Abstract
Huitlacoche is the Aztecs name given to the smut galls on ears of maize caused by the pathogenic plant fungus Ustilago maydis [(DC) Corda.)]. It is known as maize mushroom, and it has been considered a delicacy and in Mesoamerica. The aim of the present study was to determine the responses of some maize varieties to the growth of the fungus in order to evaluate the prospect production of these smutty ears as a maize mushroom. A 2-year study was conducted in the Mediterranean region of Turkey in 2010 and 2011. Inoculations were performed by injecting inoculum into the ear through the silk channel of plants in plots. Each treatment had control plots. Average ear-gall (huitlacoche) severity and incidence of all the varieties were at the rates of 4.0 and 41.6%, respectively. However, the highest severity of ear-gall (6.5) and incidence (60.6%) were found in Karadeniz Yıldızı flint maize variety; colossal smutty ears were formed in the maize cultivars. This study showed that certain maize cultivars (flint corn and dent corn) can be used efficiently in the production of huitlacoche.
maize; smutty ears; edible mushroom; U. maydis
1 Introduction
U. maydis is a devastating disease of maize when certain
environmental conditions favor fungal development. However, in parts of central
Mexico, smut galls on ears of maize are an edible delicacy and are designated as
maize mushrooms, Mexican truffles, or maizteca mushrooms, an important food source
in Mesoamerica (Valverde et al., 1993Valverde, M. E., Fallah Moghaddaml, P., Zavala-Gallardol, M. S.,
Patakyl, J. K., Paredes-Lopez, O., & Pedersen, W. L. (1993). Yield and
quality of huitlacoche on sweet corn inoculated with Ustilago
maydis.HortScience, 28(8), 782-785. Retrieved from
http://hortsci.ashspublications.org/content/28/8/782.full.pdf.
http://hortsci.ashspublications.org/cont...
).
Maize ears with galls have been picked up from naturally infected plants and eaten
by people in Mexico and Latin America since the times of the Aztecs, who named it
cuitlacoche (Kennedy, 1989Kennedy, D. (1989). The art of Mexican cooking. New York:
Bantam.). Huitlacoche or
cuitlacoche comes from the word Nahuatl (the language of the Mexicas or Aztecs)
“cuitlacochin” or “cuitlacuchtli” that means “degenerate corn on the cob” (Simeón, 1977Simeón, R. (1977). Nahuatl language dictionary o Mexicana. México:
21st Century/ Our America.; Sahagún, 1989Sahagún, B. (1989). General history of the things of New España (2nd
ed.). Mexico: National Council for Culture and the Arts-Alliance Editorial
Mexicana.; Juárez-Montiel et al.,
2011Juárez-Montiel, M., Ruiloba de León, S., Chávez-Camarillo, G.,
Hernández-Rodríguez, C., & Villa-Tanaca, L. (2011). Huitlacoche (corn smut),
caused by the phytopathogenic fungus Ustilago maydis, as a functional food.
Revista Iberoamericana de Micologia, 28(2), 69-73.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.riam.2011.01.001. PMid:21352944.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.riam.2011.01...
).
Proximate composition of huitlacoche is 88-94% dry matter, 3-6% ash (dry basis),
7-12% protein, and 2-5% lipids (Valdez-Morales et
al., 2010Valdez-Morales, M., Barry, K., Fahey, G. C., Jr., Domínguez, J.,
Mejia, E. G., Valverde, M. E., & Paredes-López, O. (2010). Effect of maize
genotype, developmental stage, and cooking process on the nutraceutical
potential of huitlacoche (. Ustilago maydis)Food Chemistry,
119(2), 689-697.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.foodchem.2009.07.015.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.foodchem.200...
). The nutritional value of this mushroom has great importance
for human diet. Protein content is similar or sometimes higher than that of other
edible mushrooms. Therefore, huitlacoche may be used as an alternative protein
source for vegetarian diets. Huitlacoche contains almost all essential amino acids,
and lysine (6.3–7.3 g/100 g protein) is one of the most abundant. Serine, glycine,
aspartic, and glutamic acid collectively account for 44.3 to 48.9% of total amino
acids. The high content of essential fatty acids also suggests that huitlacoche has
a high nutritional value; some important fatty acids are oleic and linoleic acids
(54.5 to 77.5%). Huitlacoche has also been characterized as a high-quality
nutraceutical food and an attractive ingredient to enrich other foods, mainly due to
its extraordinary flavor and exceptional quality (Valverde & Paredes-López, 1993Valverde, M. E., & Paredes‐López, O. (1993). Production and
evaluation of some food properties of huitlacoche (. Ustilago
maydis)Food Biotechnology, 7(3), 207-219.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/08905439309549858.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/08905439309549...
; Vanegas et al., 1995Vanegas, P. E., Valverde, M. E., Paredes-Lopez, O., & Pataky, J.
K. (1995). Production of the edible fungus huitlacoche (. Ustilago
maydis): Effect of maize genotype on chemical compositionJournal of
Fermentation and Bioengineering, 80(1), 104-106.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/0922-338X(95)98187-P.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/0922-338X(95)9...
; Valverde et al.,
2015Valverde, M. E., Hernández-Pérez, T., & Paredes-López, O.
(2015). Edible mushrooms: improving human health and promoting quality life.
International Journal of Microbiology, 2015(2015), 14 p.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1155/2015/376387.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1155/2015/376387...
). Most of total dietary fibre, β-glucans, and total free sugars
values were higher than those reported for other edible mushrooms. The high
concentration of antimutagenic substances appears to be an asset of this culinary
delicacy (Valdez-Morales et
al., 2010Valdez-Morales, M., Barry, K., Fahey, G. C., Jr., Domínguez, J.,
Mejia, E. G., Valverde, M. E., & Paredes-López, O. (2010). Effect of maize
genotype, developmental stage, and cooking process on the nutraceutical
potential of huitlacoche (. Ustilago maydis)Food Chemistry,
119(2), 689-697.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.foodchem.2009.07.015.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.foodchem.200...
). Aflatoxin, ochratoxin, and zearalenone were not found in
huitlacoche (Valverde & Paredes-López,
1993Valverde, M. E., & Paredes‐López, O. (1993). Production and
evaluation of some food properties of huitlacoche (. Ustilago
maydis)Food Biotechnology, 7(3), 207-219.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/08905439309549858.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/08905439309549...
).
Apart from these mycotoxins, Martínez-Flores et al.
(2008)Martínez-Flores, A., Corrales-García, J. J., Espinosa-Solares, T.,
García-Gatica, P. G., & Villanueva-Verduzco, C. (2008). Postharvest changes
in the edible mushroom huitlacoche (Ustilago maydis (D.C.)
Corda). Revista Chapingo Serie Horticultura, 14(3), 339-346. reported that after storage, there was no major change in the
amino acid content of huitlacoche. The mushrooms kept their appearance, color, and
weight better when stored at 3 °C on the ear. Ethylene production by huitlacoche was
not detected in the postharvest study of huitlacoche. Monroy-Gutiérrez et al. (2013)Monroy-Gutiérrez, T., Valle-Guadarrama, S., Espinosa-Solares, T.,
Martínez-Damián, M. T., & Pérez-López, A. (2013). Effect of microperforation
and temperature on quality of modified atmosphere packaged huitlacoche (Ustilago
maydis). CyTA - Journal of Food, 11(4), 309-317.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/19476337.2012.755712.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/19476337.2012....
emphasized that under
refrigeration the shelf life of huitlacoche was extended up to 30 days.
Huitlacoche is sold during the rainy season in the open-air markets of central
Mexico. Over the years more than 90 Mg-sized huitlacoche have been canned by Mexican
food processors (Valverde, 1992Valverde, M. E. (1992). Infecion studies of huitlacoche (Ustilago
maydis) and dietary characteristics (Master thesis). Center for Investigation
and Advanced Studies of the National Polytechnic Institute, Irapuato,
Mexico.). About
400–500 tons of huitlacoche are sold annually during July and
August in markets in Mexico City (Villanueva,
1997Villanueva, C. (1997). Huitlacoche (Ustilago
maydis) as a food in Mexico. Micología Neotropical Aplicada, 10,
73-81.; Pataky & Chandler,
2003Pataky, J. K., & Chandler, M. A. (2003). Production of
huitlacoche, Ustilago maydis: timing inoculation and controlling pollination.
Mycologia, 95(6), 1261-1270. http://dx.doi.org/10.2307/3761926.
PMid:21149027.
http://dx.doi.org/10.2307/3761926...
). It is also processed by at least six companies that sell the specialty
mushroom canned or lyophilized. Interest in producing U. maydis as
a specialty mushroom in the U.S. has recently increased due to an emerging
acceptance of huitlacoche by North American consumers, who view it
as a gourmet food item that is part of a growing market for haute Mexican cuisine
(Pataky & Chandler, 2003Pataky, J. K., & Chandler, M. A. (2003). Production of
huitlacoche, Ustilago maydis: timing inoculation and controlling pollination.
Mycologia, 95(6), 1261-1270. http://dx.doi.org/10.2307/3761926.
PMid:21149027.
http://dx.doi.org/10.2307/3761926...
). In the
United States, fresh and frozen huitlacoche are sold for as much as $20/kg. In spite
of the potential value of huitlacoche, there are few reports on U.
maydis cultivation (Valverde et al.,
1993Valverde, M. E., Fallah Moghaddaml, P., Zavala-Gallardol, M. S.,
Patakyl, J. K., Paredes-Lopez, O., & Pedersen, W. L. (1993). Yield and
quality of huitlacoche on sweet corn inoculated with Ustilago
maydis.HortScience, 28(8), 782-785. Retrieved from
http://hortsci.ashspublications.org/content/28/8/782.full.pdf.
http://hortsci.ashspublications.org/cont...
).
Reports of cuitlacoche as a cash crop have generally focused on gleaning naturally
infected ears from fields, but they have not considered the production of
cuitlacoche as an alternative crop (Pataky,
1991Pataky, J. K. (1991). Production of cuitlacoche [ (DS) Corda] on
sweet corn. Ustilago maydisHortScience, 26(11), 1374-1377.
Retrieved from
http://hortsci.ashspublications.org/content/26/11/1374.full.pdf+html.
http://hortsci.ashspublications.org/cont...
). The objective of the present study was to evaluate the yield of
huitlacoche in different maize varieties (dent, flint, sweet, and popcorn).
2 Materials and methods
Galls (smutty ears) were obtained from smutty plants from maize-producing areas of Batı Akdeniz Agricultural Research Institute, located in the Mediterranean region of Turkey in 2009 and 2010. Potato dextrose agar (PDA, Oxoid) and 20% carrot solution were used to get pure culture of U. maydis and for the propagation of sporidia (basidiospores), respectively. In the field trials, dent corn (Zea mays var. indentata) cultivars; Ada-523, Pioneer-3394 and Side; flint corn (Zea mays var. indurata) cultivars; Karaçay and Karadeniz Yıldızı; sweet corn (Zea mays var. saccharata) cultivars; Merit and Vega; and popcorn (Zea mays var. everta) variety (Antcin-98) were used as host plants.
2.1 U. maydis isolation
The galls were chopped and the chlamydospores (teliospores) were separated from the gall tissues by sieving through a tea strainer. Afterwards, teliospores were surface-sterilized by immersion in a 1% copper sulfate solution for 20 to 60 h and filtered through two layers of sterile cheesecloth not allowing the teliospores to pass through. Later, the teliospores on the cheesecloth were washed in three times with sterile distilled water, dried on sterile filter paper, and transferred to petri dishes containing PDA media supplemented with antibiotic (streptomycin sulphate). The dishes were incubated at 25 °C for 4 to 5 days until sporidia (basidiospores) of U. maydis emerged. When sporidia were about a pinhead in size, they were taken from the cultures, transferred to 500-mL Erlenmeyer flasks containing 20% sterile carrot solution, and incubated at 25 °C for 7 days. At the same time, the Erlenmeyer flasks were vigorously shaken for 1 to 2 min once or twice a week. Therefore, the inoculum required for the inoculations was obtained by allowing sporidia to multiply in the carrot solution (Tunçdemir, 1985Tunçdemir, M., (1985). The seminar of the diseases of wheat and maize. Ankara: Central Anatolia Forestry Research Institute.).
2.2 Preparation of inoculum
Basidiospore suspensions in the Erlenmeyer flasks were stirred to get a homogeneous solution, and basidiospores were counted using a hemocytometer (Neubauer, Isolab, Germany). Basidiospore suspensions were diluted to appropriate concentrations using a sterile carrot solution and adjusted to 4 × 106 sporidia mL–1. Afterwards, in the same way, teliospore suspensions were arranged to 1 × 106 teliospores mL–1 and added into the basidiospore suspensions (Tunçdemir, 1985Tunçdemir, M., (1985). The seminar of the diseases of wheat and maize. Ankara: Central Anatolia Forestry Research Institute.).
2.3 Field trials
Field trials were carried out in a randomized complete blocks design with a factorial arrangement with three replications. Each plot consisted of four 5 m long rows. The spacing between the rows was of 70 cm and 20 cm within the rows. Control plots were established for each treatment.
2.4 Ecological properties of the research area
The general soil texture of the research area was clayish and loamy. The area was
fertilized with nitrogen, phosphor, and potassium at the rates of 180, 80, and
80 kg ha–1, respectively. Field experiments were set up in the
Antalya province of Turkey. The total monthly rainfall when the inoculations of
the maize ears were performed in August of 2010 was 4.2 mm, whereas no
measurable rainfall was recorded in the same period in 2011. However, the
average temperature and relative humidity in August 2010 and 2011 were 30.5 °C,
59.1% and 29.6 °C and 50.0%, respectively (Turkey, 2013Turkey. (2013). Meteorological data of Antalya province. Muratpaşa:
Meteoroloji Genel Müdürlüğü. Retrieved from
http://www.antalya.mgm.gov.tr/tahmin-tum-merkezler.aspx.
http://www.antalya.mgm.gov.tr/tahmin-tum...
).
2.5 Inoculation
The ear inoculation method of Pataky et al.
(1995)Pataky, J. K., Nankam, C., & Kerns, M. R. (1995). Evaluation of
a silk-inoculation technique to differentiate reactions of sweet corn hybrids to
common smut. Phytopathology, 85(10), 1323-1328.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1094/Phyto-85-1323.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1094/Phyto-85-1323...
was modified as follows: 3 ml of inoculum (3 × 106
sporidia ml–1 + 1 × 106 chlamydospores ml–1)
were injected into the ear of each plant using a hypodermic syringe 3 days after
silk emergence. Inoculations of the ears were performed on August 3rd and 21st
in 2010 and on August 15th and 27th in 2011.
2.6 Huitlacoche assessments
Ear gall(huitlacoche) severity and incidence
Ear gall severity was calculated according to the 0 to 5 Johnson & Christensen (1935)Johnson, I. J., & Christensen, J. J. (1935). Relation between number, size and location of smut infections to reduction in yield of corn. Phytopathology, 25, 223-233. scale, where 0 = very small galls (< 2.5 cm in diameter); 1 = small galls (2.5 to 5 cm in diameter); 2.5 = medium galls (5 to 10 cm in diameter) ; and 5 = big galls (> 10 cm in diameter). The ear gall incidence was calculated comparing the number of infected and non-infected ears.
2.7 Statistical analysis
The JMP statistical software (SAS Institute Inc., Cary, North Carolina, USA) was used to perform variance analysis. Differences between factors were determined by F test, and the mean values determined as different were grouped according to the LSD0.05 test (Düzgüneş et al., 1987Düzgüneş, O., Kesici, T., Kavuncu, O., & Gürbüz, F. (1987). Research and trial methods (Statistics Methods- II). (Publ. No: 1021; Lesson Book, No: 295). Ankara: Faculty of Agriculture, Ankara University.).
3 Results
The average size of the galls varied from 1.0 to 10.7 cm diameter. In the ears, the ovaries and glumes were smutted. Sometimes, the entire pistillate inflorescence was converted into a huge (16.5 cm diameter) smut gall due to severe infection of U. maydis on the susceptible flint corn variety (Karadeniz Yıldızı). Interactions of the year, variety, and year x variety were significant (p<0.01) (Table 1. 2 and 3).
The lowest ear gall incidence (EGI) (10.0% and 21.6%) was found in the Antcin-98 (popcorn variety) in both years. However, the highest EGI values, in 2010 and in 2011, 44.6% and 83.3%, were detected in Karadeniz Yıldızı (flint corn variety) and Side (dent corn variety), respectively (Table 2).
In both years, the highest (3.9, 9.1) and lowest (1.5, 2.2) ear gall severity (EGS) was detected in Karadeniz Yıldızı (flint corn variety) and Antcin-98 (popcorn maize variety), respectively. The average EGS over the two-year experiments conducted on all maize cultivars was 4.0 (Table 3).
4 Discussion
The average EGI values of Merit and Vega (sweet corn cultivars) in 2010 were 26.6 and
23.3%, whereas the values in 2011 were 38.3 and 30.0%, respectively (Table 2). However, du Toit & Pataky (1999a)du Toit, L. J., & Pataky, J. K. (1999a). Effects of silk
maturity and pollination on infection of maize ears by Ustilago
maydis.Plant Disease, 83(7), 621-626.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1094/PDIS.1999.83.7.621.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1094/PDIS.1999.83.7...
, studying some sweet corn
cultivars, reported average incidence of ears with galls of 50% for the hybrid
Dazzle, 36% for Frontier, 26% for GH 2690, and 6% for Punchline, in 1996. The
authors also reported an average incidence of 44% for the hybrid Dazzle, 31% for
Frontier, 17% for GH 2690, and 26% for Punchline in 1997., Similar results were
found in sweet corn cultivars by some other authors (Pataky, 1991Pataky, J. K. (1991). Production of cuitlacoche [ (DS) Corda] on
sweet corn. Ustilago maydisHortScience, 26(11), 1374-1377.
Retrieved from
http://hortsci.ashspublications.org/content/26/11/1374.full.pdf+html.
http://hortsci.ashspublications.org/cont...
; Valverde et
al., 1993Valverde, M. E., Fallah Moghaddaml, P., Zavala-Gallardol, M. S.,
Patakyl, J. K., Paredes-Lopez, O., & Pedersen, W. L. (1993). Yield and
quality of huitlacoche on sweet corn inoculated with Ustilago
maydis.HortScience, 28(8), 782-785. Retrieved from
http://hortsci.ashspublications.org/content/28/8/782.full.pdf.
http://hortsci.ashspublications.org/cont...
).
In the present study, the highest EGS was found in Karadeniz Yıldızı (flint corn
cultivar), whereas the lowest EGS was found in Antcin-98 (popcorn variety) (Table 3). Since it had more severe smut gall
on its cobs, Karadeniz Yıldızı was more vulnerable to infection of
U. maydis than the other cultivars. However,
the cobs of Antcin-98 were less affected by the fungus than the others. In the
present study, among the cultivars, the EGS values of huitlacoche was ranked
according to their size (from largest to smallest) as follows: Flint, dent, sweet,
and popcorn, respectively. It can be concluded that the bigger the cobs, the higher
the development of large smut galls on them; flint and dent corn varieties showed
higher EGS values than the others. These results corroborate the earlier findings of
Pataky & Snetselaar (2006)Pataky, J. K., & Snetselaar, K. M. (2006). Common smut of corn.
The Plant Health Instructor. Retrieved from
http://www.apsnet.org/edcenter/intropp/lessons/fungi/Basidiomycetes/Pages/CornSmut.aspx.
http://www.apsnet.org/edcenter/intropp/l...
. These
authors stated that incidence of smut infection was greater than 50% in 1976 in
several areas of Germany where hybrids derived from European flint corn were
prevalent. Similarly, in a study conducted by Bojanowski (1969)Bojanowski, J. (1969). Studies of inheritance of reaction to common
smut in corn. TAG. Theoretical and applied genetics. Theoretische und angewandte
Genetik, 39(1), 32-42. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/BF00283082.
PMid:24435217.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/BF00283082...
in Poland, U12 (a flint corn inbred) was identified as
susceptible to corn smut. However, Pataky &
Chandler (2003)Pataky, J. K., & Chandler, M. A. (2003). Production of
huitlacoche, Ustilago maydis: timing inoculation and controlling pollination.
Mycologia, 95(6), 1261-1270. http://dx.doi.org/10.2307/3761926.
PMid:21149027.
http://dx.doi.org/10.2307/3761926...
reported that maximum yields of
huitlacoche from male-sterile field corn hybrids were around
40% greater than those from sweet corn hybrids. Pataky (1991)Pataky, J. K. (1991). Production of cuitlacoche [ (DS) Corda] on
sweet corn. Ustilago maydisHortScience, 26(11), 1374-1377.
Retrieved from
http://hortsci.ashspublications.org/content/26/11/1374.full.pdf+html.
http://hortsci.ashspublications.org/cont...
stated that extremely susceptible genotypes may exist
between dent, flint, floury, and other types of corn, and ear galls on these types
of corn may be equally well suited for cuitlacoche production.
In addition, in the present study, the EGI of the cultivars ranged according to the
hosts, and similar EGI responses were detected as EGS. The average EGS and EGI
values of all cultivars in 2011 were higher than those in 2010. Year-to-year
variation found in the present study could be explained as follows: it is known that
environmental conditions can influence the development of diseases, in particular
during penetration and infection of the host. Tunçdemir & Iren (1980)Tunçdemir, M., & Iren, S. (1980). Investigations on the
bioecology of corn smut (U. maydis (D.C) Corda) in Samsun and its vicinity
(Master thesis). Ankara University, Agriculture Faculty,
Ankara. reported that the most favorable temperature
for development of corn smut ranges between 18 °C and 21°C. In this regard, in 2010,
the average daily temperature on the inoculation day and on the ensuing day was 30.7
°C, whereas, in 2011, it was 27.2 °C (Table
4). Therefore, the difference in temperature may have adversely affected
germination and penetration of the fungus in 2010. In addition, the environmental
conditions in 2010 may have been favorable for the host. Kyle (1929)Kyle, C. H. (1929). Relation of husk covering to smut of corn ears.
(U. S. Department of Agriculture Technical Bulletin, No. 120, pp. 1-7).
Washington: United States Department of Agriculture. Retrieved from
http://naldc.nal.usda.gov/naldc/download.xhtml?id=CAT86200114&content=PDF.
http://naldc.nal.usda.gov/naldc/download...
also emphasized that when environmental factors
are in favor of the host during the maize growing season, smut infection levels are
reduced. Moreover, in a two-year study conducted in Germany, Görtz et al. (2008)Görtz, A., Oerke, E. C., Steiner, U., Waalwijk, C., Vries, I. D.,
& Dehne, H. W.(2008). Biodiversity of fusarium species causing ear rot of
maize in Germany. In 3rd International FHB Symposium Szeged, Szeged,
Hungary. stated that in 2006, the frequency of
kernel infected by Fusarium spp. ranged from 0.7% to 99.7%, while
in 2007, the highest incidence of Fusarium ear rot was 64%. The authors expressed
that the year-to-year variability in the overall infection rate may be explained by
significant differences in temperature and precipitation during the growth periods.
Apart from these factors, plant nutrition can also affect smut infection. Aydoğdu & Boyraz (2011)Aydoğdu, M., & Boyraz, N. (2011). Effects of nitrogen and
organic fertilization on corn smut ( (DC) Corda.). Ustilago
maydisAfrican Journal of Agricultural Research, 6(19),
4539-4543. reported that
nitrogen and farmyard manure could be important factors impacting severity of corn
smut in the field. Additionally, physiology and morphological structure of the host
can also play an important role in development of the fungus. Since the maize
cultivars evaluated have specific physiology and morhological features, different
reactions against U. maydis were determined in the
study. Pataky & Richter (2007)Pataky, J. K., & Richter, P. M. (2007). Silk abscission in two
sweet corn (. Zea mays L.) hybrids that differ in
susceptibility to common smut infection of earsHortScience, 42(6), 1409-1412.
Retrieved from
http://hortsci.ashspublications.org/content/42/6/1409.full.pdf+html.
http://hortsci.ashspublications.org/cont...
underscored that husk leaves may affect silk dynamics and therefore indirectly
affect smut infection. Pataky & Chandler
(2003)Pataky, J. K., & Chandler, M. A. (2003). Production of
huitlacoche, Ustilago maydis: timing inoculation and controlling pollination.
Mycologia, 95(6), 1261-1270. http://dx.doi.org/10.2307/3761926.
PMid:21149027.
http://dx.doi.org/10.2307/3761926...
also emphasized that corn cultivars, isolates of
U.maydis, and environmental factors affect
gall maturity and size. A cultivar-trial in the Columbia Basin in the U.S showed
marked differences in susceptibility to corn smut between field corn hybrids (Mohan et al., 2013Mohan, S. K., Hamm, P. B., Clough, G. H., & du Toit, L. J.
(2013). Corn Smuts. A Pacific Northwest Extension Publication, 647, 1-7.
Retrieved from
http://ir.library.oregonstate.edu/xmlui/bitstream/handle/1957/40801/pnw647.pdf.
http://ir.library.oregonstate.edu/xmlui/...
).
Eighteen ear galls were harvested after inoculation, and the big ones varied from 220
to 312 g in Karadeniz Yıldızı, Karaçay (flint corn varieties) and Ada-523, Side
(dent corn varieties). Nevertheless, smaller galls, maximum ranging from 6, 10.1 and
5.6 cm diameter, were found in from Merit, Vega (sweet corn varieties) and Antcin-98
(popcorn variety), respectively. Pataky &
Chandler (2003)Pataky, J. K., & Chandler, M. A. (2003). Production of
huitlacoche, Ustilago maydis: timing inoculation and controlling pollination.
Mycologia, 95(6), 1261-1270. http://dx.doi.org/10.2307/3761926.
PMid:21149027.
http://dx.doi.org/10.2307/3761926...
stated that the yield of huitlacoche and severity of ear
galls are closely related. Valverde et al.
(1993)Valverde, M. E., Fallah Moghaddaml, P., Zavala-Gallardol, M. S.,
Patakyl, J. K., Paredes-Lopez, O., & Pedersen, W. L. (1993). Yield and
quality of huitlacoche on sweet corn inoculated with Ustilago
maydis.HortScience, 28(8), 782-785. Retrieved from
http://hortsci.ashspublications.org/content/28/8/782.full.pdf.
http://hortsci.ashspublications.org/cont...
reported that gall weight is related to ear size. However,
establishing an ideal harvest time for the maize mushroom is crucial due to its
vulnerable texture. Observing the huitlacoche development on the maize cultivars,
following the silk channel inoculation, 18 d post-inoculation ear galls were
harvested and weighed. Valverde et al.
(1993)Valverde, M. E., Fallah Moghaddaml, P., Zavala-Gallardol, M. S.,
Patakyl, J. K., Paredes-Lopez, O., & Pedersen, W. L. (1993). Yield and
quality of huitlacoche on sweet corn inoculated with Ustilago
maydis.HortScience, 28(8), 782-785. Retrieved from
http://hortsci.ashspublications.org/content/28/8/782.full.pdf.
http://hortsci.ashspublications.org/cont...
reported that the optimal huitlacoche harvest time varied from 17
to 19 days after inoculation between hybrids. However, Pataky & Chandler (2003)Pataky, J. K., & Chandler, M. A. (2003). Production of
huitlacoche, Ustilago maydis: timing inoculation and controlling pollination.
Mycologia, 95(6), 1261-1270. http://dx.doi.org/10.2307/3761926.
PMid:21149027.
http://dx.doi.org/10.2307/3761926...
stated that yield and quality of
huitlacoche were optimal during a 1- to 2-d harvest window, about 16 d after
inoculation, and the quality of huitlacoche harvested 16 or 17 d after inoculation
was acceptable.
The introduction of this food into the international market requires the development
of techniques for massive year-long production (Valverde et al., 2015Valverde, M. E., Hernández-Pérez, T., & Paredes-López, O.
(2015). Edible mushrooms: improving human health and promoting quality life.
International Journal of Microbiology, 2015(2015), 14 p.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1155/2015/376387.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1155/2015/376387...
). In the present study, the silk channel
inoculation method was efficiently used for the hutilacoche production. du Toit & Pataky (1999a)du Toit, L. J., & Pataky, J. K. (1999a). Effects of silk
maturity and pollination on infection of maize ears by Ustilago
maydis.Plant Disease, 83(7), 621-626.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1094/PDIS.1999.83.7.621.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1094/PDIS.1999.83.7...
reported that the
silk channel method of inoculating for common smut is suitable to evaluate a limited
number of lines or to induce ear galls for commercial production of huitlacoche.
Pataky & Chandler (2003)Pataky, J. K., & Chandler, M. A. (2003). Production of
huitlacoche, Ustilago maydis: timing inoculation and controlling pollination.
Mycologia, 95(6), 1261-1270. http://dx.doi.org/10.2307/3761926.
PMid:21149027.
http://dx.doi.org/10.2307/3761926...
also stated
that silk-channel inoculation methods developed to evaluate common smut resistance
in maize can be used to produce huitlacoche commercially.
5 Conclusion
Too little is known about huitlacoche and its production commercially in Turkey and
elsewhere, except for Mesoamerica and United States of America. However, commercial
production of huitlacoche is carried out in some parts of Mexico. Gaining popularity
as a maize mushroom in interntional cuisines such as US, Japan, and Europe,
huitlacoche has been produced commercially in some sweet corn cultivars (Pataky, 1991Pataky, J. K. (1991). Production of cuitlacoche [ (DS) Corda] on
sweet corn. Ustilago maydisHortScience, 26(11), 1374-1377.
Retrieved from
http://hortsci.ashspublications.org/content/26/11/1374.full.pdf+html.
http://hortsci.ashspublications.org/cont...
; Valverde et al., 1993Valverde, M. E., Fallah Moghaddaml, P., Zavala-Gallardol, M. S.,
Patakyl, J. K., Paredes-Lopez, O., & Pedersen, W. L. (1993). Yield and
quality of huitlacoche on sweet corn inoculated with Ustilago
maydis.HortScience, 28(8), 782-785. Retrieved from
http://hortsci.ashspublications.org/content/28/8/782.full.pdf.
http://hortsci.ashspublications.org/cont...
; du Toit &
Pataky, 1999adu Toit, L. J., & Pataky, J. K. (1999a). Effects of silk
maturity and pollination on infection of maize ears by Ustilago
maydis.Plant Disease, 83(7), 621-626.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1094/PDIS.1999.83.7.621.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1094/PDIS.1999.83.7...
, bdu Toit, L. J., & Pataky, J. K. (1999b). Variation associated
with silk channel inoculation for common smut of sweet corn. Plant Disease,
83(8), 727-732. http://dx.doi.org/10.1094/PDIS.1999.83.8.727.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1094/PDIS.1999.83.8...
). The main
purpose of the present study was to determine the yield of huitlacoche in dent,
flint, popcorn, and sweetcorn varieties. In conclusion, flint and dent corn
cultivars were found to be more suitable for huitlacoche production than the popcorn
and sweet corn varieties, i.e., flint and dent can provide higher yield than the
others and can be more efficiently used in huitlacoche production. It was also found
that the ideal harvest time of this mushroom is 18 d post-inoculation. Harvesting it
during this period of time can extand huitlacoche shelf life. Since huitlacoche has
been gaining popularity in international cuisines, further studies are needed to
promote its commercial production, storage, and trade.
-
Practical Application: Raise awareness around the world about huitlacoche production.
References
- Aydoğdu, M., & Boyraz, N. (2011). Effects of nitrogen and organic fertilization on corn smut ( (DC) Corda.). Ustilago maydisAfrican Journal of Agricultural Research, 6(19), 4539-4543.
- Bojanowski, J. (1969). Studies of inheritance of reaction to common smut in corn. TAG. Theoretical and applied genetics. Theoretische und angewandte Genetik, 39(1), 32-42. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/BF00283082. PMid:24435217.
» http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/BF00283082 - du Toit, L. J., & Pataky, J. K. (1999a). Effects of silk maturity and pollination on infection of maize ears by Ustilago maydis.Plant Disease, 83(7), 621-626. http://dx.doi.org/10.1094/PDIS.1999.83.7.621.
» http://dx.doi.org/10.1094/PDIS.1999.83.7.621 - du Toit, L. J., & Pataky, J. K. (1999b). Variation associated with silk channel inoculation for common smut of sweet corn. Plant Disease, 83(8), 727-732. http://dx.doi.org/10.1094/PDIS.1999.83.8.727.
» http://dx.doi.org/10.1094/PDIS.1999.83.8.727 - Düzgüneş, O., Kesici, T., Kavuncu, O., & Gürbüz, F. (1987). Research and trial methods (Statistics Methods- II). (Publ. No: 1021; Lesson Book, No: 295). Ankara: Faculty of Agriculture, Ankara University.
- Görtz, A., Oerke, E. C., Steiner, U., Waalwijk, C., Vries, I. D., & Dehne, H. W.(2008). Biodiversity of fusarium species causing ear rot of maize in Germany. In 3rd International FHB Symposium Szeged, Szeged, Hungary.
- Johnson, I. J., & Christensen, J. J. (1935). Relation between number, size and location of smut infections to reduction in yield of corn. Phytopathology, 25, 223-233.
- Juárez-Montiel, M., Ruiloba de León, S., Chávez-Camarillo, G., Hernández-Rodríguez, C., & Villa-Tanaca, L. (2011). Huitlacoche (corn smut), caused by the phytopathogenic fungus Ustilago maydis, as a functional food. Revista Iberoamericana de Micologia, 28(2), 69-73. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.riam.2011.01.001. PMid:21352944.
» http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.riam.2011.01.001 - Kennedy, D. (1989). The art of Mexican cooking. New York: Bantam.
- Kyle, C. H. (1929). Relation of husk covering to smut of corn ears. (U. S. Department of Agriculture Technical Bulletin, No. 120, pp. 1-7). Washington: United States Department of Agriculture. Retrieved from http://naldc.nal.usda.gov/naldc/download.xhtml?id=CAT86200114&content=PDF.
» http://naldc.nal.usda.gov/naldc/download.xhtml?id=CAT86200114&content=PDF - Martínez-Flores, A., Corrales-García, J. J., Espinosa-Solares, T., García-Gatica, P. G., & Villanueva-Verduzco, C. (2008). Postharvest changes in the edible mushroom huitlacoche (Ustilago maydis (D.C.) Corda). Revista Chapingo Serie Horticultura, 14(3), 339-346.
- Mohan, S. K., Hamm, P. B., Clough, G. H., & du Toit, L. J. (2013). Corn Smuts. A Pacific Northwest Extension Publication, 647, 1-7. Retrieved from http://ir.library.oregonstate.edu/xmlui/bitstream/handle/1957/40801/pnw647.pdf.
» http://ir.library.oregonstate.edu/xmlui/bitstream/handle/1957/40801/pnw647.pdf - Monroy-Gutiérrez, T., Valle-Guadarrama, S., Espinosa-Solares, T., Martínez-Damián, M. T., & Pérez-López, A. (2013). Effect of microperforation and temperature on quality of modified atmosphere packaged huitlacoche (Ustilago maydis). CyTA - Journal of Food, 11(4), 309-317. http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/19476337.2012.755712.
» http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/19476337.2012.755712 - Pataky, J. K. (1991). Production of cuitlacoche [ (DS) Corda] on sweet corn. Ustilago maydisHortScience, 26(11), 1374-1377. Retrieved from http://hortsci.ashspublications.org/content/26/11/1374.full.pdf+html.
» http://hortsci.ashspublications.org/content/26/11/1374.full.pdf+html - Pataky, J. K., & Chandler, M. A. (2003). Production of huitlacoche, Ustilago maydis: timing inoculation and controlling pollination. Mycologia, 95(6), 1261-1270. http://dx.doi.org/10.2307/3761926. PMid:21149027.
» http://dx.doi.org/10.2307/3761926 - Pataky, J. K., & Richter, P. M. (2007). Silk abscission in two sweet corn (. Zea mays L.) hybrids that differ in susceptibility to common smut infection of earsHortScience, 42(6), 1409-1412. Retrieved from http://hortsci.ashspublications.org/content/42/6/1409.full.pdf+html.
» http://hortsci.ashspublications.org/content/42/6/1409.full.pdf+html - Pataky, J. K., & Snetselaar, K. M. (2006). Common smut of corn. The Plant Health Instructor. Retrieved from http://www.apsnet.org/edcenter/intropp/lessons/fungi/Basidiomycetes/Pages/CornSmut.aspx.
» http://www.apsnet.org/edcenter/intropp/lessons/fungi/Basidiomycetes/Pages/CornSmut.aspx - Pataky, J. K., Nankam, C., & Kerns, M. R. (1995). Evaluation of a silk-inoculation technique to differentiate reactions of sweet corn hybrids to common smut. Phytopathology, 85(10), 1323-1328. http://dx.doi.org/10.1094/Phyto-85-1323.
» http://dx.doi.org/10.1094/Phyto-85-1323 - Sahagún, B. (1989). General history of the things of New España (2nd ed.). Mexico: National Council for Culture and the Arts-Alliance Editorial Mexicana.
- Simeón, R. (1977). Nahuatl language dictionary o Mexicana. México: 21st Century/ Our America.
- Tunçdemir, M., & Iren, S. (1980). Investigations on the bioecology of corn smut (U. maydis (D.C) Corda) in Samsun and its vicinity (Master thesis). Ankara University, Agriculture Faculty, Ankara.
- Tunçdemir, M., (1985). The seminar of the diseases of wheat and maize. Ankara: Central Anatolia Forestry Research Institute.
- Turkey. (2013). Meteorological data of Antalya province. Muratpaşa: Meteoroloji Genel Müdürlüğü. Retrieved from http://www.antalya.mgm.gov.tr/tahmin-tum-merkezler.aspx.
» http://www.antalya.mgm.gov.tr/tahmin-tum-merkezler.aspx - Valdez-Morales, M., Barry, K., Fahey, G. C., Jr., Domínguez, J., Mejia, E. G., Valverde, M. E., & Paredes-López, O. (2010). Effect of maize genotype, developmental stage, and cooking process on the nutraceutical potential of huitlacoche (. Ustilago maydis)Food Chemistry, 119(2), 689-697. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.foodchem.2009.07.015.
» http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.foodchem.2009.07.015 - Valverde, M. E. (1992). Infecion studies of huitlacoche (Ustilago maydis) and dietary characteristics (Master thesis). Center for Investigation and Advanced Studies of the National Polytechnic Institute, Irapuato, Mexico.
- Valverde, M. E., & Paredes‐López, O. (1993). Production and evaluation of some food properties of huitlacoche (. Ustilago maydis)Food Biotechnology, 7(3), 207-219. http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/08905439309549858.
» http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/08905439309549858 - Valverde, M. E., Fallah Moghaddaml, P., Zavala-Gallardol, M. S., Patakyl, J. K., Paredes-Lopez, O., & Pedersen, W. L. (1993). Yield and quality of huitlacoche on sweet corn inoculated with Ustilago maydis.HortScience, 28(8), 782-785. Retrieved from http://hortsci.ashspublications.org/content/28/8/782.full.pdf.
» http://hortsci.ashspublications.org/content/28/8/782.full.pdf - Valverde, M. E., Hernández-Pérez, T., & Paredes-López, O. (2015). Edible mushrooms: improving human health and promoting quality life. International Journal of Microbiology, 2015(2015), 14 p. http://dx.doi.org/10.1155/2015/376387.
» http://dx.doi.org/10.1155/2015/376387 - Vanegas, P. E., Valverde, M. E., Paredes-Lopez, O., & Pataky, J. K. (1995). Production of the edible fungus huitlacoche (. Ustilago maydis): Effect of maize genotype on chemical compositionJournal of Fermentation and Bioengineering, 80(1), 104-106. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/0922-338X(95)98187-P.
» http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/0922-338X(95)98187-P - Villanueva, C. (1997). Huitlacoche (Ustilago maydis) as a food in Mexico. Micología Neotropical Aplicada, 10, 73-81.
Publication Dates
-
Publication in this collection
June 2015
History
-
Received
12 Mar 2015 -
Accepted
26 Apr 2015