical ventilation caused by diaphragm relaxation. Pelosi et al.¹³ have proposed that decreased oxygenation and pulmonary volume are inversely related to BMI. They have also proposed that such decrease could also be true for FRC. Better safety margin in anesthesia for morbidly obese patients would be obtained with positive end expiratory pressure (PEEP) due to alveolar recruitment that it promotes¹⁵. This way, PEEP would allow even lower oxygen expired fractions than those used in this study, what would be desirable to prevent intra and postoperative atelectasis.

The analysis of CO₂ production and excretion has shown that morbidly obese patients have produced more carbon dioxide according to PeCO₂ evaluation, which is in line with the literature¹¹. However, PeCO₂ values were within normal ranges for both groups. VCO₂/kg ratio has shown that morbidly obese patients produce less CO₂ as compared to non-obese after weight adjustment, probably because increased body mass is predominantly made up of poorly perfused fatty tissue. Higher tidal volumes in Group O patients have certainly interfered with VCO₂ values. Despite of higher CO₂ production in Group O, this increase does not seem to be clinically important, provided limits proposed in this study for expired CO₂ are respected.

The final part of respiratory function evaluation has studied ventilation/perfusion ratio variables. Results were very similar for both groups. Hedenstierna et al.¹¹ have shown increased alveolar dead space during obese patients anesthesia, but have stressed that such effect is also seen in individuals with normal BMI. Our study has confirmed such similarity. Alveolar ventilation results were not statistically different for both groups and should not be a reason for concern during morbidly obese patients anesthesia. So, in terms of ventilation/perfusion ratio, monitoring including expired CO₂ analysis, periodic central and/or arterial blood gases analysis, pulse oximetry and desirably, however not imperatively, circuit gases and vapors analysis, are safe indicators for morbidly obese patients anesthesia.

A final caveat is related to the nature of the control group. By including a patient with BMI below 18 and another with BMI above 25, characterizing malnutrition and overweight respectively, it could be prone to criticism. Our aim in maintaining such patients was to compare the population of morbidly obese patients to the general population, which includes patients who could not be characterized as eutrophic.

In conclusion, tidal volumes close to those usually employed and PEEP values still to be determined seem to be an adequate strategy for intraoperative ventilation of morbidly obese patients when associated to pulse oximetry and capnography, in addition to other alternatives used in previous studies⁴. Future studies assessing pulmonary recruitment, maybe through airway pressure versus volume curves analysis, would be useful to determine adequate PEEP values during ventilation of such patients.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

We acknowledge Dr. Jorge Bonassa, Electronic Engineer, Doctor in Pneumology, and Mr. Anderson Silva, Technician in Anesthesia and Engineering Student for their cooperation in adjusting and maintaining equipment during data collection stage; Karine Savalli Redigolo and Lilian Natis, from the Statistics Department, Heart Institute, Hospital das Clinicas, Faculdade de Medicina, USP, for helping in the statistical analysis; Joaquim Edson Vieira, M.D., for helping in the statistical analysis and final text review.

REFERENCES

Submitted for publication July 22, 2003

Accepted for publication October 27, 2003

• 01. Halpern A - A epidemia da obesidade. Arq Bras Endocrinol Metab, 1999;43:175-176.
• 02. Monteiro CA, Conde WL - A tendência secular da obesidade segundo estratos sociais: Nordeste e Sudeste do Brasil, 1975-1989-1997. Arq Bras Endocrinol Metab, 1999;43: 186-194.
• 03. Martins IS, Velásquez-Melendez G, Cervato AM. - Estado nutricional de grupamentos sociais da área metropolitana de São Paulo, Brasil. Cad Saúde Publica, 1999;15:71-78.
• 04. Øberg B, Poulsen TD - Obesity: an anaesthetic challenge. Acta Anaesthesiol Scand, 1996;40:191-200.
• 05. Shenkman Z, Shir Y, Brodsky JB - Perioperative management of the obese patient. Br J Anaesth, 1993;70:349-359.
• 06. Rosenbaum M, Leibel RL, Hirsch J - Obesity. N Engl J Med, 1997;337:396-407.
• 07. Waaler HT - Hazard of obesity - the Norwegian experience. Acta Med Scand, 1988;723:(Suppl):17-21.
• 08. Bardoczky GI, Yernault JC, Houben JJ et al - Large tidal volume ventilation does not improve oxygenation in morbidly obese patients during anaesthesia. Anesth Analg, 1995;81:385-388.
• 09. Buckley FP - Anaesthesia for the morbidly obese patient. Can J Anaesth, 1994;41:R94-R100.
• 10. Auler Jr JO, Miyoshi E, Fernandes CR et al - The effects of abdominal opening on respiratory mechanics during general anesthesia in normal and morbidly obese patients: a comparative study. Anesth Analg, 2002;94:741-748.
• 11. Hedenstierna G, Santesson J - Breathing mechanics, dead space and gas exchange in the extremely obese, breathing spontaneously and during anaesthesia with intermittent positive pressure ventilation. Acta Anaesthesiol Scand, 1976;20:248-254.
• 12. Kufel TJ, Grant BJB - Arterial Blood-Gas Monitoring: Respiratory Assessment, em: Tobin MJ - Principles and Practice of Intensive Care Medicine. 1^st Ed, New York: McGraw-Hill, 1998;197-215.
• 13. Pelosi P, Croci M, Ravagnan I et al - The effects of body mass on lung volumes, respiratory mechanics, and gas exchange during general anaesthesia. Anesth Analg, 1998;87:654-660.
• 14. Hedenstierna G, Strandberg Å, Brismar B et al - Functional residual capacity, thoracoabdominal dimensions, and central blood volume during general anaesthesia with muscle paralysis and mechanical ventilation. Anesthesiology, 1985;62:247-254.
• 15. Pelosi P, Ravagnan I, Giurati G et al - Positive end-expiratory pressure improves respiratory function in obese but not in normal subjects during anaesthesia and paralysis. Anesthesiology, 1999;91:1221-1231.

*

Received from Disciplina de Anestesiologia do Hospital das Clínicas da Faculdade de Medicina da Universidade de São Paulo, São Paulo, SP; Financiado pela Fundação de Amparo à Pesquisa do Estado de São Paulo, FAPESP, sob o número 97/11311-2

Publication Dates

• Publication in this collection
  22 Sept 2004
• Date of issue
  Aug 2004

History

• Received
  22 July 2003
• Accepted
  27 Oct 2003