Abstracts
This paper discusses the capital role that friendship plays in moral self-knowledge within Aristotelian Ethics. It focuses on the different ways in which a friend may shed light on the understanding of our behavior. Great attention is paid to the accounts of certain commentators (especially, of Richard Kraut and Anthony Kenny) on this subject. The paper tries to provide a conciliatory interpretation between views on self-knowledge that are, only in appearance, irreconcilable.
Aristotelian self-knowledge; Friendship; Virtue; Self-consciousness
Este artigo discute o papel fundamental desempenhado pela amizade no processo de autoconhecimento moral dentro da Ética aristotélica. Ele se concentra nas diferentes vias pelas quais um amigo pode esclarecer o processo de compreensão do nosso comportamento. Dedicamos grande atenção às abordagens de alguns comentadores acerca deste tema, especialmente a de Richard Kraut e Anthony Kenny. O artigo procura propor uma interpretação conciliadora entre abordagens sobre o autoconhecimento que são, apenas aparentemente, incompatíveis.
Autoconhecimento aristotélico; Amizade; Virtude; Autoconsciência
ARTIGOS
The role of self-knowledge in aristotelian friendship
Héctor Zagal Arreguín
PhD em Filosofia pela Universidad Panamericana. hzagal@up.edu.mx
ABSTRACT
This paper discusses the capital role that friendship plays in moral self-knowledge within Aristotelian Ethics. It focuses on the different ways in which a friend may shed light on the understanding of our behavior. Great attention is paid to the accounts of certain commentators (especially, of Richard Kraut and Anthony Kenny) on this subject. The paper tries to provide a conciliatory interpretation between views on self-knowledge that are, only in appearance, irreconcilable.
Keywords: Aristotelian self-knowledge, Friendship, Virtue, Self-consciousness
RESUMO
Este artigo discute o papel fundamental desempenhado pela amizade no processo de autoconhecimento moral dentro da Ética aristotélica. Ele se concentra nas diferentes vias pelas quais um amigo pode esclarecer o processo de compreensão do nosso comportamento. Dedicamos grande atenção às abordagens de alguns comentadores acerca deste tema, especialmente a de Richard Kraut e Anthony Kenny. O artigo procura propor uma interpretação conciliadora entre abordagens sobre o autoconhecimento que são, apenas aparentemente, incompatíveis.
Palavras-Chave: Autoconhecimento aristotélico, Amizade, Virtude, Autoconsciência
The importance of knowledge in human life
One of the most controversial claims of Aristotelian Ethics is that "we can contemplate (theorein) our neighbors (tous pelas) better than ourselves and their actions (praxeis) better than our own".
In the first place, it is clear that underneath all the Aristotelian discussion on self-knowledge lies a wider and broader analysis on the role of knowledge in human life. The importance of knowledge and self-knowledge is underlined in the Nicomachean Ethics by an argumentation that has aroused many interpretations among scholars and that has been reconstructed with a great number of variants.
But if life itself is good and pleasant, (agathon kai edu) which it seems to be, from the very fact that all men desire (oregesthai) it, and particularly those who are good and blessed (epieikes kai makarious); for to such men life is most desirable, and their existence is the most blessed; and if he who sees perceives (aisthanetai) that he sees, and he who hears that he hears, and he who walks that he walks, and in the case of all other activities similarly there is something which perceives that we are active, so that if we perceive, we perceive that we perceive (kan aisthanometh' oti aisthanometha), and if we think, that we think (kan nomen oti noumen); and if to perceive that we perceive or think is to perceive that we exist (for existence is defined as perceiving or thinking) (to gar einai en aisthanesthai e noein); and if perceiving that one lives is one of the things that are pleasant in themselves (for life is by nature good, and to perceive what is good present in oneself is pleasant) (fusei gar agathon zoe to de agathon uparxon en eauto aisthenesthai edu); and if life is desirable, and particularly so for good men, because to them existence is good and pleasant (for they are pleased at the consciousness of what is in itself good) (sun-aisthenomenoi gar tou kath auto agathou edontai); and if virtuous man is to know himself, he is to his friend also (for his friend is another self) (heteros gar autos o filos estin): then as his own existence is desirable because he perceived his own goodness (aireton), and such perception is pleasant in itself (to aisthanesthai autou agathou). He needs, therefore, to be conscious of the existence of his friend as well (sunaisthenesthai ara dei kai tou filou oti estin), and this will be realized in their living together and sharing in discussion and thought (logon kai dianoias); for this is what living together would seem to mean in the case of man, and not, as in the case of cattle, feeding in the same place.
Far from proposing a definitive reading of the passage, I would like to high-lighten some of its most fundamental aspects in order to shed light on the Aristotelian theses on self-knowledge:
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Life itself is good and is even more pleasant when we have consciousness of it.
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To be aware of one's existence when one is good and virtuous is even more pleasant.
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If we are disposed towards our friends in the same way we are disposed towards ourselves (that is to say, if our friend is 'another self''), the existence and the virtues of others will also please us.
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We can take great pleasure in the existence of a friend when we interact with him in the properly human fashion, i.e., when we communicate to him our words and thoughts.
Aristotle emphasizes thereby the inherent wish of man to know reality and the pleasure that goes in hand with that knowledge.
Considerations of our ethical virtues go in hand with the memory of the particular activities in which we have developed and perfected our skills. Awareness of how we have practiced virtue is an essential element of happiness, for we take pleasure in having oriented our will adequately to an end, as well as in having deliberated correctly upon the necessary means to achieve it. This means, to put it briefly, that we cannot achieve happiness without self-knowledge. Otherwise, we could not even be aware either of the favorable state we live in or of the hard work we have done to reach it. Although it may seem quite paradoxical, to be aware of our efforts to reach happiness is an important part of happiness itself.
This argumentation in the above quoted passage seems to take an important turn when Aristotle mentions the pleasure we take in being aware of the existence of our friends. At first glance, perhaps, it does not seem clear what is at the basis of such phenomenon. Aristotle does not explicitly mention this here, but such pleasure seems to be closely linked with virtuous friendship. The bond between two individuals by means of virtue builds up, according to Aristotle, the most authentic kind of friendship; it is not grounded on such contingent interests as friendships based on pleasure or utility.
This seems to explain why Aristotle uses the above mentioned metaphor of the friend as 'another self'. Here, in contrast with other commentators who seem to read this passage in a rigid and literal way, I advance a more weak and flexible interpretation of this metaphor.
Once we have reached this point, it becomes manifest why the existence of friends is pleasant. It is still not quite clear why we contemplate better the actions of our friends than ours. It also remains the question of why this knowledge is essential to us. The above mentioned arguments, however, proportionate enough material to initially approach both questions. Firstly, it seems that we are more capable of evaluating the actions of our friends and his moods because the friend is for us 'another self' that shares our orientation towards good, virtue, and happiness. We possess certain objectivity in regard of his conduct because we know which are his most fundamental aspirations, goals, and wishes. Such things constitute the axis upon which the interchange of thoughts characteristic of virtuous friendships takes place. Secondly, it is clear that passions cloud the knowledge we have ourselves. One of the most representative cases Aristotle mentions is that of young men at the beginning of the Nicomachean Ethics. While examining who are susceptible of living a fulfilled existence within the polis, Aristotle rules out young men due to their excessive passions.
Here as before, it is of extreme importance the idea of shared good among friends, because in the Aristotelian theory it does not seem that one helps friends in such cases because one has an obligation towards them. Instead, one does that due to the pleasure one takes in the friend's existence and virtues. One does not want that his friend commits evil actions because he knows that they will lead his friend away from the shared ethical choices and dispositions that make him a morally favorable and delightful companion. Thus it can be affirmed that a friend is a mirror in which we see reflected an image of ourselves.
Another way in which friends play a role in self-knowledge is when we reflect about their actions and we notice the nature of their virtues. As Sherman has pointed out lucidly, we are not entirely conscious of our own moral merits in several moments of life, and for this reason we need to compare reflexively ourselves with our friends in order to become aware of our own moral feats.
Excess or lack of contemplative life? An intermediate position
There is, however, another instance that seems to be even more decisive than the former ones. I refer to the problematic relation between political life and contemplation in Aristotle. Indeed, one of the reasons it seems to be that friends are completely essential to the good life described by the philosopher is that we have to trust them as judges of our deeds, for when we perform virtuous actions we stop considering certain fundamental aspects of our conduct. While commenting this passage of the Nicomachean Ethics, Kraut has underlined a particularly common phenomenon, i.e. the frequency in which an excess of contemplation hinders us from acting adequately:
But what of the second question: why does Aristotle think that we can contemplate our friend's actions better than our own? His idea, I suggest, is that too much self-consciousness about the performance of an activity undermines its chances of success. To exercise one's skills in the solution of a practical problem, one must focus on the problem itself, and not reflect on those skills. The musician, for example, must think about the notes to be played, and not about his virtues as a musician. Similarly, the courageous person thinks about how to win this particular battle, and is too engaged in this activity to step back and enjoy the observation of a courageous man in action. The political leader justly resolving a conflict between other citizens must be thinking about the details of their dispute, whereas an admiring friend can observe his skills as a negotiator.
In fact, when we perform a deed we do not reflect on the nature of our ethical qualities and we cannot properly contemplate our virtues. What happens is that we become virtuous while performing ethical deeds, and in a second instance, we are capable of evaluating the dimensions of our actions from a wider perspective. To reflect on such things in the moment of our performance, as Kraut says, would hinder us from acting competently in complex situations. Without question, this subject is closely related with the Aristotelian idea of 'practical truth'. While in some disciplines or sciences we obtain a truth of an intellectual nature, the truth we look for in ethics is of the kind that will draw us closer to happiness.
The 'productive' nature of human actions places us in condition in which we look backwards to the things we have done, and as virtuous individuals we do this with the aid of our friends. At first glance it seems easier that we gain awareness of the real magnitude of our endeavors by submitting the evaluation of our actions to the judgment of others who hold us in great esteem. As a sharer of the same set of virtues and values, our friend is a trustworthy agent with whom we can review our previously performed actions. The self-knowledge that goes in hand with this interaction, however, does not pertain only to our condition as ethical agents. Its benefits seem to extend even beyond the present, because we can act better in future instances if we make of this reflective exercise our habit.
Kraut's explanation is highly suggestive, for it stresses the complexity of human action and the multifaceted variety of approaches by which an individual can judge, perform, and perfect his deeds. It is curious, however, that Anthony Kenny adduces almost the opposite reasons to justify the need of friends for self-knowledge. According to Kraut, the need of friends is crucial since there is always the possibility that we incur in an excess of contemplation while performing an action. Hence we need to trust the judgment of our actions to our friends, even if it is for a very short period of time. In contrast, Kenny's argument is that our incapacity to remain always in a contemplative state makes us need friends.
This interpretation does not ignore naively the passages of the Nicomachean Ethics in which Aristotle says that friends are essential to happiness. It would be absurd to consider friends only as rational creatures that help us perfect our knowledge. As Kenny remarks, Aristotle himself notices this problem and makes great emphasis on our need of friends. But still, Kenny's interpretation seems to privilege excessively contemplative happiness over political life. It is perfectly clear what he and Gauthier-Jolie believe: God does not need friends because of the mere fact that his activity is energeia, that is to say, his existence is in itself perfect, as well as the pleasantness attached to it. Friends, in contrast, cannot enjoy themselves in the same way. Human life is indissolubly united to praxis and thus we have to endure a lot of hardships in order to remain in such a state. While God's intellectual life is complete and self-sufficient, human consciousness is imperfect and needs to be complemented by the activity of others.
Instead of pleading for the superiority of a reading over the other, I would like to remark that both make emphasis on different aspects of friendship. One must complement each of these interpretations in order to understand friendship's role in moral self-knowledge. To be sure, Kraut's analysis about the excess of contemplation in view of the performance of concrete actions is of great phenomenological relevance, but by no means is the only way in which friends play a role on self-knowledge and moral development. A friend is another self, as we mentioned before, who shares our orientation towards good and chooses similar means as ours to achieve his goals. If we only took Kraut's analysis as a point of reference, we could not explain why we enjoy contemplating a friend performing virtuous deeds and, more importantly, why this has concrete repercussions on our idea of virtue and good.
Analogously, Kenny's reading underlines a very interesting phenomenon, i.e. the effect of friends on our own moral or affective state. Nevertheless, his extreme dependence on the idea of happiness in book X makes it very difficult to explain the optimal development of our capacities by the aid of friends. To put it simply, if we follow his line of argument to its last consequences, it would seem that friends are only instruments we use to remedy our own imperfect condition as contemplative agents. It is clear to me that this is not Kenny's intention at all, but the specific weight he lays on this criterion could easily lead to that conclusion.
In general terms, not only these readings, but any interpretation that provides a univocal solution to the question of why we are more conscious of the actions of our friends than ours seems to leave many elements aside. As can be seen from the above discussion, Aristotle himself did not answer this question systematically, but his acute analysis of virtuous friendship allows approaches to the subject from a wide variety of legitimate perspectives. These different paths examined, in consonance with the exigency of reasonable rigor formulated in book I,
Artigo recebido em 29/04/2009 e aprovado em 1º/10/2009.
- 1Nicomachean Ethics, 1169b33. For the quotations of Aristotle I will use Jonathan Barnes (Ed.). The Complete Works of Aristotle, New Jersey: Princeton University Press, 1991.
Publication Dates
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Publication in this collection
19 July 2010 -
Date of issue
June 2010
History
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Received
29 Apr 2009 -
Accepted
01 Oct 2009