Chemical constituents and nutritional health functions of Dendrobium nobile: a review

Abstract

Dendrobium nobile is a traditional Chinese medicine and functional food in China, containing phenanthrene, alkaloids, bibenzyl, sesquiterpenes, polysaccharides and other chemical components, with anti-aging, immunity-enhancing, glucose-lowering and lipid-lowering health functions. In recent years, the research value of D. nobile has attracted the attention of more and more experts and scholars. This paper reviews the chemical constituents isolated and identified from D. nobile and provides reference for further development and utilization of D. nobile.

Keywords:
Dendrobium nobile; isolation and identification; chemical composition

1 Introduction

Dendrobium nobile Lindl. (Orchidaceae) is a famous traditional Chinese medicine and functional food with a long history, and mainly distributed in Guizhou, Yunnan, Guangxi of China and other subtropical areas. D. nobile has the effects of promoting the body's vitality, relieving cough, moistening the lungs and stomach, strengthening the eyes and nourishing Yin and clearing heat. Relevant studies have found that most of the compounds isolated from D. nobile have good physiological activities, with significant effects in improving memory loss, improving cerebral ischaemia, anti-fatigue, anti-oxidation, hypoglycaemia, anti-tumour and anti-inflammation. Its chemical composition is complex, including phenanthrenes, alkaloids, polysaccharides, sesquiterpenoids, bibenzoids, hand ketones, phenylpropanoids and so on. This paper reviews the nutritional and chemical composition and health functions of D. nobile, in order to provide reference for its in-depth research and development.

2 Phytochemical composition

The chemical constituents in medicinal plants play a vital role in human health. Chemical composition research showed that D. nobile mainly contains phenanthrene, alkaloids, polysaccharides, flavonoids, phenols, sesquiterpenoids, coumarins and steroidal glycosides. Their structures and names are listed below.

2.1 Phenanthrene

There are numerous reports on the biological activities of phenanthrene compounds from D. nobile, which are widely used for their pharmacological activities such as antitumour and antioxidant. Up to now, 51 compounds have been identified from D. nobile. Zhou et al. (2016a) isolated and identified 21 compounds from D. nobile, including three new phenanthrenes and three new biphenanthrenes, as well as 15 known phenanthrenes (Zhou et al., 2016a). In a study on the antioxidant activity of D. nobile, Zhang et al. (2008c) found that the presence of methoxy in the neighboring position of the phenolic hydroxyl group with power supply had a positive effect on the antioxidant activity of phenolic and lignan compounds (Zhang et al., 2008c). The names of the compounds are given in Table 1 and the structures are shown in Figure 1.

Table 1
Phenanthrene compounds isolated from D. nobile.

NO.	Chemical compound									Formula					Molecular weight				Ref.
1	Hircinol									C15H14O3					242.27				Hwang et al., 2010; Zhou et al., 2016a
2	Ephemeranthol A									C16H16O4					272.30				Hwang et al., 2010; Zhou et al., 2016a
3	Erianthridin									C16H16O4					272.30				Hwang et al., 2010; Zhou et al., 2016a
4	4,5-dihydroxy-2-methoxy-9,10-dihydrophenanthrene									C15H14O3					242.27				Zhou et al., 2016a
5	Flavanthridin									C16H16O4					272.30				Hwang et al., 2010; Zhou et al., 2016a
6	2,5-dihydroxy-7-methoxy-9,10-dihydrophenanthrene(Lusianthridin)									C15H14O3					242.27				Hwang et al., 2010; Zhou et al., 2016a
7	3-hydroxy- 2,4,7-trimethoxy-9,10-dihydrophenanthrene									C17H18O4					286.12				Yang et al., 2007
8	2,8-dihydroxy-3,4,7-trimethoxy-9,10-dihydrophenanthrene									C17H18O5					302.12				Yang et al., 2007
9	2-hydroxy- 4,7-dimethoxy-9,10-dihydrophenanthrene									C16H16O3					256.11				Yang et al., 2007
10	3,7-dihydroxy-2,4-dimethoxy- 9,10-dihydrophenanthrene									C16H16O4					272.10				Zhang et al., 2019b
11	4,7-dihydroxy-2- methoxy-9,10-dihydrophenanthrene									C15H14O3					242.09				Lee et al., 1995
12	4,5-Dihydroxy-3,7-dimethoxydihydrophenanthrene									C16H16O4					272.10				Ye & Zhao, 2002
13	Coelonin									C15H14O3					242.09				Hwang et al., 2010
14	Ephemeranthol C									C15H14O4					258.09				Hwang et al., 2010
15	7-methoxy-9,10-dihydrophenanthrene-2,4,5-triol									C15H14O4					258.09				Xia et al., 2018
16	9,10-dihydro-2,7-dimethoxyphenanthrene-4,5-diol									C16H16O4					272.10				Liu et al., 2007
17	5-methoxy-4,7,10R-trihydroxy- 9,10-dihydrophenanthrene-7-O-β-D-glucopyranoside									C21H24O9					420.14				Zhou et al., 2017
18	Moscatin									C15H12O3					240.26				Zhou et al., 2018b; Zhou et al., 2016a
19	Confusarin									C17H16O5					300.31				Xia et al., 2018; Zhang et al., 2008c; Zhang et al., 2019b; Zhou et al., 2016a
20	Nudol									C16H14O4					270.28				Xia et al., 2018; Zhang et al., 2019b; Zhou et al., 2016a
21	Lusianthrin									C15H12O4					256.26				Xia et al., 2018; Zhou et al., 2016a
22	2,8-dihydroxy-3,4,7-trimethoxyphenanthrene									C17H16O5					300.10				Yang et al., 2007
23	2,3,5-trihydroxy-4,9-dimethoxyphenanthrene									C16H14O5					286.08				Yang et al., 2007
24	3,7-dihydroxy-2,4-dimethoxyphenanthrene									C16H14O4					270.09				Zhang et al., 2008c; Zhang et al., 2019b
25	3,7-dihydroxy-2,4,8-trimethoxyphenanthrene									C17H16O5					300.10				Zhang et al., 2019b; Zhou et al., 2018b
26	Flavanthrinin									C15H12O3					240.08				Zhang et al., 2008c
27	2,5-dihydroxy-4,9-dimethoxyphenanthrene									C16H14O4					270.09				Zhang et al., 2008c
28	3,4,8-trimethoxyphenanthrene-2,5-diol									C17H16O5					300.10				Hwang et al., 2010; Xia et al., 2018
29	5,7-dimethoxyphenanthrene- 2,6-diol									C16H14O4					270.09				Hwang et al., 2010
30	Fimbriol-B									C15H12O4					256.07				Hwang et al., 2010
31	1,5,7-trimethoxy phenanthrene-2,6-diol									C17H16O5					300.10				Zhou et al., 2018b
32	4,5-dihydroxy-2,10-dimethoxyphenanthrene									C16H14O5					286.08				Zhang et al., 2008c
33	2,4-dimethoxyphenanthrene-3,7-diol									C16H14O4					270.09				Zhang et al., 2008c
34	1,5,6-trimethoxyphenanthrene-4,7-diol									C17H16O5					300.10				Hwang et al., 2010
35	2-hydroxy-9,10-dihydro-5,8-phenanthrenedione									C14H10O3					226.06				Zhou et al., 2016a
36	6,7-dihydroxy-2-methoxy-1,4-phenanthrenedione									C15H10O5					270.24				Zhou et al., 2016a
37	Densiflorol B									C15H10O4					254.06				Zhou et al., 2018b
38	Denbinobin									C16H12O5					284.07				Lee et al., 1995; Xia et al., 2018; Zhou et al., 2018b
39	Denobilones B									C15H16O4					260.29				Zhou et al., 2016a
40	Denobilones C									C15H14O5					274.27				Zhou et al., 2016a
41	Fimbriatone									C16H10O5					282.05				Zhang et al., 2008c
42	Denthyrsinol A									C31H26O7					510.54				Zhou et al., 2016a
43	Denthyrsinol B									C30H24O6					480.52				Zhou et al., 2016a
44	Denthyrsinol C									C31H24O7					508.53				Zhou et al., 2016a
45	Denthysinol									C30H22O6					478.50				Zhou et al., 2016a
46	Phochinenin G									C30H26O6					482.53				Zhou et al., 2016a
47	4,4′,7,7′-tetrahydroxy-2,2′-dimethoxy-9,9′,10,10′-tetrahydro-1,1′-phenanthrene									C30H26O6					482.53				Zhou et al., 2016a
48	2,2′-dihydroxy-3,3′,4,4′,7,7′-hexamethoxy-9,9′,10,10′-tetrahydro-1,1′- biphenanthrene									C34H34O8					570.23				Yang et al., 2007
49	Phochinenin D									C30H26O6					482.53				Zhou et al., 2016a
50	Dendronbibisline A									C30H26O7					498.17				Cheng et al., 2020
51	Dendronbibisline B									C25H24O7					436.15				Cheng et al., 2020
			R1		R2		R3		R4			R5		R6			R7			R8		R9
1			H		OH		H		OCH3			OH		H			H			H		H
2			H		OH		H		H			OH		OCH3			OCH3			H		H
3			H		OH		H		H			OCH3		OCH3			OH			H		H
4			H		OCH3		H		OH			OH		H			H			H		H
5			H		OH		H		H			OCH3		OH			OCH3			H		H
6			H		OH		H		H			OH		H			OCH3			H		H
7			H		OCH3		H		H			OCH3		OH			OCH3			H		H
8			OH		OCH3		H		H			OCH3		OCH3			OH			H		H
9			H		OCH3		H		H			OCH3		H			OH			H		H
10			H		OH		H		H			OCH3		OH			OCH3			H		H
11			H		OH		H		H			OH		H			OCH3			H		H
12			H		H		OCH3		OH			OH		H			OCH3			H		H
13			H		OH		H		OCH3			H		H			OH			H		H
14			H		OH		OH		OCH3			OH		H			H			H		H
15			H		OCH3		H		OH			OH		H			OH			H		H
16			H		OCH3		H		OH			OH		OCH3			H			H		H
17			H		H		H		OH			OCH3		H			OGlc			H		β-OH
		R1		R2		R3		R4			R5		R6			R7		R8			R9		R10
18		H		OH		H		OCH3			OH		H			H		H			H		H
19		OCH3		OH		H		H			OCH3		OCH3			OH		H			H		H
20		H		OH		H		H			OCH3		OCH3			OH		H			H		H
21		H		OH		H		OH			OH		H			OCH3		H			H		H
22		OH		OCH3		H		H			OCH3		OCH3			OH		H			H		H
23		H		H		H		OH			OCH3		OH			OH		H			H		OCH3
24		H		OH		H		H			OCH3		OH			OCH3		H			H		H
25		OCH3		OH		H		H			OCH3		OH			OCH3		H			H		H
26		H		OH		H		OCH3			H		H			OH		H			H		H
27		H		OH		H		OCH3			OH		H			H		H			OCH3		H
28		H		OH		OCH3		OCH3			OH		H			H		OCH3			H		H
29		H		OCH3		OH		OCH3			H		H			OH		H			H		H
30		H		OH		OH		OCH3			OH		H			H		H			H		H
31		OCH3		OH		H		H			OCH3		OH			OCH3		H			H		H
32		H		OCH3		H		OH			OH		H			OH		H			H		OCH3
33		H		OCH3		OH		OCH3			H		H			OH		H			H		H
34		OCH3		H		H		OH			OCH3		OCH3			OH		H			H		H

Figure 1
Chemical structure of phenanthrene compounds in D. nobile.

2.2 Alkaloids

Alkaloids are the main active compounds and characteristic of Dendrobium spp. Dendrobine was the first alkaloid component isolated from D. nobile (Deng et al., 2002), and was currently used as a standard reference for the QC of D. nobile in Chinese Pharmacopoeia. Yan et al. (2018) determined the total alkaloid and dendrobine contents of D. nobile at different harvesting stages and found that the total alkaloid and dendrobine contents were annual (0.52%, 0.48%) > biennial (0.48%, 0.44%) > triennial (0.32%, 0.22%). It has been reported that 30 alkaloids have been isolated from D. nobile, with sesquiterpenoid alkaloids predominating. According to the structural characteristics, the sesquiterpenoid alkaloids in D. nobile can be classified into four types: dendrobine type (dendrobine type, I), dendroxine type (dendroxine type, II), nobiline type (nobiline type, III), and other types (IV), and the specific compound names are shown in Table 2 and the compound structures are shown in Figure 2.

Table 2
Alkaloids isolated from D. nobile.

NO.	Chemical compound	Formula	Molecular weight	Ref.
52	Dendrobine	C16H25NO2	263.19	Meng et al., 2017; Wang et al., 2016; Ye & Zhao, 2002
53	Mubironine B	C15H23NO2	249.17	Wang et al., 2016
54	Dendramine	C16H25NO3	279.18	Chen et al., 2021; Okamoto et al., 1966b; Wang et al., 2016
55	(-)-(1R,2S,3R,4S,5R,6S,9S,11R)-11-Carboxymethyldendrobine	C18H27NO4	321.19	Meng et al., 2017
56	Dendrine	C19H29NO4	335.21	Meng et al., 2017
57	Dendronobiline A	C19H29NO3	319.21	Chen et al., 2021
58	9-hydroxy-10-oxodendrobine	C16H23NO4	293.16	Okamoto et al., 1966b
59	N-methyldendrobinium	C17H28NO2+	278.21	Wang et al., 2016
60	N-isopentenyldendrobinium	C21H34NO2+	332.26	Wang et al., 2016
61	Dendrobine-N-oxide	C17H28NO4+	310.20	Chen et al., 2021
62	N-isopentenyl-dendrobine	C21H34NO2+	332.26	Chen et al., 2021
63	Dendroxine	C17H25NO3	291.18	Okamoto et al., 1966a
64	6-hydroxy-dendroxine	C17H25NO4	307.18	Okamoto et al., 1966b
65	4-hydroxy-dendroxine	C17H25NO4	307.18	Chen et al., 2021; Wang & Zhao, 1986
66	N-isopentenyl-6-hydroxydendroxinium	C22H33NO4+	375.24	Wang et al., 2016
67	N-Isopentenyldendroxinium	C22H33NO3+	359.25	Wang et al., 2016
68	N-Isopentenyldendroxinium chloride	C22H34NO3+	360.25	Hedman & Leander, 1972
69	N-Isopentenyl-6-hydroxydendroxinium chloride	C22H34NO4+	376.25	Hedman & Leander, 1972
70	N-isopentenyl-dendroxine	C22H34NO3+	360.25	Chen et al., 2021
71	N-isopentenyl-6-hydroxy-dendroxine	C22H34NO4+	376.25	Chen et al., 2021
72	Nobilonine	C17H27NO3	293.20	Wang et al., 2016
73	6-hydroxynobiline	C17H27NO4	309.19	Wang et al., 2016
74	Dendroterpene A	C15H21NO3	263.15	Wang et al., 2019a
75	Dendroterpene B	C15H21NO4	279.15	Wang et al., 2019a
76	Adenosine	C10H13N5O4	267.10	Zhou et al., 2017
77	N-trans-cinnamoyl tyramine	C17H17NO2	267.13	Wang et al., 2012
78	N-trans-feruloyl tyramine	C18H19NO4	313.13	Wang et al., 2012
79	N-trans-p-coumaroyl tyramine	C17H17NO3	283.12	Wang et al., 2012
80	N-cis-p-coumaroyl tyramine	C17H17NO3	283.14	Wang et al., 2012
81	N-cis-feruloyl tyramine	C18H19NO4	313.15	Wang et al., 2012

Figure 2
Chemical structure of alkaloids components in D. nobile.

2.3 Bibenzyl

Bibenzyls are a class of compounds consisting of two phenylmethyl structural units linked by a C-C single bond to a methyl group. Although the parent nucleus of bibenzylates is simple, they are diverse due to variations in the aromatic ring and the substituents on the carbon of the bridge chain connecting the aromatic ring. The bibenzylates isolated from D. nobile can be divided into two major groups: simple bibenzylates and bibenzylates. In recent years, the good anticancer, antioxidant and antibacterial activities of the bibenzyl compounds have become a hot topic of research. At present, 32 bibenzyl compoundsas shown in Table 3 have been isolated from D. nobile, and their structures are shown in Figure 3.

Table 3
Bibenzyl compounds isolated from D. nobile.

NO.	Chemical compound			Formula		Molecular weight		Ref.
82	3’4-dihydroxy-3,5’-dimethoxybibenzyl			C16H18O4		274.32		Zhou et al., 2016a
83	3-hydroxy-5-methoxybibenzyl			C15H16O2		228.29		Zhou et al., 2016a
84	Batatasin III			C15H16O3		244.29		Wang et al., 2012; Zhou et al., 2016a
85	Tristin			C15H16O4		260.29		Zhou et al., 2016a
86	3,3′,5-trihydroxybibenzyl			C14H14O3		230.26		Zhou et al., 2016a
87	Crepidatin			C18H22O5		318.15		Zhang et al., 2007c
88	Chrysotobibenzyl			C19H24O5		332.16		Zhang et al., 2007c
89	3,4'-dihydroxy-5,5'-dimethoxydihydrostilbene			C16H18O4		274.12		Hwang et al., 2010
90	3-O-methylgigantol			C17H20O4		288.14		Hwang et al., 2010
91	4-hydroxy-3,3′,5-trimethoxybibenzyl			C17H20O4		288.14		Ye & Zhao, 2002
92	Erianin			C18H22O5		318.15		Zhou et al., 2016a
93	4,4'-dihydroxy-3,5,3'-trimethoxybibenzyl;Moscatilin			C17H20O5		304.13		Hwang et al., 2010; Luo et al., 2006b; Miyazawa et al., 1999; Xiao et al., 2016a; Zhang et al., 2007c
94	4,5-dihydroxy-3,3'- dimethoxybibenzyl			C16H18O4		274.12		Xiao et al., 2016a; Ye & Zhao, 2002
95	4,3'-dihydroxy-3,5-dimethoxybibenzyl			C16H18O4		274.12		Xiao et al., 2016a
96	5,3'-dihydroxy-3-methoxybibenzyl			C15H16O3		244.11		Xiao et al., 2016a
97	Dendrobin A			C16H18O4		274.12		Zhang et al., 2007c
98	Chrysotoxine			C18H22O5		318.15		Zhang et al., 2007c
99	Gigantol			C16H18O4		274.12		Zhang et al., 2007c
100	Nobilin A			C17H20O5		304.13		Zhang et al., 2008b
101	Nobilin B			C18H22O6		334.14		Zhang et al., 2008b
102	Nobilin C			C19H24O6		348.16		Zhang et al., 2008b
103	4,α-dihydroxy-3,5,3'-trimethoxybibenzyl			C17H20O5		304.13		Xiao et al., 2016a
104	Nobilin D			C17H20O6		320.13		Zhang et al., 2007c
105	Didendronbiline A			C32H32O8		544.21		Zhang et al., 2019a
106	Dendronbibisline D			C33H34O8		558.23		Cheng et al., 2020
107	Dendronbibisline C			C32H32O8		544.21		Cheng et al., 2020
108	Nobilin E			C32H32O8		544.21		Wang et al., 2019a; Zhang et al., 2007c
109	Dendrocandin V			C30H22O9		526.13		Wang et al., 2019a
110	Dendronophenol A			C34H38O8		574.26		Liu et al., 2007
111	Dendronophenol B			C27H30O8		482.19		Liu et al., 2007
112	Dendronbiline B			C25H26O8		454.16		Zhang et al., 2019a
113	Dendronbiline C			C27H30O8		482.19		Zhang et al., 2019a
		R1	R2		R3		R4	R5	R6
82		OCH3	H		OH		H	OH	OCH3
83		OCH3	H		OH		H	H	H
84		OCH3	H		OH		H	H	OH
85		OH	H		OH		H	OH	OCH3
86		OH	H		OH		H	H	OH
87		OCH3	OCH3		OCH3		H	OH	OCH3
88		OCH3	OCH3		OCH3		H	OCH3	OCH3
89		OCH3	H		OH		H	OCH3	OH
90		OCH3	H		OH		H	OCH3	OCH3
91		OCH3	OH		OCH3		H	H	OCH3
92		OCH3	OCH3		OCH3		H	OCH3	OH
93		OCH3	OH		OCH3		H	OH	OCH3
94		OCH3	OH		OH		H	H	OCH3
95		OCH3	OH		OCH3		H	H	OH
96		OCH3	H		OH		H	H	OCH3
97		OH	OH		OCH3		H	H	OCH3
98		OCH3	OH		OCH3		H	OCH3	OH
99		OH	OH		OCH3		H	OH	OCH3
100		OCH3	OH		OH		OCH3	H	OCH3
101		OCH3	OH		OCH3		OCH3	OH	OCH3
102		OCH3	OH		OCH3		OCH3	OCH3	OCH3
103		OCH3	OH		OCH3		OH	H	OCH3
104		OCH3	OH		OCH3		OH	OH	OCH3

Figure 3
Chemical structure of bibenzyl compounds in D. nobile.

2.4 Sesquiterpenes

Up to now, 49 known sesquiterpenes were isolated from D. nobile, most of them have more significant biological activities, such as anti-tumour, neuroprotection, immunomodulation, treatment of diabetes, improvement of acute cerebral ischaemia and other effects (Li et al., 2017a; Liu, 2017). Sesquiterpenes from D. nobile could be classified as picrotoxane sesquiterpenes, all-aromadendrane sesquiterpenes, cyclocopacamphane sesquiterpenes, copacamphane sesquiterpenes, juniperane sesquiterpenes, cadaverene sesquiterpenes, muurolene sesquiterpenes, axane sesquiterpenes. Picrotoxane sesquiterpenes are mainly present as Picrotoxane-type alkaloids and non-alkaloids (Wang et al., 2019b). The specific compound names are shown in Table 4 and the structures are shown in Figure 4.

Table 4
Sesquiterpenes isolated from D. nobile.

NO.	Chemical compound	Formula	Molecular weight	Ref.
114	Dendronobilin B	C15H24O5	284.16	Zhang et al., 2007b
115	Dendronobilin C	C15H22O6	298.14	Zhang et al., 2007b
116	Dendronobilin D	C15H24O5	284.16	Liu & Zhao, 2003
117	Dendronobilin E	C15H24O5	284.16	Zhang et al., 2007b
118	Dendronobilin F	C15H22O5	282.34	Zhang et al., 2007b
119	Dendronobilin J	C15H22O6	298.14	Zhang et al., 2007a
120	Dendronobilins K(2β,11,12-trihydroxycopacamphan-15-one)	C15H24O4	268.17	Zhang et al., 2008a
121	Dendronobilins L (2β,3β,4β,5β)-2,4,11,12-tetrahydroxypicrotoxan-3(15)-olactone)	C15H24O6	300.16	Zhang et al., 2008a
122	Dendronobilins M (2β,3β,5β)-2,11,12,13-tetrahydroxypicrotoxan-3(15)-olactone)	C15H24O7	316.15	Zhang et al., 2008a
123	Dendroterpene A	C15H21NO3	263.15	Wang et al., 2019a
124	Dendroterpene B	C15H21NO4	279.15	Wang et al., 2019a
125	Dendroterpene C	C15H20O4	264.14	Wang et al., 2019a
126	Dendroterpene D	C15H20O5	280.13	Wang et al., 2019a
127	Dendroterpene E	C15H22O4	266.15	Wang et al., 2022
128	dendronobilosides A (10,12-dihydroxypicrotoxane 10,12-di-O-β-D-glucopyranoside)	C27H48O12	564.31	Ye & Zhao, 2002; Zhao et al., 2001
129	Dendronobilosides B (6α,10,12- trihydroxypicrotoxane 10-O-β-D-glucopyranoside)	C21H38O8	418.26	Ye & Zhao, 2002; Zhao et al., 2001
130	(+)-(1R,2S,3R,4S,5R,6S,9R)-3,11,12-trihydroxypicrotoxane-2(15)-lactone	C15H24O5	284.16	Ma et al., 2019
131	Dendrosides F (7-hydroxy-5-hydroxymethyl-11-isopropyl-6-methyl-9-oxatricyclo[6.2.1.02,6]undecan-10-one-15-O-β-D-glucopyranoside)	C21H34O9	453.21	Ye et al., 2002
132	Dendrosides G (7,11-dihydroxy-5-hydroxymethyl-11-isopropyl-6-methyl- 9-oxatricyclo[6.2.1.02,6]undecan-10-one-15-O-β-D-glucopyranoside)	C21H34O10	469.20	Ye et al., 2002
133	7,12-dihydroxy-5-hydroxymethyl-11-isopropyl-6-methyl-9-oxatricyclo[6.2.1.02,6]undecan-10-one-15-O-β-D-glucopyranoside	C21H34O10	446.22	Shu et al., 2004
134	(−)-(1S,2R,3S,4R,5S,6R,9S,12R)-3,11,13-trihydroxypicrotoxane-2(15)-lactone	C15H24O5	284.16	Ma et al., 2019
135	(+)-(1R,5R,6S,8R,9R)- 8,12-dihydroxy-copacamphan-3-en-2-one	C15H22O3	250.16	Ma et al., 2019
136	Dendrodensiflorol	C15H24O5	284.16	Zhang et al., 2007a
137	Nobilomethylene	C15H20O3	248.32	Okamoto et al., 1972
138	Findlayanin	C15H24O5	284.35	Meng et al., 2017
139	10,12-Dihydroxypicrotoxane	C15H28O3	256.20	Zhang et al., 2007a
140	6α,10,12-Trihydroxypicrotoxane	C15H28O4	272.20	Zhang et al., 2007a
141	(+)-(1R,2S,3S,4R,5R,6S,9R)-2,4,11-Trihydroxypicrotoxane-3(15)-lactone	C15H24O5	284.16	Meng et al., 2017
142	(+)-(1R,2S,3R,4S,5R,6S,9R)-2,11,12-Trihydroxypicrotoxane-3(15)-lactone	C15H24O5	284.16	Meng et al., 2017
143	Dendroside A 10β,12,14-trihydroxyalloaromadendrane 14-O-β-D- glucopyranoside)	C21H36O8	416.24	Ye & Zhao, 2002; Zhao et al., 2001
144	Dendroside B	C27H46O13	578.29	Ye & Zhao, 2002
145	Dendrosides D	C27H44O14	615.26	Ye et al., 2002
146	10β,12,14-trihydroxyalloaromadendrane	C15H26O3	254.19	Ye & Zhao, 2002
147	Dendrobiumane A	C15H26O3	254.19	Zhang et al., 2007b
148	Dendronobilin H	C15H26O3	254.19	Zhang et al., 2007b
149	Dendroside C	C21H36O8	416.24	Ye & Zhao, 2002
150	10β,13,14-Trihydroxyalloaromadendrane	C15H26O3	254.19	Zhang et al., 2007a
151	Dendronobilin A	C15H24O3	252.17	Zhang et al., 2007b
152	Dendronobilins N (5β,8β)-cyclocopacamphane-5,8,12,15-tetrol)	C15H24O4	268.17	Zhang et al., 2008a
153	Dendronobiloside E	C21H34O8	414.24	Ye & Zhao, 2002
154	Dendrobane A	C15H24O3	252.17	Ye & Zhao, 2002
155	Dendronobilin I	C15H24O3	252.17	Zhang et al., 2007b
156	Dendronobiloside C	C27H44O12	560.28	Ye & Zhao, 2002
157	Dendronobiloside D	C27H44O12	560.28	Ye & Zhao, 2002
158	(+)δ-cadinen-12,14-diol	C15H24O2	236.18	Xiao et al., 2016b
159	cadalene-12-O-β-D-glucopyranoside	C21H28O6	376.19	Wu et al., 2019
160	Dendronobilin G	C15H26O3	254.19	Zhang et al., 2007b
161	Dendrosides E (1α,13,14-trihydroxyemmotin 14-O-β-D –glucopyranoside)	C21H36O8	439.23	Ye et al., 2002
162	Bullatantriol	C15H28O3	256.20	Zhang et al., 2007a

Figure 4
Chemical structure of sesquiterpenes in D. nobile.

2.5 Phenolic acid

Phenolic acids are aromatic carboxylic acid compounds with multiple phenolic hydroxyl substitutions on a benzene ring, which are widely distributed in nature, especially in some common Chinese medicines, and exist mainly in the form of various esters and organic acids, rarely in free form (Kaska et al., 2021; Luo et al., 2022). The phenolic acids in D. nobile have numerous pharmacological activities. In recent years, 33 phenolic acid compounds have been isolated from D. nobile. Zhang et al. (2008b) obtained 13 phenolic acids in the ethanolic extract of D. nobile. Secondly, the phenolic acid components of Dendrobium chinense were also including Protocatechuic acid (Ye & Zhao, 2002), Chrysophanic acid (Zhang et al., 2006), Naringenin (Zhou et al., 2018b), Isoliquiritin (Luo et al., 2006a). The composition and structure are shown in Table 5 and Figure 5.

Table 5
Phenolic acids isolated from D. nobile.

NO.	Chemical compound	Formula	Molecular weight	Ref.
163	3,4-dihydroxybenzoic acid	C7H6O4	154.03	Wang et al., 2022
164	syringic acid	C9H10O5	198.05	Zhang et al., 2008b
165	2-hydroxyphenylpropanol	C9H12O2	152.08	Zhang et al., 2008b
166	vanillin	C8H8O3	152.05	Wang et al., 2022; Zhang et al., 2008b
167	apocynin	C9H10O3	166.06	Zhang et al., 2008b
168	coniferyl aldehyde	C10H10O3	178.06	Zhang et al., 2008b
169	syringaldehyde	C9H10O4	182.06	Zhang et al., 2008b
170	syringylethanone	C10H12O4	196.07	Zhang et al., 2008b
171	p-hydroxybenzaldehyde	C7H6O2	122.04	Zhang et al., 2008b
172	3-hydroxy-4-methoxyphenylethanol	C9H12O3	168.08	Zhang et al., 2008b
173	α-hydroxysyringylethanol	C11H14O5	226.08	Zhang et al., 2008b
174	Dihydroxyconiferyl alcohol	C10H14O3	182.09	Zhang et al., 2008b
175	p-hydroxybenzoic acid	C7H6O3	138.03	Zhang et al., 2008b
176	p-hydroxyphenylpropionic acid	C9H10O3	166.06	Zhang et al., 2008b
177	(E)-4-(2-methoxyvinyl) benzene-1,2-diol	C9H12O3	168.08	Zhou et al., 2018b
178	5-hydroxyphenylpropanol	C9H12O2	152.08	Zhang et al., 2006
179	5-hydroxy-6-methoxyphenylethanol	C9H12O3	168.08	Zhang et al., 2006
180	1,2-dihydroxybenzoicacid	C7H6O4	154.03	Ye & Zhao, 2002
181	cinnamic acid	C9H8O2	148.05	Wang et al., 2022
182	[3-hydroxy-1-(3-methoxy-4-hydroxyphenyl)-propan-1-one]	C10H12O4	196.07	Zhou et al., 2016b
183	methyl(E)-3-(4-hydroxyphenyl)acrylate	C10H10O3	178.06	Wang et al., 2022
184	(E)-4-(4-Hydroxy- 3-methoxyphenyl)but-3-en-2-one	C11H12O4	208.07	Wang et al., 2022
185	dihydroconiferyl dihydro-p-coumarate	C19H22O5	330.15	Cheng et al., 2020
186	dihydrosinapyl dihydro-p-coumarate	C20H24O6	360.16	Cheng et al., 2020
187	isoliquiritin	C21H22O9	418.13	Luo et al., 2006a
188	(7S,8R)dehydrodiconiferyl alcohol 9′-β-glucopyranoside	C26H32O11	520.19	Zhou et al., 2017
189	Chrysophanic acid	C15H10O4	254.06	Yang & Xin, 2006
190	di-[2-(4-hydroxyphenyl)] ethyl ether	C16H18O3	258.13	Wang et al., 2019a
191	4-methoxy-2,5,9R-trihydroxy-9,10-dihydrophenan-threne 2-O-β-D-glucopyranoside	C21H24O9	420.14	Zhou et al., 2017
192	narcissin	C28H34O16	626.18	Zhou et al., 2017
193	isorhamentin-3-O-β-D-rutinoside	C28H32O16	624.17	Zhou et al., 2017
194	koaburaside	C14H20O9	332.11	Zhou et al., 2017
195	naringenin	C15H12O5	272.07	Zhou et al., 2018b

Figure 5
Chemical structure of phenolic acids in D. nobile.

2.6 Lignans

Lignans are a kind of natural products formed by oxidative polymerization of phenylpropanoid, and D. nobile contains a small amount of lignans. Zhang et al. (2008b) separated and identified the chemical components of 60% ethanol extract of D. nobile by modern chromatography and spectroscopy, and obtained four compounds. The antioxidant activity of these four compounds was evaluated by DPPH free radical scavenging method. See Table 6 and Figure 6 for chemical composition and structure.

Table 6
Lignans isolated from D. nobile.

NO.	Chemical compound	Formula	Molecular weight	Ref.
196	syringaresinol	C22H26O8	418.16	Zhang et al., 2008c
197	pinoresinol	C20H22O6	358.14	Wang et al., 2012; Zhang et al., 2008c
198	medioresinol	C21H24O7	388.15	Zhang et al., 2008c
199	lirioresinol-A	C22H26O8	418.16	Zhang et al., 2008c
200	(+)-syringaresinol-O-β-D-glucopyranoside	C28H36O13	580.22	Liu et al., 2007
201	(7S,8R)-dehydrodiconiferyl alcohol-9′-β-glucopyranoside	C26H32O11	520.19	Zhou et al., 2017
202	dehydrodiconiferyl alcohol-4-β-D-glucoside	C26H32O11	520.19	Zhou et al., 2017

Figure 6
Chemical structure of lignans in D. nobile.

2.7 Fluorenones

At present, six fluorenones were isolated from D. nobile. Among them, four fluorenone compounds were isolated from ethyl acetate of D. nobile, including Nobilone,Denchrysan A,Dengibsin and Dengibsinin F (Zhou et al., 2018a). Two new fluorenones were discovered for the first time during the study of the chemical composition of D. nobile by Yang & Xin (2006). The name of the compound is shown in Table 7, and the chemical composition and structure is shown in Figure 7.

Table 7
Fluorenone compounds isolated from D. nobile.

NO.	Chemical compound	Formula	Molecular weight	Ref.
203	nobilone	C14H10O4	242.06	Zhang et al., 2007c; Zhou et al., 2018a
204	dendroflorin	C14H10O5	258.05	Zhang et al., 2007c
205	1,4,7-trihydroxy-5-methoxy-9H-fluoren-9-one	C14H10O5	258.05	Xia et al., 2018
206	2,4,7-thihydroxy-5-methoxy-9-fluorenone; denchrysan A	C14H10O5	258.05	Yang & Xin, 2006; Zhou et al., 2018a
207	Dengibsin	C14H10O4	242.06	Yang & Xin, 2006; Zhou et al., 2018a
208	dengibsinin	C15H12O5	272.07	Zhou et al., 2018a

Figure 7
Chemical structure of fluorenones in D. nobile.

2.8 Coumarins

Coumarin is one of the active ingredients of D. nobile. Coumarins are a group of substances with benzoic α-pyrone as the parent nucleus, coumarins have antibacterial, antitumour, vasodilating and anticoagulant effects. At present, the coumarins isolated from D. nobile are dendrocoumarinh and itolide A (Zhou et al., 2018c). Their names, formula and molecular weights are shown in Table 8 and their structures are shown in Figure 8.

Table 8
Coumarins isolated from D. nobile.

NO.	Chemical compound	Formula	Molecular weight	Ref.
209	dendrocoumarin	C13H8O5	244.04	Zhou et al., 2018c
210	itolide A	C13H8O5	244.04	Zhou et al., 2018c
211	Coumarin	C9H6O2	146.04	Xu et al., 2018
212	moellendorffiline	C26H20O10	492.11	Zhou et al., 2018b
213	isopimpinellin	C13H10O5	246.05	Zhou et al., 2018b

Figure 8
Chemical structure of coumarins in D. nobile.

2.9 Amides

Five amides were separated and purified from D. nobile by normal phase and reversed phase silica gel column chromatography, gel column chromatography and preparative high performance liquid chromatography. Their names and structures are shown in Table 9 and Figure 9 (Wang et al., 2012).

Table 9
Amides isolated from D. nobile.

NO.	Chemical compound	Formula	Molecular weight	Ref.
214	N-trans-feruloyltyramine	C18H19NO4	313.13	Wang et al., 2012
215	N-cis-feruloyltyramine	C18H19NO4	313.13	Wang et al., 2012
216	N-trans-p-coumaroyltyramine	C17H17NO3	283.12	Wang et al., 2012
217	N-cis-p-coumaroyltyramine	C17H17NO3	283.12	Wang et al., 2012
218	N-trans-cinnamoyltyramine	C17H17NO2	267.13	Wang et al., 2012

Figure 9
Chemical structures of amides in D. nobile.

2.10 Phenylpropanoids

Phenylpropanoids is a naturally occurring compound composed of benzene ring and three straight-chain carbon groups (C6-C3 groups) to form the precursor of lignans. It mainly includes chlorogenic acid, eugenin, caffeic acid, cypress and so on. The name and molecular size of Phenylpropanoids are shown in Table 10, and the structural formula is shown in Figure 10.

Table 10
Phenylpropanoids isolated from D. nobile.

NO.	Chemical compound	Formula	Molecular weight	Ref.
219	Decumbic acid A	C10H16O4	200.10	Zhou et al., 2016b
220	Decumbic acid B	C10H16O4	200.10	Zhou et al., 2016b
221	(-)-Decumbic acid	C10H16O4	200.10	Zhou et al., 2016b
222	(-)-Dendrolactone	C14H16O6	280.09	Zhou et al., 2016b
223	(+)-Dendrolactone	C14H16O6	280.09	Zhou et al., 2016b

Figure 10
Chemical structure of phenylpropanoids in D. nobile.

2.11 Polysaccharides

The chemical structure of polysaccharides includes the composition of monosaccharide residues, the order of monosaccharide residues, the heterocapital carbon configuration, the way of connecting adjacent sugar residues, the branching of sugar chains, etc., and the resulting spatial structure, which is the basis for the pharmacological activity of polysaccharides (Li et al., 2022; Wu et al., 2022). Due to the complexity of the chemical structure, the current research on the chemical structure of D. nobile is only limited to the simple composition and molecular weight distribution of monosaccharides and the preliminary primary structure. Modern pharmacological studies have shown that D. nobile polysaccharides have immune modulating, anti-tumour and antioxidant functions, and relevant studies have shown that D. nobile crude polysaccharides also have certain anti-cataract effects in vitro, which has attracted extensive attention from many experts and scholars. The composition and preparation method of D. nobile polysaccharide are shown in Table 11.

Table 11
Polysaccharides isolated from D. nobile.

name	compose	The molar ratio(%)	molecular weight(Da)	preparation method	Source	Ref.
DNP1-1	Rhamnose,	2.11:	136000	Crude water-soluble polysaccharides were extracted from the stem of Dendrobium nobile Lindl. Using boiling-water. The polysaccharides were successively purified by chromatography on DEAE-cellulose and Sephadex G-200 column, giving four major polysaccharide fractions termed DNP1-1, DNP2-1, DNP3-1, DNP4-2.	stem	Luo et al., 2010
	Arabinose,	3.54:
	Xylose,	0.89:
	Mannose,	12.97:
	Glucose,	44.65:
	Galactose	35.85
DNP2-1	Mannose,	16.99:	27700		stem	Luo et al., 2010
	Glucose,	53.26:
	Galactose	29.74
DNP3-1	Rhamnose,	3.76:	11800		stem	Luo et al., 2010
	Arabinose,	8.48:
	Mannose,	6.55:
	Glucose,	12.58:
	Galactose	68.63
DNP4-2	Rhamnose,	12.59:	11400		stem	Luo et al., 2010
	Arabinose,	4.20:
	Mannose,	11.64:
	Glucose,	23.47:
	Galactose	48.1
DNP-W	Mannose,	42.2:	413000	Polysaccharides were sequentially extracted from the stems of D. nobile to obtain three fractions, i.e. water extract fraction (DNP-W), 5% NaOH extract fraction (DNP-OH) and 5% HCl extract fraction (DNP-H). Further the DNP-W was isolated to give six sub-fractions (DNP-W1, DNP-W2, DNP-W3, DNP-W4, DNP-W5 and DNP-W6) by anion-exchange chromatography.	stem	Wang et al., 2010a
	Glucose,	31.1:
	Galactose,	13.6:
	Rhamnose,	2.8:
	Arabinose,	7.4:
	Xylose	2.9
DNP-OH	Mannose,	16.1:	176000		stem	Wang et al., 2010a
	Glucose,	23.3:
	Galactose,	51.2:
	Rhamnose,	3.4:
	Arabinose,	1.8:
	Xylose	4.2
DNP-H	Mannose,	9.1:	219000		stem	Wang et al., 2010a
	Glucose,	30.6:
	Galactose,	53.3:
	Rhamnose,	3.7:
	Arabinose,	1.3:
	Xylose	2
DNP-W1	Mannose,	64.2:	92000		stems	Wang et al., 2010a
	Glucose,	28.1:
	Galactose,	6.6:
	Arabinose	1.1
DNP-W2	Mannose,	21.1:	101000		stems	Wang et al., 2010a; Wang et al., 2010d
	Glucose,	65.3:
	Galactose,	11.2:
	Arabinose	1.9
DNP-W3	Mannose,	21.2:	1073000		stems	Wang et al., 2010b; Wang et al., 2010a
	Glucose,	52.6:
	Galactose,	14.3:
	Rhamnose,	5.9:
	Arabinose,	4.6:
	Xylose	1.1
DNP-W4	Mannose,	12.8:	421000		stems	Wang et al., 2010a; Wang et al., 2017
	Glucose,	54.9:
	Galactose,	23.6:
	Rhamnose,	4.6:
	Arabinose	3.9
DNP-W5	Mannose,	7.5:	463000		stem	Wang et al., 2010c; Wang et al., 2010a
	Glucose,	52.5:
	Galactose,	29.3:
	Rhamnose,	4.7:
	Arabinose,	2.1:
	Xylose	3.9
DNP-W6	Mannose,	10.6:	541000		stem	Wang, 2011; Wang et al., 2010a
	Glucose,	41.2:
	Galactose,	42.3:
	Rhamnose,	3.1:
	Arabinose,	1.2:
	Xylose	1.6

2.12 Others

In addition to the above chemical constituents, some scholars have also isolated butyl phthalate, trans-2-heptenal, nonenal, 2-n-pentylfuran, linalool, tearberry alcohol, and violetone from D. nobile. Their structures are shown in Table 12 and Figure 11.

Table 12
Other compounds isolated from D. nobile.

NO.	Chemical compound	Formula	Molecular weight	Ref.
224	Stigmasterol	C29H48O	412.37	Li et al., 2010
225	dendroside	C30H34O13	602.20	Zhou et al., 2017
226	β-sitosterol	C29H50O	414.39	Talapatra et al., 1982
227	daucosterol	C35H60O6	576.44	Luo et al., 2006a
228	dehydrodiconiferyl- alcohol-4-β-d-glucoside	C26H34O11	522.21	Zhou et al., 2017
229	juniperoside	C18H26O9	386.16	Zhou et al., 2018a; Zhou et al., 2017
230	Dibutylphthalate	C16H22O4	278.15	Wang et al., 2012
231	S(+)dehydrovomifoliol	C13H18O3	222.13	Wang et al., 2019a
232	(+)-denobilone A	C15H14O4	258.09	Zhou et al., 2016a
233	(−)-denobilone A	C15H14O4	258.09	Zhou et al., 2016a
234	Ionone	C13H20O	192.15	Xu et al., 2010
235	zhepiresinol	C14H16O6	280.09	Zhou et al., 2016b
236	Manool	C20H34O	290.26	Xu et al., 2010
237	3′,4′,5′-trimethoxycinnamyl acetate	C14H18O5	266.12	Zhou et al., 2016b
238	Linalool	C10H18O	154.14	Zheng et al., 2016
239	2-amyl furan	C9H14O	138.10	Zheng et al., 2016
240	methyl ester	C17H34O2	270.26	Wang et al., 2012
241	Nonenal	C9H16O	140.12	Zheng et al., 2016
242	Trans-2-heptenal	C7H12O	112.09	Zheng et al., 2016
243	1-tetracosanol	C24H50O	354.39	Zhou et al., 2018a
244	1-hexacosanol	C26H54O	382.42	Zhou et al., 2018a

Figure 11
Chemical structures of other compounds in D. nobile.

3 Nutritional health functions

3.1 Main nutrient composition

D. nobile is rich in nutrition and contains a variety of amino acids, proteins, reducing sugars, trace elements and other important nutrients. Amino acids play an important role in the growth and development of human body, and the composition of amino acids is balanced, which will be beneficial to human health. According to analysis, D. nobile contains all kinds of amino acids, including 17 kinds of amino acids, including 7 essential amino acids and 5 semi-essential amino acids (Qu et al., 2018). The total amount of amino acids in different Dendrobium was different, D. nobile was the highest, D. candidum was the second, and D. drumstick was the lowest. According to the analysis of nutritional composition of D. nobile, it was found that there was little difference in general nutritional composition among different cultivation models, with the highest water content, between 90.1% and 91.1%, ash 0.5% and 0.6%, total dietary fiber about 4.6%. Crude protein is between 0.27% and 0.36%, crude fat between 0.2% and 0.4%. It also contains major elements such as phosphorus, calcium, magnesium and trace elements such as zinc, iron and manganese needed by the human body (Reng et al., 2019). By analyzing the nutritional components of D. nobile in Chishui City, Guizhou Province, Lu et al. (2013) identified 6 fatty acids from the fatty acids of D. nobile, which were palmitic acid, stearic acid, oleic acid, linoleic acid, eicosenoic acid and erucic acid (Lu et al., 2013). In addition, the mature fresh stem of D. nobile planted in the fourth year contains 4.34% crude ash, 0.832% calcium, 0.019% magnesium, 0.227% total nitrogen and 0.154% phosphorus (Li et al., 2017b). Comprehensive analysis showed that D. nobile has potential value in the development and utilization of health products.

3.2 Health and medicinal functions

Anti-ageing

Ageing is a continuous and complex process that occurs spontaneously in the body. Free radical reactions and lipid peroxidation within the body can reduce cellular function and are key factors in causing ageing (Miwa et al., 2022). D. nobile can scavenge oxygen free radicals, delay DNA damage, inhibit apoptosis and alter DNA methylation, thus exhibiting important activities to delay ageing. Jin et al. (2008) found that Dendroflorin, the active compound extracted from D. nobile, contributes to the degradation of reactive oxygen species and is a potential drug for antioxidant activity.

Immunity boosting

Polysaccharides from D. nobile can promote lymphocyte mitosis. Related studies have found that D. nobile can inhibit the expression of cytokines, protein signaling pathways and immune cells, thus improving the inflammatory symptoms of mice (Hong et al., 2022). In addition, D. nobile can restore the balance of intestinal flora in mice with allergic rhinitis, improve pulmonary inflammation in mice with allergic rhinitis, and predict a new treatment method of using traditional Chinese medicine to improve allergic rhinitis (Duan et al., 2022). And polysaccharides from D. nobile can also enhance its immunity (Fan et al., 2020). Therefore, it is of great significance to develop the health food of D. nobile.

Hypoglycemic and lipid lowering

Diabetes is a metabolic disease caused by absolute and relative deficiency of insulin secretion. At present, it is still a research hotspot (Bailes, 2002). Related studies have shown that polysaccharides from D. nobile can significantly reduce the increase of blood glucose induced by epinephrine, promote the uptake and utilization of glucose in peripheral tissue, and thus reduce blood glucose (Pan et al., 2014). In addition, it was found that D. nobile could improve the abnormal lipid profile in the liver of HFD-fed mice in two ways: (1) enhance taurine binding to bile acid, which is highly hydrophilic and contribute to cholesterol excretion; (2) reduce the CA/CDCA ratio, which is positively correlated with cholesterol absorption (Huang et al., 2019).

4 Conclusion

D. nobile is one of the most valuable traditional Chinese medicines and functional food in China, and it is rich in resources and contains a variety of chemical components. Up to now, 13 polysaccharides and 244 small molecular compounds have been isolated from D. nobile, including alkaloids, sesquiterpenes, bibenzyl, phenanthrene, phenolic acids and so on. It is found that the stem of D. nobile is one of the main components to obtain chemical constituents, and this part is also rich in nutrient and mineral elements, which can be developed and utilized as a new resource food and cosmetics. Although the chemical composition of D. nobile has been studied for many years, the mechanism and effective parts of D. nobile have not been fully studied, and the relationship between chemical composition and efficacy needs to be further studied. Modern studies have also shown that it has a variety of structural types of pharmacological active components, with antihypertensive and lipid-lowering, anti-inflammatory, anti-aging, antibacterial and immunomodulatory effects, so it is worth further studying its potential utilization value.

Acknowledgements

This work was financially supported by the Department of Science and Technology of Guizhou Province (Nos. QKHZC [2021] general 476, QKHZC [2019]2953, QKHZC[2021]420, QKHZC [2020]4Y072, QKHPTRC [2018]5772-001), Department of Education of Guizhou Province (QJHKY [2021]049), Guizhou Engineering Research Center of Industrial Key-technology for Dendrobium Nobile (QJJ [2022]048 and QJJ [2022]006) and the Science and Technology Innovation Action Plan of Domestic Science and Technology Cooperation Projects in Shanghai (20025800400).

• Practical Application: The review provides a comprehensive information for consumers and researchers to understand D. nobile Chemical constituents and nutritional health functions.

References

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Publication Dates

• Publication in this collection
  14 Oct 2022
• Date of issue
  2022

History

• Received
  20 June 2022
• Accepted
  29 Aug 2022