Abstract
Egg yolk was partially replaced (0, 25, 50, 75, and 100%) with octenyl succinic anhydride (OSA)-modified potato starch in a reduced-fat mayonnaise formulation to curtail the problems associated with high cholesterol and induced allergic reactions. The physicochemical properties included parameters such as: pH, fat content, and emulsion stability of the formulations analyzed. The samples with 75% and 100% egg yolk substitute showed the maximum emulsion stability (>95% after two of months storage), and they were selected according to cholesterol content, particle size distributions, dynamic rheological properties, microstructure, and sensory characteristic. A significant reduction (84-97%) in the cholesterol content was observed in the selected samples. Particle size analysis showed that by increasing the amount of OSA starch, the oil droplets with the peak size of 70 µm engulfed by this compound became larger. The rheological tests elucidated that in the absence of egg yolk, OSA starch may not result in a final product with consistent texture and that the best ratio of the two emulsifiers (OSA starch/egg yolk) to produce stable reduced-fat, low cholesterol mayonnaise is 75/25. The microscopic images confirmed the formation of a stable cohesive layer of starch surrounding the oil droplets emulsified in the samples selected.
octenyl succinic anhydride; cholesterol; mayonnaise; particle size distributions; rheological characteristics; microstructure
1 Introduction
Mayonnaise is one of the most popular types of sauces in the world. It is a
semi-solid oil-in-water emulsion produced as a mixture of egg yolk, vinegar, oil and
some other ingredients (Depree & Savage,
2001Depree, J. A., & Savage, G. P. (2001). Physical and flavor
stability of mayonnaise. Trends in Food Science & Technology, 12(5-6),
157-163. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/S0924-2244(01)00079-6.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/S0924-2244(01)...
). Egg yolk is a key ingredient because of its high emulsifying
capacity which is related to the phospholipids, lipoproteins (LDL and HDL), and
non-associated proteins (livetin and phosvitin) (Anton et al., 2007Anton, M., Castellani, O., & Guerin-Dubiard, C. (2007).
Phosvitin. In R. Huopalahti, R. Lopez-Fandino, M. Anton & R. Schade (Eds.),
Bioactive egg yolk (pp. 17-23). Berlin, Heidelberg: Springer-Verlag.
; Laca et al.,
2010Laca, A., Saenz, M. C., Paredes, B., & Diaz, M. (2010).
Rheological properties, stability and sensory evaluation of low cholesterol
mayonnaise prepared using egg yolk granules as emulsifying agent. Journal of
Food Engineering, 97(2), 243-252.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jfoodeng.2009.10.017http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jfoodeng.2009.10.017
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jfoodeng.200...
; Moros et al.. 2002Moros, J. E., Franco, J. M., & Gallegos, C. (2002). Rheological
properties of cholesterol-reduced, yolk-stabilized mayonnaise. Journal of the
American Oil Chemists' Society, 79(8), 837-843.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s11746-002-0567-6.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s11746-002-056...
).
Today, conscious consumers demand healthier and nutritious foods, and mayonnaise is
often mentioned by health-related deliberations because of its high fat (70-80%) and
cholesterol content (Liu et al., 2007Liu, H., Xu, X. M., & Guo, Sh. D. (2007). Rheological, texture
and sensory properties of low fat mayonnaise with different fat mimetic.
Lebensmittel Wissenschaft and Technologies, 40(6), 946-954.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.lwt.2006.11.007
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.lwt.2006.11....
; Nikzade et al., 2012Nikzade, V., Mazaheri Tehrani, M., & Saadatmand-Tarzjan, M.
(2012). Optimization of low-cholesterol-low-fat mayonnaise formulation: Effect
of using soy milk and some stabilizer by a mixture design approach. Food
Hydrocolloids, 28(2), 344-352.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.foodhyd.2011.12.023
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.foodhyd.2011...
). Therefore, different
attempts have been made to develop low cholesterol products with characteristics
similar to those of real mayonnaise (Laca et al.,
2010Laca, A., Saenz, M. C., Paredes, B., & Diaz, M. (2010).
Rheological properties, stability and sensory evaluation of low cholesterol
mayonnaise prepared using egg yolk granules as emulsifying agent. Journal of
Food Engineering, 97(2), 243-252.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jfoodeng.2009.10.017http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jfoodeng.2009.10.017
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jfoodeng.200...
). Low cholesterol mayonnaise with no egg yolk have been produced
using egg white and food grade emulsifiers resulting in a full-fat (>70%) product
(Dartey et al., 1990Dartey, K., Trainor, M., & Evans, R.1990U.S.US Patent
4948617AEast Hanover, NJ
East
Hanover...
). Moros et al. (2002)Moros, J. E., Franco, J. M., & Gallegos, C. (2002). Rheological
properties of cholesterol-reduced, yolk-stabilized mayonnaise. Journal of the
American Oil Chemists' Society, 79(8), 837-843.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s11746-002-0567-6.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s11746-002-056...
used a reduced-cholesterol
egg yolk in mayonnaise formulation and showed that the rheological parameters may be
improved by reducing the level of cholesterol by 40-80 wt% (Moros et al., 2002Moros, J. E., Franco, J. M., & Gallegos, C. (2002). Rheological
properties of cholesterol-reduced, yolk-stabilized mayonnaise. Journal of the
American Oil Chemists' Society, 79(8), 837-843.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s11746-002-0567-6.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s11746-002-056...
). Plant-based proteins, such as soy bean
and wheat proteins, have been used as emulsifiers in several studies to replace egg
yolk in mayonnaise emulsion systems (Puppo et al.,
2000Puppo, M. C., Sorgentini, D. A., & Anon, M. C. (2000).
Rheological study of dispersions prepared with modified soybean protein
isolates. Journal of the American Oil Chemists' Society, 77(1), 63-71.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s11746-0000010-z
http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s11746-0000010...
; Ghoush et al., 2008Ghoush, M. A., Samhouri, M., Al-Holy, M., & Herald, Th. (2008).
Formulation and fuzzy modeling of emulsion stability and viscosity of a
gum-protein emulsifier in a model mayonnaise system. Journal of Food
Engineering, 84(2), 348-357.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jfoodeng.2007.05.025.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jfoodeng.200...
). Garcia (2006)Garcia, K. M. (2006). Quality characterization of cholesterol-free
mayonnaise-type spreads containing rice bran oil (Dissertação de mestrado). B.S.
Chemical Engineering. Louisiana State University. Louisiana. studied the cholesterol-lowering
effect of rice bran oil on a mayonnaise type spread. Laca et al. (2010)Laca, A., Saenz, M. C., Paredes, B., & Diaz, M. (2010).
Rheological properties, stability and sensory evaluation of low cholesterol
mayonnaise prepared using egg yolk granules as emulsifying agent. Journal of
Food Engineering, 97(2), 243-252.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jfoodeng.2009.10.017http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jfoodeng.2009.10.017
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jfoodeng.200...
developed a simple laboratory procedure for
producing egg yolk granules with lower cholesterol content as an emulsifying agent
in mayonnaise preparation. A combination of soy milk, gums, and mono- and
diglycerides has been statistically formulated to replace the egg yolk in low
cholesterol-low fat products (Nikzade et al.,
2012Nikzade, V., Mazaheri Tehrani, M., & Saadatmand-Tarzjan, M.
(2012). Optimization of low-cholesterol-low-fat mayonnaise formulation: Effect
of using soy milk and some stabilizer by a mixture design approach. Food
Hydrocolloids, 28(2), 344-352.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.foodhyd.2011.12.023
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.foodhyd.2011...
). The effects of different ingredients in the formulation of reduced
fat/cholesterol mayonnaise were reviewed by Zhen
& Boye (2013)Zhen, M., & Boye, J. I. (2013). Advances in the design and
production of reduced-fat and reduced-cholesterol salad dressing and mayonnaise:
a review. Food Bioprocess Technology, 6(3), 648-670.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s11947-0121000-9
http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s11947-0121000...
.
Modified starches from different sources are usually used as thickening agents to
provide desired structures in food products (Silva
et al., 2006Silva, G. O., Takizawa, F. F., Pedroso, R. A., Franco, C. M. L.,
Leonel, M., Sarmento, S. B. S., & Demiate, I. M. (2006). Physicochemical
characteristics of modified food starches commercialized in Brazil. Food Science
and Technology (Campinas.), 26(1), 188-197.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1590/S0101-20612006000100030.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1590/S0101-20612006...
). Octenyl succinic anhydride (OSA) starch is a new type of
chemically modified starch with surface active properties (Zhu et al., 2013Zhu, J., Li, L., Chen, L., & Li, X. (2013). Nano-structure of
octenyl succinic anhydride modified starch micelle. Food Hydrocolloids, 32(1),
1-8. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.foodhyd.2012.11.033
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.foodhyd.2012...
). It is produced by esterification of
different sources of starch with anhydrous octenyl succinic acid under alkaline
conditions (Tesch et al., 2002Tesch, S., Gerhards, Ch., & Schubert, H. (2002). Stabilization
of emulsions by OSA starches. Journal of Food Engineering, 54(2), 167-174.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/S0260-8774(01)00206-0
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/S0260-8774(01)...
; Bao et al., 2003Bao, J., Xing, J., Phillips, D. L., & Corke, H. (2003). Physical
properties of octenyl succinic anhydride modified rice, wheat, and potato
starches. Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry, 51(8), 2283-2287.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1021/jf020371u. PMid:12670171
http://dx.doi.org/10.1021/jf020371u...
; Dokic, 2008). The
hydrophobic short octenyl succinate side chains may be responsible for adsorption of
the OSA starch molecules at the oil/water (O/W) interface, and the long amylopectin
backbone protects the droplets against flocculation by the mechanism of steric
stabilization. Unlike typical surfactants, OSA starch forms a strong film at the O/W
interface and provides a good resistance against re-agglomeration (Bhosale & Singhal, 2006Bhosale, R., & Singhal, R. (2006). Process optimization for the
synthesis of octenyl succinyl derivative of waxy corn and amaranth starches.
Carbohydrate Polymers, 66(4), 521-527.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.carbpol.2006.04.007
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.carbpol.2006...
; Timgren, et al., 2013Timgren, A., Rayner, M., Dejmek, P., Marku, D., & Sjöö, M.
(2013). Emulsion stabilizing capacity of intact starch granules modified by heat
treatment or octenyl succinic anhydride. Food Science and Nutrition, 1(2),
157-171. http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/fsn3.17. PMid:24804025
http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/fsn3.17...
). Increasing the
viscosity of the continuous phase in combination with the ability of adsorption at
interfaces, enables OSA starch to act as a stabilizer and also as an emulsifier in
O/W emulsion systems. This type of modified starch has been approved as a food
additive by the FDA and EU (Tesch et al.,
2002Tesch, S., Gerhards, Ch., & Schubert, H. (2002). Stabilization
of emulsions by OSA starches. Journal of Food Engineering, 54(2), 167-174.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/S0260-8774(01)00206-0
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/S0260-8774(01)...
). In 2012, a proposal for using OSA starch modified gum arabic as an
emulsifier was assessed according to Health Canada guidelines. It has been proved
that OSA starch produced from different plant sources may exhibit somewhat different
functional properties (Timgren et al.,
2013Timgren, A., Rayner, M., Dejmek, P., Marku, D., & Sjöö, M.
(2013). Emulsion stabilizing capacity of intact starch granules modified by heat
treatment or octenyl succinic anhydride. Food Science and Nutrition, 1(2),
157-171. http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/fsn3.17. PMid:24804025
http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/fsn3.17...
).
The main objective of this research was to investigate the effect of partial (0, 25, 50, 75, and 100%) replacement of egg yolk with OSA potato starch on the emulsion stability, cholesterol content, particle size, linear viscoelastic, and organoleptic properties of reduced fat mayonnaise.
2 Materials and methods
Octenyl succinic anhydride (OSA) potato starch, Emulsiform CM20, was purchased from the National Starch Company, Denmark. Betulin (Sigma-Aldrich, Germany) was used as internal standard in the cholesterol test. All other chemical reagents were of analytical grade.
2.1 Preparation of mayonnaise
Reduced fat mayonnaise samples were formulated as a mixture of about 40% vegetable oil, 4.8% sugar, 1.5% salt, 2% potato starch, 0.4% mustard, 0.05% xanthan, 0.14% guar gum, 0.01% citric acid, 0.01% sorbate, 0.06% benzoate, and 4.5% vinegar. The egg yolk, OSA starch, and water were used in different samples as shown in Table 1. All of the mayonnaise samples were prepared according to the method briefly shown in Figure 1 and analyzed by the following physicochemical tests in triplicates.
Ingredients, pH, and fat content of mayonnaise samples(1 1 The results are expressed as mean±standard deviation. Data followed by the same letter in a column are not significantly different. ).
Particle size distribution curves of the control samples (a) and samples with 75% and 100% egg yolk substitute (b, c).
2.2 Chemical analyses
The pH of the mayonnaise samples was measured at 25 °C using a 500 Cyberscan pH
meter system. The fat percentage of the mayonnaise samples was determined
according to the method of Mistry and Hassan (Mistry & Hassan, 1992Mistry, V. V., & Hassan, H. N. (1992). Manufacture of nonfat
yogurt from a high milk protein powder. Journal of Dairy Science, 75(4),
947-957. http://dx.doi.org/10.3168/jds.S0022-0302(92)77835-7.
PMid:1578031
http://dx.doi.org/10.3168/jds.S0022-0302...
).
2.3 Emulsion stability
Samples, each weighing 15 g, were heated in centrifuge tube at 80 ºC for 30 min
and then centrifuged at 5000 rpm for 30 min. The emulsion stability percentage
was calculated according to Equation
1 (Mun et al., 2009Mun, S., Kim, Y. L., Kang, C. G., Park, K. H., Shim, J. Y., &
Kim, Y. R. (2009). Development of reduced-fat mayonnaise using
4alphaGTase-modified rice starch and xanthan gum. International Journal of
Biological Macromolecules, 44(5), 400-407.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.ijbiomac.2009.02.008. PMid:19428473
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.ijbiomac.200...
; Nikzade et al., 2012Nikzade, V., Mazaheri Tehrani, M., & Saadatmand-Tarzjan, M.
(2012). Optimization of low-cholesterol-low-fat mayonnaise formulation: Effect
of using soy milk and some stabilizer by a mixture design approach. Food
Hydrocolloids, 28(2), 344-352.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.foodhyd.2011.12.023
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.foodhyd.2011...
):
F0 = original weight of each sample
F1 = weight of the precipitated fraction
2.4 Rheological behavior
Rheological behavior of mayonnaise samples was studied in a Paar Physica rheometer (MCR 501, Anton Paar GmbH, Austria) at 25 °C with serrated parallel plates measuring system (diameter = 25 mm, gap = 1 mm). Linear viscoelastic strain amplitude was determined as 0.4% using the strain sweep test (0.01-100%) at a constant frequency of 1 Hz; the frequency sweep test was performed at this constant strain over the range 0.01 to 100 Hz.
2.5 Particle size measurement
Mayonnaise samples were analyzed using a Malvern particle size analyzer, Mastersizer 2000 according to the procedure described by Quintana et al. (2002)Quintana, J. M., Califano, A. N., Zaritzky, N. E., & Partal, P. (2002). Effect of salt on the rheological properties of lowin-fat O/W emulsions stabilised with polysaccharides. Food Science and Technology (Campinas.), 8(4), 213-221. Droplet size measurements are reported as the Sauter mean diameter by Equation 2:
2.6 Cholesterol measurement
Betulin was added as an internal standard and then saponified with potassium hydroxide ethanolic solution; the unsaponifiable matter was extracted with ethyl ether. Sterols and triterpene dialcohols were fractionated by thin layer chromatography plates and then analyzed by gas chromatography (YL 6100 GC) with FID detector. The operating conditions were as follows: column temperature: 260±5 ºC, injector temperature: 280-300 ºC, and detector temperature: 280-300 ºC.
2.7 Sensory evaluation tests
Sensory characteristics including taste, color, odor, viscosity, or consistency, texture, appearance, and overall acceptability were evaluated by trained panelists based on a 9-point Hedonic scale (1 as the lowest and 9 as the highest score) . The mayonnaise samples were served at room temperature in plastic cups.12 trained panelists were requested to assess the samples according to the parameters stated in the sensory evaluation score sheet.
2.8 Optical microscopy
A reflective optical microscope (Motic BA300, Pol, UK) was used to investigate the microstructure of the mayonnaise samples. A drop of each sample was placed in the microscope glass slide, which was observed at a magnification of 40×.
2.9 Statistical analyses
One-way analysis of variance (ANOVA) and Tukey’s test (p ≤ 0.05) were used to analyze the test results. The analyses were conducted using a completely randomized design and the Minitab software, version16.
3 Results and discussion
The pH and fat content of the mayonnaise samples are given in Table 1, indicating that pH range of all of the samples was
within 3.1-4.1, corresponding to USDA pH range for mayonnaise (United States Department of Agriculture, 2005United States Department of Agriculture – USDA (2005). Mayonnaise,
salad dressing and tartar sauce. Commercial item description (CID). Washington:
USDA/FSIS). The results
showed that by increasing the egg yolk substitute (from 25% to 100%), the pH of the
mayonnaise samples reduced significantly. Both the egg yolk and OSA potato starch
have approximate pH value of 6 (Hui et al.,
2009Hui, R., Qi-he, Ch., Ming-liang, F., Qiong, X., & Guo-qing, H.
(2009). Preparation and properties of octenyl succinic anhydride modified potato
starch. Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry, 114(1), 81-86.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.foodchem.2008.09.019.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.foodchem.200...
; Blitz et al., 2009Blitz, H. D., Grosch, W., & Schieberle, P. (2009). Food
chemistry (4th ed.). Berlin, Heidelberg: Springer-Verlag.), but
since the sum of the weights of egg yolk and OSA starch used in the different
mayonnaise formulations decreased with an increase in the amount of egg yolk
replaced with OSA starch, lower pH values are expected in samples containing OSA as
compared to that of the control. Although, the same amount of vegetable oil (30%)
was used in all formulations, the fat content is significantly reduced in the
samples with higher amount of OSA starch, and this may be considered an another
advantage for partial reduction of egg yolk as a fat-rich (31.8-35.5%) ingredient
(Sikorski & Kolakowska, 2003Sikorski, Z. E., & Kolakowska, A. (2003). Chemical and
functional properties of food lipids. NewYork: CRC. ). Moros et al. (2002)Moros, J. E., Franco, J. M., & Gallegos, C. (2002). Rheological
properties of cholesterol-reduced, yolk-stabilized mayonnaise. Journal of the
American Oil Chemists' Society, 79(8), 837-843.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s11746-002-0567-6.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s11746-002-056...
reported the same result
in mayonnaise produced with low cholesterol egg yolk (Moros et al., 2002Moros, J. E., Franco, J. M., & Gallegos, C. (2002). Rheological
properties of cholesterol-reduced, yolk-stabilized mayonnaise. Journal of the
American Oil Chemists' Society, 79(8), 837-843.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s11746-002-0567-6.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s11746-002-056...
).
The emulsion stability percentage of the mayonnaise samples after 1, 14, 30, 60, and
90 days of production is given in Table 2.
Egg yolk proteins and phospholipids act as excellent emulsifiers, and thus the best
stability after up to two weeks was observed in the control sample formulated with
100% egg yolk (Jolivet et al., 2006Jolivet, P., Boulard, C., Beaumal, V., Chardot, T., & Anton, M.
(2006). Protein components of low-density lipoproteins purified from hen egg
yolk. Food Chemistry, 54(12), 4424-4429. http://dx.doi.org/10.1021/jf0531398.
PMid:16756376
http://dx.doi.org/10.1021/jf0531398...
; Magnusson & Nilsson, 2011Magnusson, E., & Nilsson, L. (2011). Interactions between
hydrophobically modified starch and egg yolk proteins in solution and emulsions.
Food Hydrocolloids, 25(4), 764-772.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.foodhyd.2010.09.006.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.foodhyd.2010...
). On the other
hand, for longer storage of up to 3 months, the sample with 100% OSA starch has
shown better stability (Hockergard, 2011Hockergard, A. (2011). The freeze-thaw stability of mayonnaise and
the effect of octenyl succinic anhydride modified starch as emulsifier (Degree
project work). School of Natural Sciences, Linnaeus University. Kalmar,
Suécia.).
Nevertheless, the lowest emulsion stability has been obtained for samples with 25%
and 50% egg yolk substitute, in which both emulsifying ingredients (egg yolk and OSA
starch) compete for adsorption at the O/W interfaces. Therefore, according to the
results of Table 2, the samples with 0%,
75%, and 100% substituted-egg yolk, which showed the highest emulsion stability,
were selected for further analyses to determine cholesterol content, particle size,
and rheometric analysis.
Emulsion stability of mayonnaise samples during storage1 1 The results are expressed as mean±standard deviation. .
Cholesterol content of the selected mayonnaise samples was determined after one month of production. According to the GC chromatograms, the peak of cholesterol has appeared in RT: 13.7288 min and the area under the peak is smaller with higher amount of substituted egg yolk. As it may be expected, cholesterol content of different samples has shown significant difference (Table 3), so that 75% and 100% substitutions have resulted in 84% and 97% reductions, respectively, as compared to control.
Cholesterol content, particle size and rheological characteristics of the selected mayonnaise1 1 The results are expressed as mean±standard deviation. .
The particle size distribution curves of the control and the selected samples (75%
and 100% substituted-egg yolk) are shown in Figure
1. Two main peaks, one at 10 µm and the other at 70 µm, were observed in
the control sample (curve a). It is likely that the larger peak (10 µm) is
associated with the oil droplets stabilized by a layer of egg yolk proteins in
normal mayonnaise (Muller et al., 1998Muller, R. H., Benita, S., & Bohm, B. (1998). Emulsions and
nanosuspensions for the formulation of poorly soluble drugs. Germany: Medpharm
Scientific Publishers Stuttgart.;
Worrasinchai et al., 2006Worrasinchai, S., Suphantharika, M., Pinjai, S., & Jamnong, P.
(2006). β-Glucan prepared from spent brewer's yeast as a fat replacer in
mayonnaise. Food Hydrocolloids, 20(1), 68-78.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.foodhyd.2005.03.005.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.foodhyd.2005...
; Rayner et al., 2012Rayner, M., Sjöö, M., Timgren, A., & Dejmek, P. (2012). Quinoa
starch granules as stabilizing particles for production of Pickering emulsions.
Faraday Discussions, 158, 139-155, discussion 239-266.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1039/c2fd20038d. PMid:23234165
http://dx.doi.org/10.1039/c2fd20038d...
), and the smaller peak (70
µm) is associated with the modified potato starch which is used as a thickening
agent. Juszczak et al. (2013)Juszczak, L., Oczadły, Z., & Gałkowska, D. (2013). Effect of
modified starches on rheological properties of Ketchup. Food Bioprocess
Technology, 6(5), 1251-1260.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s11947-012-0813-x.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s11947-012-081...
reported the
particle size of granules of acetylated distarch adipate (ADA) corn and potato
starches in ketchup suspension is in the range of 50-100 µm. Whereas, in the sample
with 75% egg yolk replacement (curve b), the main peak at 10 µm is much smaller than
that of the control because the oil droplets are mainly surrounded by OSA starch
instead of egg yolk, and in the sample with 100% replacement (curve c), this peak
seems to be completely vanished. On the other hand, by increasing the amount of OSA
potato starch in mayonnaise formulations, the size of the peak at 70 µm is
increased. It may be suggested that this peak is associated with oil droplets
surrounded by a layer of OSA starch. Rayner et al.
(2012)Rayner, M., Sjöö, M., Timgren, A., & Dejmek, P. (2012). Quinoa
starch granules as stabilizing particles for production of Pickering emulsions.
Faraday Discussions, 158, 139-155, discussion 239-266.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1039/c2fd20038d. PMid:23234165
http://dx.doi.org/10.1039/c2fd20038d...
studied the emulsions stabilized by OSA modified
quinoa starch and reported droplet size in the range of 9-70
µm. It is obvious that higher shear homogenization processes may produce smaller
droplets. In the present study, a laboratory-scale mixer with moderate speed (2500
rpm) was used in the mayonnaise preparation. The results of surface mean droplet
diameter (d32) in the mayonnaise samples indicate that egg yolk
substituted by OSA starch may have resulted in much greater droplet size. It has
been proved that the particle size characteristic of O/W emulsion systems is mainly
related to the emulsifier's ability to reduce the interfacial tension between the
dispersed and continuous phases (Mc Clements,
2005McClements, D. V. (2005). Food emulsions, practice, principles, and
techniques (2nd ed). London: CRC Press). Egg yolk lecithin is a small molecular weight emulsifier and may
be more active to reduce droplet size at the stage of emulsion formation than high
molecular weight OSA starch molecules (Vincent et
al., 1966Vincent, R., Powrie, W. D., & Fennema, O. (1966). Surface
activity of yolk, plasma and dispersions of yolk fractions. Journal of Food
Science, 31(5), 643-648.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1365-2621.1966.tb01919.x.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1365-2621.19...
; Krstonosic et al.,
2011Krstonosic, V., Dokic, L., & Milanovic, J. (2011). Micellar
properties of OSA starch and interaction with xanthan gum in aqueous solution.
Food Hydrocolloids, 25(3), 361-367.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.foodhyd.2010.06.014.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.foodhyd.2010...
).
Therefore, the surface mean droplets diameter (d32) of the control samples
was almost 54% smaller than that of the samples formulated with 100% OSA starch
(Table 3). It seems that better
emulsification may be possible when both types of emulsifiers (small and large
molecules) are used; therefore, the average droplet size of the sample with 75%
substitution was 11% smaller than that of the sample containing OSA only. A similar
result between OSA starch and Tween80 was found by Dokic et al. (2008)Dokic, P., Dokic, L., Dapcevic, T., & Krstonosic, V. (2008).
Colloid characteristics and emulsifying properties of OSA starches. Progress in
Colloid & Polymer Science, 135, 48-56.. Taherian et al.
(2006)Taherian, A. R., Fustier, P., & Ramaswamy, H. S. (2006). Effect
of added oil and modified starch on rheological properties, droplet size
distribution, opacity and stability of beverage cloud emulsions. Journal of Food
Engineering, 77(3), 687-696.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jfoodeng.2005.06.073
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jfoodeng.200...
studied O/W emulsions stabilized by OSA starch and showed that as
the amount of this ingredient was increased, bigger droplets were formed in the
emulsion. A somewhat lower range of d32 (2-9 µm) in emulsions containing
egg yolk proteins and OSA starch was reported by Magnusson & Nilsson (2011)Magnusson, E., & Nilsson, L. (2011). Interactions between
hydrophobically modified starch and egg yolk proteins in solution and emulsions.
Food Hydrocolloids, 25(4), 764-772.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.foodhyd.2010.09.006.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.foodhyd.2010...
. Nonetheless, the present study shows
that larger particle sizes may be observed at low pH (4-4.5) due to oil droplet
flocculation. Thaiudom & Khantarat
(2011)Thaiudom, S., & Khantarat, K. (2011). Stability and rheological
properties of fat-reduced mayonnaises by using sodium octenyle succinate starch
as fat replacer. Procedia Food Science, 1, 315-321.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.profoo.2011.09.049.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.profoo.2011....
used OSA starch as a fat substitute in mayonnaise and concluded
that the average particle size decreased with an increase in the starch
concentration in the product. It seems that this different result is associated with
a formulation in which the amount of egg yolk is maintained constant and OSA starch
acts only as a fat and not as an egg substitute. Therefore, droplet sizes may be
influenced mainly by egg yolk and also by OSA as a supporter in the stage of
emulsion formation.
The results of the strain amplitude sweep tests are shown in Figure 2a and Table 3.
All samples exhibited solid viscoelastic behavior (G′ > G"). Structural gel
strength (G0') of both samples is not significantly different from that
of the control (Table 3). The linear
viscoelastic behavior range for mayonnaise-like systems may be indicative of the
nature of intermolecular forces between the lipoproteins adsorbed around oil
droplets (Quintana et al., 2002Quintana, J. M., Califano, A. N., Zaritzky, N. E., & Partal, P.
(2002). Effect of salt on the rheological properties of lowin-fat O/W emulsions
stabilised with polysaccharides. Food Science and Technology (Campinas.), 8(4),
213-221). Magnusson & Nilsson (2011)Magnusson, E., & Nilsson, L. (2011). Interactions between
hydrophobically modified starch and egg yolk proteins in solution and emulsions.
Food Hydrocolloids, 25(4), 764-772.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.foodhyd.2010.09.006.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.foodhyd.2010...
studied
interactions between OSA starch and egg yolk proteins at O/W interfaces and showed
that at low pH (≈4) a lower amount of OSA starch is adsorbed on droplets surface.
Therefore, in the present research, the main interaction between two macromolecules
may have occurred in the bulk of emulsion resulting in higher elastic characteristic
(lower tan (δ)) and higher gel strength (G′₀) in the sample with 75% substitution as
compared to those of the control. On the other hand, weak intermolecular forces on
the surface layer of oil droplets may be the reason for the lower ϒLVE
obtained for this sample.
(a): Strain amplitude sweep of mayonnaise samples; (b): Frequency sweep of mayonnaise samples.
Data of frequency sweep tests show a weak gel behavior in all of the mayonnaise formulations (Figure 2b), and the results of storage modulus versus frequency fitted well (R2 > 97%) to power- law model (G′ =ωb) (Table 3). Larger “a” coefficient for the 75% sample means higher consistency, and it corroborates the results of strain sweep test. On the other hand, a sample formulated with 100% OSA starch produced the lowest “a” and the highest “b” due to the fact that in absence of egg yolk lipoproteins, OSA starch may not provide a desirable consistency in the mayonnaise texture in the final product.
The results of the sensory evaluation of the mayonnaise samples after one month of production are shown in Figure 3. No significant differences were observed in terms of taste, color, odor, texture, and appearance of the two mayonnaise samples and the control. The sample with 100% replacement shows the lowest viscosity with overall acceptability. However, the samples with 75% egg yolk substitute showed no significant difference in viscosity, and the same overall acceptability was reported by panelists as compared to that of the control.
Microscopic image of the sample with 75% egg yolk substitution showed a closely packed layer of OSA starch clearly formed on oil/water interfaces (Figure 4), which is one of the main characteristics of particle- stabilized emulsions reported by Dejmek et al. (2012)Dejmek, P., Timgren, A., Sjoo, M., & Rayner, M.2012WOWO Patent 2012/082065A1MalmÖ , Sweden.
Microscopic image of mayonnaise sample with 75% substituted-egg yolk. (a) Packed layer of OSA starch formed on oil/water interfaces.
4 Conclusion
Today, there is a growing consumer demand for low fat, low cholesterol, healthier, and allergens-free food products. In this study, different concentrations of OSA potato starch were used in mayonnaise formulation as an emulsifier and egg yolk replacer. The optimum amount of OSA starch was determined based on the 84% reduction in cholesterol content, maximum consistency, good emulsion stability, and overall acceptability obtained. Since larger oil droplet sizes formed in the final emulsified product may have negative influenced its texture and storability, the application of higher shear force or the use of more surface-active emulsifiers in combination with OSA substitution may be considered in future studies.
Acknowledgements
The authors gratefully acknowledge the research ethics board of the Iranian Standard Research Institute (ISRI) and the R&D Center of Behrouz Food Industries Company (Tehran, Iran) for technical support and Mr Naeeni (Institute for Color Science and Technology) for helpful assistance with particle size analysis.
-
Practical Application: The egg yolk has been partially replaced (0, 25, 50, 75,100%) by octenyl succinic anhydride (OSA)-modified potato starch in a reduced-fat mayonnaise formulation. The pH, fat content, cholesterol content and emulsion stability, particle size distributions, dynamic rheology, microstructure properties of the formulations were analyzed and the results indicated that 100% substitution of egg yolk may not be desirable because of large droplet size, low consistency and poor sensory scores. The best ratio of the two emulsifiers to produce stable reduced-fat, low cholesterol mayonnaise would be 75/25.
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Publication Dates
-
Publication in this collection
Jan-Mar 2015
History
-
Received
14 Nov 2014 -
Accepted
04 Feb 2015