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Phosphorus Fractions in Soil with Organic and Mineral Fertilization in Integrated Crop-Livestock System

ABSTRACT

Use of organic fertilizers in integrated crop-livestock (iCL) systems may affect soil phosphorus fractions. This study aimed to determine phosphorus fractions in the soil under the iCL system after six years of application of organic or mineral fertilizers. The experiment was conducted on a Rhodic Kandiudox (Nitossolo Vermelho Distroférrico) in a randomized block design, using a 5 × 3 + 1 factorial scheme, with four replicates. The treatments consisted of three organic fertilizers (poultry litter, pig slurry, and compost) and two mineral fertilizers (M1, equivalent to pig slurry; and M2, equivalent to poultry litter) in interaction with three application rates, corresponding to 75, 100, and 150 % of the fertilizer recommendation for the crop of interest and a control (with no fertilizer). Soil sampling was performed in the 0.00-0.05, 0.05-0.10, and 0.10-0.20 m layers for determination of the phosphorus fractions. Successive use of organic or mineral fertilizers for six years in the iCL system considerably raises the labile and moderately labile P fractions up to the 0.20 m depth and, with less intensity, raises the non-labile fractions up to the 0.10 m depth. The soil P increase associated with fertilizer input raises soybean and corn yields, and it does not exceed the critical P limit according to local environmental legislation.

manure; P fractionation; P sorption; soil fertility

INTRODUCTION

To meet the high demand for food production in Brazil, crops must be fertilized with phosphorus, since more than 80 % of Brazilian soils are poor in this nutrient. However, it is estimated that the total P surplus in the soil represents about 70 % of the P fertilizers used per year, which indicates the inefficiency of P use in Brazil (Withers et al., 2018Withers PJA, Rodrigues M, Soltangheisi A, Carvalho TS, Guilherme LRG, Benites VM, Gatiboni LG, Sousa DMG, Nunes RS, Rosolem CA, Andreote FD, Oliveira Junior A, Coutinho ELM, Pavinato PS. Transitions to sustainable management of phosphorus in Brazilian agriculture. Sci Rep. 2018;8:2537. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-018-20887-z
https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-018-20887...
).

Strategies must be created to increase the efficiency of P availability in the soil and reduce strong dependence on imported phosphate fertilizers. One noteworthy alternative is reuse of P from livestock residues associated with conservationist systems, such as the integrated crop-livestock (iCL) system, which can further enhance the efficiency of P availability in the soil (Crusciol et al., 2015Crusciol CAC, Nascente AS, Borghi E, Soratto RP, Martins PO. Improving soil fertility and crop yield in a tropical region with palisadegrass cover crops. Agron J. 2015;107:2271-80. https://doi.org/10.2134/agronj14.0603
https://doi.org/10.2134/agronj14.0603...
; Andrade et al., 2017Andrade CAO, Borghi E, Bortolon L, Bortolon ESO, Camargo FP, Avanzi JC, Simon J, Silva RR, Fidelis RR. Straw production and agronomic performance of soybean intercropped with forage species in no-tillage system. Pesq Agropec Bras. 2017;52:861-8. https://doi.org/10.1590/S0100-204X2017001000005
https://doi.org/10.1590/S0100-204X201700...
; Prochnow et al., 2018Prochnow L, Resende A, Junior A, Francisco E, Casarin V, Pavinato P. Phosphorus placement for annual crops in the tropics. Better Crops. 2018;102:21-4. https://doi.org/10.24047/BC102121
https://doi.org/10.24047/BC102121...
).

Effective use of organic fertilizers in an iCL system may result in positive economic and environmental effects because of the greater diversity of the integrated system, which may therefore favor nutrient cycling and availability (Anghinoni et al., 2011Anghinoni I, Moraes A, Carvalho PCF, Souza ED, Conte O, Lang CR. Benefícios da integração lavoura-pecuária sobre a fertilidade do solo em sistema plantio direto. In: Fonseca AF, Caires EF, Barth G. Fertilidade do solo e nutrição de plantas no sistema plantio direto. Ponta Grossa: Aeacg/Universidade Estadual de Ponta Grossa; 2011. p. 272-309.; Hentz et al., 2016Hentz P, Correa JC, Fontaneli RS, Rebelatto A, Nicoloso RS, Semmelmann CEN. Poultry litter and pig slurry applications in an integrated crop-livestock system. Rev Bras Cienc Solo. 2016;40:e0150072. https://doi.org/10.1590/18069657rbcs20150072
https://doi.org/10.1590/18069657rbcs2015...
).

In regions of high swine and poultry concentration, as in southern Brazil, rational use of animal waste as fertilizer mainly considers the phosphorus (P) level, and this level guides the agronomic recommendations (Gatiboni et al., 2015Gatiboni LC, Smyth TJ, Schmitt DE, Cassol PC, Oliveira CMB. Soil phosphorus thresholds in evaluating risk of environmental transfer to surface waters in Santa Catarina, Brazil. Rev Bras Cienc Solo. 2015;39:1225-34. https://doi.org/10.1590/01000683rbcs20140461
https://doi.org/10.1590/01000683rbcs2014...
; CQFS-RS/SC, 2016Comissão de Química e Fertilidade do Solo - CQFS-RS/SC. Manual de calagem e adubação para os estados do Rio Grande do Sul e Santa Catarina. Xanxerê: Sociedade Brasileira de Ciência do Solo - Núcleo Regional Sul; 2016.). In addition, in the state of Santa Catarina, the nutrient limits foreseen in environmental legislation must be observed. This legislation establishes the maximum amount of P to be applied (Fatma, 2016).

In areas managed with no tillage or pastures, organic fertilizers are normally applied on the soil surface without incorporation, but there are few studies on organic fertilization for iCL. Therefore, we have been observed an increase in P content in the soil surface layers over the past years, when organic fertilizers are used in conservation systems (De Conti et al., 2015De Conti L, Ceretta CA, Ferreira PAA, Lorensini F, Lourenzi CR, Vidal RF, Tassinari A, Brunetto G. Effects of pig slurry application and crops on phosphorus content in soil and the chemical species in solution. Rev Bras Cienc Solo. 2015;39:774-87. https://doi.org/10.1590/01000683rbcs20140452
https://doi.org/10.1590/01000683rbcs2014...
; Grohskopf et al., 2016Grohskopf MA, Cassol PC, Corrêa JC, Alburquerque JA, Ernani PR, Mafra MSH, Mafra AL. Soil solution nutrient availability, nutritional status and yield of corn grown in a Typic Hapludox under twelve years of pig slurry fertilizations. Rev Bras Cienc Solo. 2016;40:e0150341. https://doi.org/10.1590/18069657rbcs20150341
https://doi.org/10.1590/18069657rbcs2015...
).

Soil management systems can change P dynamics, especially those that promote addition of organic matter on the soil, thus contributing to a decrease in adsorption and a consequent increase in P availability to plants (Pereira et al., 2010Pereira MG, Loss A, Beutler SJ, Torres JLR. Carbono, matéria orgânica leve e fósforo remanescente em diferentes sistemas de manejo do solo. Pesq Agropec Bras. 2010;45:508-14. https://doi.org/10.1590/S0100-204X2010000500010
https://doi.org/10.1590/S0100-204X201000...
; Bezerra et al., 2015Bezerra RPM, Loss A, Pereira MG, Perin A. Phosphorus fractions and correlation with soil attributes under no-tillage and crop-livestock integration systems in Cerrado of Goiás. Semin-Cienc Agrar. 2015;36:1287-306. https://doi.org/10.5433/1679-0359.2015v36n3p1287
https://doi.org/10.5433/1679-0359.2015v3...
). Moreover, additional carbon from organic fertilization contributes to an increase in higher lability P (Guardini et al., 2012Guardini R, Comin JJ, Schmitt DE, Tiecher T, Bender MA, Santos DR, Mezzari CP, Oliveira BS, Gatiboni LC, Brunetto G. Accumulation of phosphorus fractions in Typic Hapludalf soil after long-term application of pig slurry and deep pig litter in a no-tillage system. Nutr Cycl Agroecosyst. 2012;93:215-25. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10705-012-9511-3
https://doi.org/10.1007/s10705-012-9511-...
).

Many methodologies have been tested in Brazil to quantify P fractions in the soil, but the method developed by Hedley et al. (1982)Hedley MJ, Stewart JWB, Chauhan BS. Changes in inorganic and organic soil phosphorus fractions induced by cultivation practices and by laboratory incubations. Soil Sci Soc Am J. 1982;46:970-6. https://doi.org/10.2136/sssaj1982.03615995004600050017x
https://doi.org/10.2136/sssaj1982.036159...
allows an understanding of the P dynamics in soils under different uses, fertilization sources, and cultivation systems (Schmitt et al., 2017Schmitt DE, Brunetto G, Santos E, Wagner WL, Sete PB, Souza M, Ambrosini VG, Santos MA, Tiecher T, Comin JJ, Couto RR, Gatiboni LC, Giachini A. Phosphorus fractions in apple orchards in southern Brazil. Bragantia. 2017;76:422-32. https://doi.org/10.1590/1678-4499.173
https://doi.org/10.1590/1678-4499.173...
). Phosphorus fractioning consists of sequential extraction in a soil sample with a series of reagents or extraction solutions that selectively dissolve different forms of P in the soil based on the nature of the phosphate compound and the energy bonds, which enables an explanation of P dynamics (Gatiboni et al., 2013Gatiboni LC, Brunetto G, Santos DR, Kaminski J. Fracionamento químico das formas de fósforo do solo: usos e limitações. In: Araújo AP, Alves BJR, editores. Tópicos em Ciência do Solo. Viçosa, MG: Sociedade Brasileira de Ciência do Solo; 2013. v. 8. p. 141-87.).

Knowledge of P chemical fractionation may help to understand P availability in its recognized forms between labile P and total P in the soil as a result of the type and rate of fertilizers applied in the iCL system. Based on this scenario, the aim of this paper was to determine the levels of phosphorus fractions after six years of increasing application rates of organic or mineral fertilizers in the iCL system to contribute to efforts to increase crop yield and environmental quality.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

The experiment was set up in 2011 in Concórdia, Santa Catarina State, Brazil, at 27° 12’ 0.08” S, 52° 4’ 58.22” W, and 569 m a.s.l. The system of production adopted was the integrated crop-livestock (iCL) system with corn (Zea mays L.) and soybean (Glycine max) crops during the summer and black oat (Avena strigosa Schreb) in the winter.

The weather is humid subtropical (Cfa), according to the Köppen classification system. The coldest months (June and July) have average temperatures around 15 °C and the annual mean temperature is 23 °C. Mean annual rainfall is 1,500 mm. The predominant landform is sloped surfaces.

Daily data regarding the maximum and minimum temperatures and rainfall during the two years of the experiment (2015-2017) were collected at the weather station at the Embrapa Swine and Poultry Research Center; the monthly values are shown in figure 1. It should be noted that rainfall and temperature conditions were proper for crop development.

Figure 1
Rainfall and maximum and minimum temperatures registered during the experiment in the 2015-2017 crop seasons, Concórdia, Santa Catarina, Brazil.

The soil of the experimental area is a Rhodic Kandiudox (Nitossolo Vermelho Distroférrico). The chemical and physical properties of the soil are shown in table 1. In the period between 1994 until 2011, the area of the experiment was managed with corn in the summer and black oat and fodder radish cover in the winter. Two applications of 5 Mg ha-1 of dolomitic limestone were made during this period, as well as organic fertilization with pig slurry of 50 m3 ha-1 yr-1, in accordance with the guidelines of the Santa Catarina environmental agency (IMA), as well as mineral fertilization defined by soil analysis and expected crop yield.

Table 1
Initial characterization of the Rhodic Kandiudox (Nitossolo Vermelho Distroférrico) in the 0.00-0.05, 0.05-0.10, and 0.10-0.20 m layers. Concórdia, Santa Catarina, Brazil

When the experiment was set up, the oat cover crop was chemically desiccated with the use of glyphosate herbicide (2,160 g ha-1 de i.a.). This agriculture practice was always repeated 14 days before sowing the winter and summer crops.

The experiment was carried out in field condition using a randomized block design with four replicates in a 5 × 3 + 1 factorial scheme, which included five fertilizers, three application rates, and a control treatment without fertilization. Fertilizer treatments comprised three organic fertilizers [poultry litter, liquid pig slurry (slurry), and compost], two mineral fertilizers [M1 and M2], and the control (with no fertilization). They interacted with three application rates, corresponding to 75, 100, and 150 % of that recommended for the crop of interest, based on the element with the highest demand for the crop in order to achieve estimated yields of ≥8 Mg ha-1 in corn and ≥4 Mg ha-1 in soybean. The experimental units consisted of 5 × 5 m plots, with a 2.5 m distance between blocks.

Fertilizers were applied on the surface beside the plant row for both the winter and summer crops. The slurry and poultry litter came from the animal production system of the Instituto Federal Catarinense, Campus Concórdia, in Santa Catarina, Brazil. The chemical properties of each organic fertilizer for each summer crop are shown in table 2. The fertilizers were analyzed according to the official methodology (APHA, 1992; AOAC, 2000Association of Official Analytical Chemists International - AOAC. Official methods of analysis of AOAC international. 17th ed. Washington, DC: AOAC; 2000.) for determining N, P, and K.

Table 2
Contribution of nutrients in the organic fertilizers applied in the iCL system

According to the N, P, and K contents in the organic fertilizers, we established the mineral formulations from the following sources: urea for N, triple superphosphate for P, and potassium chloride for K. The same amounts of these nutrients were added in the M1 treatment (corresponding to pig slurry) and the M2 treatment (corresponding to poultry litter).

The compost fertilizer was produced from pig slurry (which has a dry matter content of 40 to 60 g kg-1), using 8 to 12 liters of pig slurry per kilogram of the substrate, divided in different periods, formed of a mixture of wood shavings and sawdust. This mixture was arranged in a pile 1 m high, 3 m wide, and 20 m long. This liquid material was applied weekly, and the compost mass was stirred if the internal temperature exceeded 60 °C. After the temperature stabilized, the mature compost was ready for use.

The winter pasture was formed with black oat (Avena strigosa Schreb) at a sowing rate of 50 kg ha-1 of seeds, with 80 seeds per linear meter, and a 0.20 m spacing between rows. This pasture was used by sheep, managed within an electric fence. The grazing pattern and stocking rate considered the forage production, and the animals were removed when the stubble height was 0.10 m.

In the 2015/16 summer crop, soybean (Glycine max) was sown with 18 seeds per linear meter and a 0.45 m spacing between rows, and in the 2014/15 and 2016/17 crop seasons, the corn single hybrid Celeron TL of Syngenta was grown at a spacing of 0.80 m between rows and eight seeds per linear meter.

Stratified soil sampling was performed at the end of the summer crop in the 2016 season in the 0.00-0.05, 0.05-0.10, and 0.10-0.20 m layers. Three simple samples were randomly collected, one in the row and two between crop rows, to constitute a combined sample, using a cutting shovel up to 0.20 m. The combined samples underwent P fractionation through successive extractions following the methodology developed by Hedley et al. (1982)Hedley MJ, Stewart JWB, Chauhan BS. Changes in inorganic and organic soil phosphorus fractions induced by cultivation practices and by laboratory incubations. Soil Sci Soc Am J. 1982;46:970-6. https://doi.org/10.2136/sssaj1982.03615995004600050017x
https://doi.org/10.2136/sssaj1982.036159...
with modifications proposed by Condron and Goh (1989)Condron LM, Goh KM. Effects of long-term phosphatic fertilizer applications on amounts and forms of phosphorus in soils under irrigated pasture in New Zealand. J Soil Sci. 1989;40:383-95. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1365-2389.1989.tb01282.x
https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1365-2389.1989...
and adaptations described by Gatiboni et al. (2013)Gatiboni LC, Brunetto G, Santos DR, Kaminski J. Fracionamento químico das formas de fósforo do solo: usos e limitações. In: Araújo AP, Alves BJR, editores. Tópicos em Ciência do Solo. Viçosa, MG: Sociedade Brasileira de Ciência do Solo; 2013. v. 8. p. 141-87..

The results were analyzed for homogeneity and normality of variance. The treatments were compared through the Tukey test at the 5 % level of error probability, protected by the overall significance of the F test. In addition, regressions were calculated to determine the response of variables to the use of organic and mineral fertilizer rates.

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

The phosphorus (P) contribution to the iCL system from increasing rates of organic or mineral fertilizers throughout several summer crop seasons reached 434, 198, and 647 kg ha-1 of P for poultry litter, pig slurry, and compost, respectively, at the highest recommended rate and similar amounts in the mineral fertilizers for M1 (corresponding to pig slurry nutrient levels) and M2 (corresponding to poultry litter nutrient levels) (Table 3). Thus, fertilizers with higher levels of P (litter and compost) showed higher contents of labile P forms, extracted by resin. All of the fertilizers had a linear increase in this P form to the 0.20 m depth, with the exception of poultry litter in the 0.10-0.20 m layer, which exhibited a quadratic increase (Table 3).

Table 3
Labile soil phosphorus fraction extracted by ionic exchange resin in the 0.00-0.05, 0.05-0.10, and 0.10-0.20 m layers after six years use of organic and mineral fertilizers in a Rhodic Kandiudox

The ratio of the P content extracted through resin from the poultry litter and slurry fertilizers was higher than 2:1, which are similar to their peers with mineral fertilizers M1/thicken manure and M2/pig slurry (Table 3). Thus, in the surface, both the poultry litter and M2 shown superior P content extracted by resin than the pig slurry in the 75 % rate and the M1 from 100 % of fertilization recommendation; in the 0.05-0.10 m layer, the poultry litter superiority and M2 to the slurry, compost, and M1 occurs from 100 %; in the layer of 0.10-0.20 m, the poultry litter is higher than the slurry and the compost from 75 % and similar to M1 from 100 % (Table 3).

The use of organic fertilizers (pig slurry, cattle, and pig litter) and mineral fertilizers (NPK) after eight years increased P content extracted by resin in the surface layer in an Ultisol (Argissolo típico), with decreases to the depth of 0.04 m (Couto et al., 2017Couto RR, Ferreira PAA, Ceretta CA, Lourenzi CR, Facco DB, Tassinari A, Piccin R, De Conti L, Gatiboni LC, Schapanski D, Brunetto G. Phosphorus fractions in soil with a long history of organic waste and mineral fertilizer addition. Bragantia. 2017;76:155-66. https://doi.org/10.1590/1678-4499.006
https://doi.org/10.1590/1678-4499.006...
). These are the same results observed in a study in different soil classes (Santos, 2000Santos DR. Dinâmica do fósforo em sistemas de manejo de solos [tese]. Porto Alegre: Universidade Federal do Rio Grande do Sul; 2000.). The decrease in P content at greater depth is explained by the fact that the residues are added to the soil surface in no tillage systems without incorporation (Cassol et al., 2012Cassol PC, Costa AC, Ciprandi O, Pandolfo CM, Ernani PR. Disponibilidade de macronutrientes e rendimento de milho em Latossolo fertilizado com dejeto suíno. Rev Bras Cienc Solo. 2012;36:1911-23. https://doi.org/10.1590/S0100-06832012000600025
https://doi.org/10.1590/S0100-0683201200...
; Grohskopf et al., 2016Grohskopf MA, Cassol PC, Corrêa JC, Alburquerque JA, Ernani PR, Mafra MSH, Mafra AL. Soil solution nutrient availability, nutritional status and yield of corn grown in a Typic Hapludox under twelve years of pig slurry fertilizations. Rev Bras Cienc Solo. 2016;40:e0150341. https://doi.org/10.1590/18069657rbcs20150341
https://doi.org/10.1590/18069657rbcs2015...
).

Other factors that might have contributed to greater availability of labile P in the litter, slurry, and compost fertilizers (Table 3) are related to stimulation of microbial activity (De Brouwere et al., 2003De Brouwere K, Thijs A, Hens M, Merckx R. Forms and availability of soil phosphorus in temperate forests in southern Chile and Flanders. Gayana Bot. 2003;60:17-23. https://doi.org/10.4067/S0717-66432003000100004
https://doi.org/10.4067/S0717-6643200300...
; McDowell and Stewart, 2006McDowell RW and Stewart I. The phosphorus composition of contrasting soils in pastoral, native and forest management in Otago, New Zealand: sequential extraction and 31P NMR. Geoderma. 2006;130:176-89. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.geoderma.2005.01.020
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.geoderma.2005....
) and long-term successive use of these fertilizers (Gatiboni et al., 2008Gatiboni LC, Brunetto G, Kaminski J, Santos DR, Ceretta CA, Basso CJ. Formas de fósforo no solo após sucessivas adições de dejeto líquido de suínos em pastagem natural. Rev Bras Cienc Solo. 2008;32:1753-61. https://doi.org/10.1590/S0100-06832008000400040
https://doi.org/10.1590/S0100-0683200800...
). However, Caione et al. (2015)Caione G, Prado RM, Campos CNS, Rodrigues M, Pavinato PS, Agostinho FB. Phosphorus fractionation in soil cultivated with sugarcane fertilized by filter cake and phosphate sources. Commun Soil Sci Plant Anal. 2015;46:2449-59. https://doi.org/10.1080/00103624.2015.1081926
https://doi.org/10.1080/00103624.2015.10...
found similar P fractions after two years of use of different phosphate fertilizers (mineral and organic fertilizers) in an Ultisol (Argissolo Vermelho Eutrófico) with a sugarcane crop.

It is noteworthy that the association of clay content from this Rhodic Kandiudox (680-700 g kg-1), the pH, and the organic carbon values in the surface (Table 1) affect the sorption capacity and rates of release of intrinsic soil orthophosphate ions. This agrees with Gatiboni et al. (2013)Gatiboni LC, Brunetto G, Santos DR, Kaminski J. Fracionamento químico das formas de fósforo do solo: usos e limitações. In: Araújo AP, Alves BJR, editores. Tópicos em Ciência do Solo. Viçosa, MG: Sociedade Brasileira de Ciência do Solo; 2013. v. 8. p. 141-87., who argued that pH, soluble Al contents, Fe, Ca, OM, and clay content may be related to the dissolution, adsorption, and desorption of P in the soil system.

The NaHCO3, as well as ion exchange resin, extracts the labile P of the soil, and these two extractants showed a similar pattern of P extraction. All the fertilizers led to a linear increase in all the layers, except for the 0.05-0.10 m layer for M2, which exhibited a quadratic increase, and the 0.10-0.20 m layer for M1, which showed no effect (Table 4).

Table 4
Labile soil phosphorus fraction extracted by NaHCO3 0.5 mol L-1 in the 0.00-0.05, 0.05-0.10 and 0.10-0.20 m layers after six years use of organic and mineral fertilizers in a Rhodic Kandiudox

In extraction with NaHCO3, it is noteworthy that the largest values of labile P were found in M2, especially at the rate of 150 % in the 0.00-0.05 m layer, which were similar to the values from poultry litter and compost at the rate of 100 % in the 0.05-0.10 m layer (Table 4). This result confirms the greater sensitivity of this extraction method in detecting labile P when large amounts of P are applied to the system, especially in an inorganic form.

The NaHCO3 P fraction in the surface was related to the organic or mineral fertilizers used, as reported by Guardini et al. (2012)Guardini R, Comin JJ, Schmitt DE, Tiecher T, Bender MA, Santos DR, Mezzari CP, Oliveira BS, Gatiboni LC, Brunetto G. Accumulation of phosphorus fractions in Typic Hapludalf soil after long-term application of pig slurry and deep pig litter in a no-tillage system. Nutr Cycl Agroecosyst. 2012;93:215-25. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10705-012-9511-3
https://doi.org/10.1007/s10705-012-9511-...
and Lourenzi et al. (2013)Lourenzi CR, Ceretta CA, Silva LS, Girotto E, Lorensini F, Tiecher TL, De Conti L, Trentin G, Brunetto, G. Nutrients in soil layers under no-tillage after successive pig slurry applications. Rev Bras Cienc Solo. 2013;37:157-67. https://doi.org/10.1590/S0100-06832013000100016
https://doi.org/10.1590/S0100-0683201300...
, who studied the no tillage system in Ultisols (Argissolo Amarelo and Argissolo Vermelho). The greater concentration on the surface occurred because the P from the fertilizers applied may be adsorbed with high binding energy to the surface of the soil mineral colloids.

However, the use of high P application rates in the soil reduces the availability of these sites of high adsorption capacity for the phosphate ion, and therefore this element is adsorbed in sites of lower binding energy. Thus, there is accumulation of P in labile and moderately labile fractions in the surface layers of the soil (Gatiboni et al., 2008Gatiboni LC, Brunetto G, Kaminski J, Santos DR, Ceretta CA, Basso CJ. Formas de fósforo no solo após sucessivas adições de dejeto líquido de suínos em pastagem natural. Rev Bras Cienc Solo. 2008;32:1753-61. https://doi.org/10.1590/S0100-06832008000400040
https://doi.org/10.1590/S0100-0683200800...
; Guardini et al., 2012Guardini R, Comin JJ, Schmitt DE, Tiecher T, Bender MA, Santos DR, Mezzari CP, Oliveira BS, Gatiboni LC, Brunetto G. Accumulation of phosphorus fractions in Typic Hapludalf soil after long-term application of pig slurry and deep pig litter in a no-tillage system. Nutr Cycl Agroecosyst. 2012;93:215-25. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10705-012-9511-3
https://doi.org/10.1007/s10705-012-9511-...
). In addition, an increase in environmental contamination potential may be associated with this, which is indicated by calculation of the critical limit of environmental P (Gatiboni et al., 2015Gatiboni LC, Smyth TJ, Schmitt DE, Cassol PC, Oliveira CMB. Soil phosphorus thresholds in evaluating risk of environmental transfer to surface waters in Santa Catarina, Brazil. Rev Bras Cienc Solo. 2015;39:1225-34. https://doi.org/10.1590/01000683rbcs20140461
https://doi.org/10.1590/01000683rbcs2014...
).

The largest contribution to the increase in the P extracted by P-NaOH 0.1 mol L-1 in the iCL system up to the 0.20 m depth was because of the increase of the doses, with an intrinsic linear or quadratic adjustment of each fertilizer for each layer analyzed. Only M1 maintained a linear increase in the three layers (Table 5). This fraction is related to moderately labile P, that is, the P bonded to Fe or Al sesquioxides (Hedley et al., 1982Hedley MJ, Stewart JWB, Chauhan BS. Changes in inorganic and organic soil phosphorus fractions induced by cultivation practices and by laboratory incubations. Soil Sci Soc Am J. 1982;46:970-6. https://doi.org/10.2136/sssaj1982.03615995004600050017x
https://doi.org/10.2136/sssaj1982.036159...
; Gatiboni et al., 2013Gatiboni LC, Brunetto G, Santos DR, Kaminski J. Fracionamento químico das formas de fósforo do solo: usos e limitações. In: Araújo AP, Alves BJR, editores. Tópicos em Ciência do Solo. Viçosa, MG: Sociedade Brasileira de Ciência do Solo; 2013. v. 8. p. 141-87.).

Table 5
Moderately labile soil phosphorus fraction extracted by NaOH 0.1 mol L-1 in the 0.00-0.05, 0.05-0.10, and 0.10-0.20 m layers after six years use of organic and mineral fertilizers in a Rhodic Kandiudox

The high concentration of P extracted by P-NaOH 0.1 mol L-1 (Table 5) is related to the clayey texture (Table 1) and high iron content of the soil, within the range 180 and 360 g kg-1, which creates many adsorption sites and causes temporary mobilization of available P. This consequently reduces the efficiency of the P applied in the soil-plant system.

The high capacity of P adsorption in this soil class may be because of the specific differences between the fertilizers for the extraction with P-NaOH 0.1 mol L-1 extraction; which explains the similarity between the mineral and organic forms of P that contributed to the system (Table 5). In this P fraction, there were significance only at the rate of 75 % of fertilization recommendation, being the M2 treatment higher than the others, except for the compost; at the rate of 100 % with slurry lower than M2 in the 0.00-0.05 m layer; and in the rate of 75 % with M1 lower than the compost in the 0.10-0.20 m layer (Table 5).

Comparing poultry litter to M2 and slurry to M1, we observed that organic fertilizers had lower P-NaOH concentrations (Table 5). This result can be explained by the presence of organic compounds, especially those with high carboxylic and phenolic groups, which block the adsorption sites of Fe and Al oxides (Andrade et al., 2003Andrade FV, Mendonça ES, Alvarez V VH, Novais RF. Adição de ácidos orgânicos e húmicos em Latossolos e adsorção de fosfato. Rev Bras Cienc Solo. 2003;27:1003-11. https://doi.org/10.1590/S0100-06832003000600004
https://doi.org/10.1590/S0100-0683200300...
) and reduce P adsorption (Gatiboni et al., 2013Gatiboni LC, Brunetto G, Santos DR, Kaminski J. Fracionamento químico das formas de fósforo do solo: usos e limitações. In: Araújo AP, Alves BJR, editores. Tópicos em Ciência do Solo. Viçosa, MG: Sociedade Brasileira de Ciência do Solo; 2013. v. 8. p. 141-87.).

Increasing application rates of organic and mineral fertilizers in the iCL system raised the moderately labile P contents corresponding to the P-NaOH 0.5 mol L-1 fraction, with the effect of fertilizers only in the 75 % rate at the 0.00-0.05 m layer, where compost had a higher content of P-NaOH 0.5 mol L-1 than poultry litter (Table 6). Among the fertilizers, it is noteworthy that the mineral form M2 exhibits the highest P-NaOH 0.5 mol L-1 contents in the 150 % rate in the 0.00-0.05 and 0.10-0.20 layers and in the 100 % rate in the 0.05-0.10 m layer, a result that may be explained by the greater contribution of this element to the soil. This fraction is related to the moderately labile form of P that is physically and chemically protected in the internal surfaces of soil micro-aggregates (Cross and Schlesinger, 1995Cross AF, Schlesinger WH. A literature review and evaluation of the Hedley fractionation: applications to the biogeochemical cycle of soil phosphorus in natural ecosystems. Geoderma. 1995;64:197-214. https://doi.org/10.1016/0016-7061(94)00023-4
https://doi.org/10.1016/0016-7061(94)000...
).

Table 6
Moderately labile soil phosphorus fraction extracted by NaOH 0.5 mol L-1 in the 0.00-0.05, 0.05-0.10, and 0.10-0.20 m layers after six years use of organic and mineral fertilizers in a Rhodic Kandiudox

As in the P-NaOH 0.1 mol L-1 fraction, mineral fertilizers showed higher P-NaOH 0.5 mol L-1 (moderately labile P fraction) contents than organic sources, considering the same nutrient input in the system, which is demonstrated by higher angular coefficients in the minerals in relation to their organic pairs in the layers evaluated (Table 6).

Among the main fertilizers that contributed to an increase in non-labile phosphorus extracted by HCl, poultry litter, M2, compost, and M1 stand out, with a linear increase in the 0.00-0.05 m layer; poultry litter, M2, and compost stand out in the 0.05-0.10 m layer; and M2 stands out up to the 0.10-0.20 m layer. There were also no differences between the fertilizers at the same rate (Table 7). These results indicate that the presence of the inorganic form of P and higher rates of organic and mineral fertilizers can create chemical bonds with calcium carbonate, and this P will not be available to plants, due to the strong binding force of the inorganic compound formed.

Table 7
Non-labile soil phosphorus fraction extracted through the HCl 1 mol L-1 in the 0.00-0.05, 0.05-0.10, and 0.10-0.20 m layers after six years use of organic and mineral fertilizers in a Rhodic Kandiudox

Even with contents lower than those shown in the previous fractions, in the fraction of P extracted by HCl 1 mol L-1, the application of rates up to 150 % increase from the content of 10.8 mg kg-1 of non-labile P in the control treatment (zero rate) to 33.8, 30.1, 28.2, and 21.0 mg kg-1 in the poultry litter, M2, compost, and M1 respectively, in the surface layer, and are nearly double the concentration from poultry litter, M2, and compost in the 0.05-0.10 m layer (Table 7).

The increase in fertilizer rates, regardless of the form of fertilizer, favors the formation of covalent bonds between P and the clay colloids. This condition explains the increase in residual P content, which shows a linear increase for all fertilizers up to the 0.10 m layer, except for M1 in the surface layer and effective contributions for pig slurry and M2. The same response was maintained in the 0.10-0.20 m layer (Table 8).

Table 8
Residual soil phosphorus in the 0.00-0.05, 0.05-0.10, and 0.10-0.20 m layers after six years use of organic and mineral fertilizers in a Rhodic Kandiudox

Among fertilizers, M2 shows a more intense increase in the residual P fraction in response to fertilizer rates, with the highest angular coefficient in all layers. At the 150 % rate, there was an increase of 164, 184, and 154 % in the 0.00-0.05, 0.05-0.10, and 0.10- 0.20 m layers, respectively, in relation to the treatment without fertilization (zero rate) (Table 8).

An increase in the recommended rates of both organic and mineral fertilizer rates in the iCL system led to an increase in corn yields in the 2015 and 2017 crop seasons and in soybeans in the 2016 crop season (Figure 2). The corn yield in 2015 showed a quadratic increase for poultry litter and a linear response for the other treatments. In 2016, the soybean yield in iCL showed a linear increase for all the fertilizers used and was most intense for compost. In 2017, corn yield showed a linear increase for all treatments, with the highest yield observed in M2. The corn yield in 2015 was higher than that observed in 2017, which can be explained by the amount of rainfall (Figure 1).

Figure 2
Soybean and corn yield (kg ha-1) in response to the use of increasing rates of organic and mineral fertilizers in a Rhodic Kandiudox.

These results were also reported by Hentz et al. (2016)Hentz P, Correa JC, Fontaneli RS, Rebelatto A, Nicoloso RS, Semmelmann CEN. Poultry litter and pig slurry applications in an integrated crop-livestock system. Rev Bras Cienc Solo. 2016;40:e0150072. https://doi.org/10.1590/18069657rbcs20150072
https://doi.org/10.1590/18069657rbcs2015...
, who showed an increase in corn yield due to increasing rates of organic fertilizers such as poultry litter and pig slurry, with similar efficiency between their mineral pairs. Novakowiski et al. (2013)Novakowiski JH, Sandini IE, Falbo MK, Moraes A, Novakowiski JH. Adubação com cama de aviário na produção de milho orgânico em sistema de integração lavoura-pecuária. Semin-Cienc Agrar. 2013;4:1663-72. https://doi.org/10.5433/1679-0359.2013v34n4p1663
https://doi.org/10.5433/1679-0359.2013v3...
reported a direct response between poultry litter and pig slurry fertilization and corn yield. Hanisch et al. (2009)Hanisch AL, Fonseca JA, Almeida E. Efeito do uso de diferentes estratégias de manejo agroecológico no desempenho produtivo da cultura do milho. Rev Bras Agroecologia. 2009;4:1631-4. also reported a positive effect of fertilization with poultry litter and other organic sources in increasing corn yield. An increase in corn yield as an effect of fertilization with organic manures has been previously reported in traditional crop sequences in southern Brazil (Scherer et al., 2010Scherer EE, Nesi CN, Massotti Z. Atributos químicos do solo influenciados por sucessivas aplicações de dejetos suínos em áreas agrícolas de Santa Catarina. Rev Bras Cienc Solo. 2010;34:1375-83.https://doi.org/10.1590/S0100-06832010000400034
https://doi.org/10.1590/S0100-0683201000...
; Sartor et al., 2012Sartor LR, Assmann AL, Assmann TS, Bigolin PE, Miyazawa M, Carvalho PCF. Effect of swine residue rates on corn, common bean, soybean and wheat yield. Rev Bras Cienc Solo. 2012;36:661-9. https://doi.org/10.1590/S0100-06832012000200035
https://doi.org/10.1590/S0100-0683201200...
).

The positive results of corn and soybean yields in the three crop seasons in the iCL production system suggest that using 150 % of fertilization recommendations in both crops for all fertilizers can achieve high yields, and this rate will not exceed the critical limit for P defined by Santa Catarina environmental legislation, considering previous use of these fertilizer in accordance with efficient practices (Figure 2).

CONCLUSIONS

Successive use of organic or mineral fertilizers over six years in an iCL system intensely increases the labile and moderately labile P fractions up to the 0.20 m depth, and it has a less intense and positive effect on the non-labile fractions up to 0.10 m.

The higher contribution of P in the poultry litter, M2 (poultry litter), and compost fertilizers leads to higher contents of P (labile, moderately labile, and non-labile) in the three forms of availability, and the mineral form leads to higher levels in the moderately labile form compared to poultry litter/M2 and pig slurry/M1.

The increase in soil P contents is positively related to soybean and corn yields and suggests that 150 % of fertilization recommendation can improve P availability necessary for high crop yields, and it will not exceed the critical limit for P according to local environmental legislation.

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Publication Dates

  • Publication in this collection
    14 Feb 2019
  • Date of issue
    2019

History

  • Received
    5 June 2018
  • Accepted
    22 Oct 2018
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