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Influence of Values and Parenting Styles Perceived by Children in the Value Transmission

Influência dos Valores e Estilos Parentais Percebidos pelas Crianças na Transmissão Valorativa

Abstract

In order to better understand the relationship between parenting styles and parental values perceived by children ​​and their values, 119 children were invited to answer the Basic Values Survey​​ - Children’s version, the Parenting Styles Inventory, and a sociodemographic questionnaire. Results showed that the guardian’s perceived value priority does not depend on the parenting style perceived by children. Furthermore, positive parenting style is related to a greater value congruence between guardians and children, and parenting style and values ​are explanatory variables of the values endorsed by the children. The values and parenting styles perceived by children play an important role in the transmission of values between guardians and children.

Keywords:
value; parenting style; value congruence; value transmission; children

Resumo

Para compreender as relações entre estilos e valores parentais percebidos por crianças e os valores endossados por elas, 119 crianças foram convidadas a responder ao Questionário dos Valores Básicos - versão Infantil -, ao Inventário de Estilos Parentais e a perguntas sociodemográficas. Os resultados apontaram que prioridades valorativas percebidas nos responsáveis independem do estilo parental percebido pelas crianças, que estilo parental positivo está relacionado a uma maior congruência valorativa entre responsáveis e crianças e que os estilos e os valores parentais percebidos se apresentam como variáveis explicativas dos valores endossados pelas crianças. Desse modo, concluiu-se que os valores e estilos parentais percebidos pelas crianças em seus responsáveis apresentam papel importante na transmissão valorativa.

Palavras-chave:
valores; estilo parental; congruência valorativa; transmissão valorativa; crianças

Family plays a pivotal role in the children’s psychosocial development, representing the main channel for culture, values, and socially appropriate behavior transmission. Thus, the relationships established in the family environment will influence individual’s cognitive, ethical, and moral dimensions. This influence comes from the parental socialization practices prioritized in child-rearing (Nascimento & Leal, 2017Nascimento, G. O., & Leal, F. S. F. (2017). Positive and Negative Parenting Practices as collaborative factors in school performance. Revista de Estudios e Investigación en Psicología y Educación, 5, 283-288. https://doi.org/10.17979/reipe.2017.0.05.2762
https://doi.org/10.17979/reipe.2017.0.05...
). The present study analyzed how parenting styles and values observed by children in their parents or guardians relate to the values endorsed by these same children.

Parenting Styles comprise a set of educational strategies or parental socialization practices used by parents to guide their children's behavior, promoting education and socialization (Gomide, 2006/2011Gomide, P. I. C. (2011). Inventário de Estilos Parentais (IEP): Modelo teórico, manual de aplicação, apuração e interpretação. Vozes. (Trabalho original publicado 2006)). The model proposed by Gomide (2006/2011Gomide, P. I. C. (2011). Inventário de Estilos Parentais (IEP): Modelo teórico, manual de aplicação, apuração e interpretação. Vozes. (Trabalho original publicado 2006)) has been an important reference for understanding positive and negative parental socialization practices, as well as their impacts on children’s social development. From this perspective, parenting styles can be structured as: positive, when they contribute to the development of prosocial behaviors in children, and negative, when they promote antisocial behavior (Gomide, 2006/2011Gomide, P. I. C. (2011). Inventário de Estilos Parentais (IEP): Modelo teórico, manual de aplicação, apuração e interpretação. Vozes. (Trabalho original publicado 2006)). The positive style expresses parental socialization practices of positive monitoring and moral behavior. Positive monitoring involves parents' knowledge about their children's activities, also including the affection displayed between them. Moral behavior, on the other hand, directly refers to value transmission, helping children to discriminate between right and wrong through positive models (Prust & Gomide, 2007Prust, L. W., & Gomide, P. I. C. (2007). Relation between parents' and adolescents' moral behavior. Estudos de Psicologia, 24(1), 53-60.).

Practices associated with the development of antisocial behaviors, and therefore negative parenting styles, are negligence, inconsistent punition, negative monitoring, lax discipline, and physical abuse. Negligence is related to parents' lack of attention to their children's needs, and it may also refer to interactions without affection. On the other hand, inconsistent punition refers to punishing or reinforcing children's behavior according to the parents' mood, culminating in children distinguishing the parents' mood and not their own behavior. Negative monitoring expresses excessive supervision over the children's lives, avoiding dialogue with the parents to protect their privacy. Lax discipline involves the non-compliance with rules established by parents, who omit themselves when confronted by their children. Finally, physical abuse happens when parents harm their children, arguing that they are educating them (Nascimento & Fernandes, 2017Nascimento, G. O., & Leal, F. S. F. (2017). Positive and Negative Parenting Practices as collaborative factors in school performance. Revista de Estudios e Investigación en Psicología y Educación, 5, 283-288. https://doi.org/10.17979/reipe.2017.0.05.2762
https://doi.org/10.17979/reipe.2017.0.05...
; Prust & Gomide, 2007Prust, L. W., & Gomide, P. I. C. (2007). Relation between parents' and adolescents' moral behavior. Estudos de Psicologia, 24(1), 53-60.).

Indeed, it is through parental socialization practices that parents and guardians guide children's behavior towards moral principles and development of autonomy to ensure their subsequent inclusion in the social group (J. M. Oliveira & Alvarenga, 2015Oliveira, J. M., & Alvarenga, P. (2015). Effects of an intervention focused on parental socialization practices on internalizing problems in childhood. Revista Brasileira de Terapia Comportamental e Cognitiva, 17(2), 16-32. https://doi.org/10.31505/rbtcc.v17i2.747
https://doi.org/10.31505/rbtcc.v17i2.747...
). In the family context, different ways of behaving and building social relationships are promoted (M.R. Oliveira & Santos, 2018Oliveira, M. R., & dos Santos, W. D. V. (25 de Fevereiro, 2018). Timidez infantil no contexto familiar e escolar: suas consequências. Psicologia.pt. http://www.psicologia.pt/artigos/textos/A1177.pdf
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), values ​​are established, and the mediation of their assimilation process takes place (Prestes et al., 2014Prestes, A. C., Castro, F. M. P., Tudge, J. R. H., & de Lucca Freitas, L. B. (2014). Desenvolvimento de valores em crianças e adolescentes. Leopoldianum, 40, 25-36. ). Through parental socialization strategies, values ​​are formed and reformulated, based on the family’s life (Moraes et al., 2007Moraes, R., Camino, C., Costa, J. B. D., Camino, L., & Cruz, L. (2007). Parental socialization and values: A study with teenagers. Psicologia: Reflexão e Crítica, 20(1), 167-177. https://doi.org/10.1590/S0102-79722007000100021
https://doi.org/10.1590/S0102-7972200700...
); therefore, parent-child interaction patterns are directly connected to the generational transmission of values ​​(Soares et al., 2020Soares, A. K. S., Cavalcanti, T. M., Freire, S. E. A., Rezende, T.A., Ribeiro, M. G. C., & Gouveia, V. V. (2020). “Do What I Say, Not What I Do”? A Study of Value Transmission between Fathers/Mothers and Children. Revista Colombiana de Psicología, 29, 29-44. doi: https://doi.org/10.15446/rcp.v29n1.72405
https://doi.org/10.15446/rcp.v29n1.72405...
). In this study, values ​​are operationalized from the Functional Theory of Human Values, which considers them as guiding principles of behavior (Gouveia, 2013Gouveia, V. V. (2013). Teoria Funcionalista dos Valores Humanos: Fundamentos, aplicações e perspectivas. Casa do Psicólogo.; Gouveia et al., 2014Gouveia, V. V., Milfont, T. L., & Guerra, V. M. (2014). Functional theory of human values: Testing its content and structure hypotheses. Personality and Individual Differences, 60, 41-47. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.paid.2013.12.012
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.paid.2013.12.0...
).

In this model, values assume two basic theoretical functions: guiding behavior and expressing human needs. These functions bring together, respectively, three types of orientation (social/interpersonal, personal/intrapersonal, and central/general), and two specific types of motivators (humanitarian/idealist and materialist/pragmatic) (Vilar et al., 2020Vilar, R., Liu, J. H.-F., & Gouveia, V. V. (2020). Age and gender differences in human values: A 20-nation study.Psychology and Aging, 35(3), 345-356.https://doi.org/10.1037/pag0000448
https://doi.org/10.1037/pag0000448...
). The social orientation corresponds to the group related values, emphasizing the collective well-being and observance of social norms. The personal orientation involves values that aim at achieving personal goals and individual benefit. The central refers to the compatibility of the previous types of orientation and includes values ranging from basic physiological conditions to aesthetics and self-actualization needs. Considering the type of motivator, materialistic values are associated with practical ideas, aimed at specific goals and social norms, while humanitarian values endorse an universal orientation, based on more abstract ideas and principles (Gouveia, 2013Gouveia, V. V. (2013). Teoria Funcionalista dos Valores Humanos: Fundamentos, aplicações e perspectivas. Casa do Psicólogo.). Combining the functions in a 3 x 2 matrix yields six subfunctions: normative (social-materialist), interactive (social-idealist), existence (central-materialist), suprapersonal (central-idealistic), promotion (personal-materialist), and excitement (personal-idealistic) of values (Vilar et al., 2020Vilar, R., Liu, J. H.-F., & Gouveia, V. V. (2020). Age and gender differences in human values: A 20-nation study.Psychology and Aging, 35(3), 345-356.https://doi.org/10.1037/pag0000448
https://doi.org/10.1037/pag0000448...
).

Human values and transmission of values play an important role in people's development and their role in society (Barni et al., 2013Barni, D., Alfieri, S., Marta, E., & Rosnati, R. (2013). Overall and unique similarities between parents' values and adolescent or emerging adult children's values. Journal of Adolescence, 36(6), 1135-1141. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.adolescence.2013.09.002
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.adolescence.20...
). The degree of similarity between parents and children, regarding the values prioritized by each one, presents as a significant result of the process of socialization and transmission of values; therefore, similarity produces compatibility and subjective well-being, reducing conflicts and increasing commitment in the family (Barni et al., 2014Barni, D., Knafo, A., Ben-Arieh, A., & Haj-Yahia, M. M. (2014). Parent-child value similarity across and within cultures. Journal of Cross-Cultural Psychology, 45(6), 853-867. https://doi.org/10.1177/0022022114530494
https://doi.org/10.1177/0022022114530494...
).

In this direction, Grusec and Goodnow (1994Grusec, J. E., & Goodnow, J. J. (1994) Impact of parental discipline methods on the child’s internalization of values: A reconceptualization of current points of view. Developmental Psychology, 30(1), 4-19. https://doi.org/10.1037/0012-1649.30.1.4
https://doi.org/10.1037/0012-1649.30.1.4...
) suggest the existence of two steps in the process of values internalization. Initially, the children perceive the parental values, and then they must decide whether to accept or reject these values. This perspective is supported by Ciciolla et al. (2017Ciciolla, L., Curlee, A. S., Karageorge, J., & Luthar, S. S. (2017). When mothers and fathers are seen as disproportionately valuing achievements: Implications for adjustment among upper middle class youth. Journal of Youth and Adolescence, 46(5), 1057-1075. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10964-016-0596-x
https://doi.org/10.1007/s10964-016-0596-...
), by stating that, similarly to what happens with other constructs (e.g, attitudes), value priorities are shaped mainly from the information that children perceive about the importance attributed by their parents to certain values to the detriment of others, followed by their assimilation.

According to Soares et al. (2020Soares, A. K. S., Cavalcanti, T. M., Freire, S. E. A., Rezende, T.A., Ribeiro, M. G. C., & Gouveia, V. V. (2020). “Do What I Say, Not What I Do”? A Study of Value Transmission between Fathers/Mothers and Children. Revista Colombiana de Psicología, 29, 29-44. doi: https://doi.org/10.15446/rcp.v29n1.72405
https://doi.org/10.15446/rcp.v29n1.72405...
), despite what parents report about their own values, the perception and understanding of the children about them may be more significant regarding the modeling of their values and behaviors, including the aspects related to their psychosocial well-being. Therefore, when it comes to the value transmission, the concept of value congruence is highlighted, which refers to the degree of which parents and children attach the same importance to a specific value. Thus, the greater the value congruence, the more successful the value transmission will be (Knafo & Schwartz, 2009Knafo, A., & Schwartz, S. H. (2009). Accounting for parent-child value congruence: Theoretical considerations and empirical evidence. In U. Schönpflug (Ed.), Cultural transmission: Psychological, developmental, social, and methodological aspects (pp. 240-268). Oxford University Press.; Soares et al., 2020Soares, A. K. S., Cavalcanti, T. M., Freire, S. E. A., Rezende, T.A., Ribeiro, M. G. C., & Gouveia, V. V. (2020). “Do What I Say, Not What I Do”? A Study of Value Transmission between Fathers/Mothers and Children. Revista Colombiana de Psicología, 29, 29-44. doi: https://doi.org/10.15446/rcp.v29n1.72405
https://doi.org/10.15446/rcp.v29n1.72405...
).

This process will be enhanced by the parental affectivity, that is, the more affectionate the parents are in their relationship with their children, the more efficient the value transmission will be (Friedlmeier & Trommsdorff, 2011Friedlmeier, M., & Trommsdorff, G. (2011). Are mother-child similarities in value orientations related to mothers' parenting? A comparative study of American and Romanian mothers and their adolescent children. European Journal of Developmental Psychology, 8(6), 661-680. http://doi.org/10.1080/17405629.2011.590649
http://doi.org/10.1080/17405629.2011.590...
; Medeiros et al., 2016Medeiros, E. D., Soares, A. K. S., & Vione, K. C. (2016). O estudo dos valores na psicologia do desenvolvimento. In V. V. Gouveia (Org.), Teoria Funcionalista dos Valores Humanos: Áreas de estudo e aplicações (pp. 83-98). Vetor.). This confirms the perspective that parents can influence their children's values through different parental socialization practices (Döring et al., 2016Döring, A. K., Daniel, E., & Knafo‐Noam, A. (2016). Introduction to the special section value development from middle childhood to early adulthood-new insights from longitudinal and genetically informed research. Social Development, 25(3), 471-481. https://doi.org/10.1111/sode.12177
https://doi.org/10.1111/sode.12177...
). In fact, as demonstrated in the classic study by Rohan and Zanna (1996Rohan, M. J., & Zanna, M. P. (1996). Value transmission in families. In C. Seligman, J. M. Olson, & M. P., Zanna (Eds.) The psychology of values: The Ontario symposium (Vol. 8, pp. 253-276). Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.), parental authoritarianism and children's perception of parental responsiveness are factors that also influence the process of value transmission.

Due to these aspects, based on the aforementioned theories (Gomide, 2006/2011Gomide, P. I. C. (2011). Inventário de Estilos Parentais (IEP): Modelo teórico, manual de aplicação, apuração e interpretação. Vozes. (Trabalho original publicado 2006); Gouveia, 2013Gouveia, V. V. (2013). Teoria Funcionalista dos Valores Humanos: Fundamentos, aplicações e perspectivas. Casa do Psicólogo.), this study is divided into three specific steps: (a) analyzing whether there is value difference due to the child's perception of parenting style (positive or negative), (b) verifying, from the parenting styles perceived by the children, the magnitude of success in the value transmission, considering the congruence between the values perceived by the children in their guardians and their own values, and, finally, (c) assessing the predictive power of the values and parenting styles perceived by the child in the guardians on their value priorities.

Method

Participants

Participants were 119 children, aged between 6 and 12 years old (M = 9.36; SD = 1.90), mostly female (59.7%), protestant (48.7 %), with a high level of religiosity (42%), declaring the mother as the main guardian (75%). Furthermore, they were distributed between public (39%) and private (60%) schools, attending the 1st (10%), 2nd (13%), 3rd (13%), 4th (23%), 5th (17 %) and 6th (24%) grades of elementary school. Most children reported living only with father and mother (29%) or with father, mother, and siblings (25%). This was a non-probabilistic sample.

Instruments

Participants completed a survey with questions aiming to characterize the sample, such as age, gender, education, religion, and level of religiosity. In addition to these questions, the following instruments were included.

Basic Values Questionnaire - Children (QVB-I): instrument adapted by Gouveia et al. (2011Gouveia, V. V., Milfont, T. L., Soares, A. K. S., Andrade, P. R., & Leite, I. L. (2011). Conhecendo os valores na infância: Evidências psicométricas de uma medida. Psico, 42(1), 106-115. ), consisting of 18 items assessing each of the 18 theoretically proposed values ​​(Health; Success; Tradition; Equality; Emotion; Social Support; Stability; Power; Religiosity; Arts; Pleasure; Affectivity; Survival; Prestige; Obedience; Knowledge; Stimulation; Coexistence) (e. g., referring to the value Health, Do not get sick; always being excited, willing to play; and avoiding doing things that harm health). Those are organized as three items for each subfunctions: Excitement; Promotion; Existence; Superpersonal; Interactive; Normative. Considering the content of the items, participants are asked to indicate the importance that each value has in their lives, according to a five-point scale, represented by emojis and numbers, ranging from 1 (no importance) to 5 (maximum importance). As for the psychometric properties of the measure, literature points out suitable indicators, with Cronbach's alphas ranging from 0.51 (suprapersonal subfunction) to 0.72 (interactive subfunction; Gouveia et al., 2011Gouveia, V. V., Milfont, T. L., Soares, A. K. S., Andrade, P. R., & Leite, I. L. (2011). Conhecendo os valores na infância: Evidências psicométricas de uma medida. Psico, 42(1), 106-115. ). This study used two forms of assessment: in the first one, the participant indicated how important each value is to them, and in the other one, they indicated the importance they believe the value has for their guardian (mother, father, grandmother, grandfather, uncle, aunt, or others). The instrument used presented alpha coefficients ranging from 0.20 (existence subfunction) to 0.46 (experimentation subfunction) for the self-report measure (instrument answered by the participants about their own values) and from 0.30 (suprapersonal subfunction) to 0.62 (interactive subfunction) for the version answered about the values perceived in those guardians (hetero report). Although alphas are considered low, they are not uncommon when related to human values measures ​​(Gouveia et al., 2014Gouveia, V. V., Milfont, T. L., & Guerra, V. M. (2014). Functional theory of human values: Testing its content and structure hypotheses. Personality and Individual Differences, 60, 41-47. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.paid.2013.12.012
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.paid.2013.12.0...
; Wachelke & Rodrigues, 2015Wachelke, J., & Rodrigues, L. B. (2015). Exploratory study of the relationship between basic personal values and psychosocial values. Avaliação Psicológica, 14(3), 353-363. ). In general, in order to understand these indicators, ​​ the high consensus between the items should be considered, in addition to the low number of items in each factor (Gouveia et al., 2009Gouveia, V. V., Santos, W. S., & Milfont, T. L. (2009). O uso da estatística na avaliação psicológica: Comentários e considerações práticas. In C. S. Hutz (Ed.), Avanços e polêmicas em avaliação psicológica: Em homenagem a Jurema Alcides Cunha (pp. 127-155). Casa do Psicólogo.). Thus, the number of items per subfunction (three items), associated with the sample size, can affect the measure’s reliability indicators.

Parenting Styles Inventory (IEP): an instrument developed by Gomide (2006/2011Gomide, P. I. C. (2011). Inventário de Estilos Parentais (IEP): Modelo teórico, manual de aplicação, apuração e interpretação. Vozes. (Trabalho original publicado 2006)), seeks to assess how some practices used by parents can influence the development of antisocial or prosocial behaviors in children and adolescents. This instrument has three questionnaires: one referring to the father's parental socialization practices, answered by the child; a second, also answered by the child, about the mother's parental socialization practices; and, finally, a version answered by the father, mother, or guardian about their own practices. The instrument is composed of 42 items covering the five negative parental socialization practices: physical abuse, inconsistent punition, lax discipline, negative monitoring, and negligence; and the two positive ones: positive monitoring and moral behavior (Gomide, 2006/2011Gomide, P. I. C. (2011). Inventário de Estilos Parentais (IEP): Modelo teórico, manual de aplicação, apuração e interpretação. Vozes. (Trabalho original publicado 2006)). For the three versions, answers are given according to a 3-point scale, ranging from 0 to 2, where 0 = never, 1 = sometimes, and 2 = always. As developed by Gomide (2006/2011Gomide, P. I. C. (2011). Inventário de Estilos Parentais (IEP): Modelo teórico, manual de aplicação, apuração e interpretação. Vozes. (Trabalho original publicado 2006)), the final IEP score consists in the parenting styles index, calculated by subtracting the sum of positive practices (positive monitoring and moral behavior) from the sum of negative practices (physical abuse, inconsistent punition, lax discipline, negative monitoring, and negligence). For the present study, however, only one version answered by the child was used, referring to their guardian, who is a reference for the child (mother, father, grandmother, grandfather, uncle, aunt, or others). In the Brazilian context, Cronbach's alphas for each factor indicated reasonable coefficients of internal consistency, ranging from 0.47 (negative monitoring) to 0.82 (physical abuse) in the maternal version, and 0.62 (negative monitoring) to 0.87 (physical abuse) in the paternal version (Gomide, 2006/2011Gomide, P. I. C. (2011). Inventário de Estilos Parentais (IEP): Modelo teórico, manual de aplicação, apuração e interpretação. Vozes. (Trabalho original publicado 2006)). In this research, the instrument completed by the participants about their guardians presented alpha coefficients ranging between 0.37 (negative monitoring, six items) to 0.65 (moral behavior, six items).

Procedures

Initially, the conduction of the research was requested in some institutions of early childhood education, and, after their permission, the enrolled children guardians were contacted, consenting to participate by signing the Informed Consent Form. The child's consent was also requested, by signing the Consent Term. The study complied with Resolutions no. 466/12 and no. 510/16 of the National Health Council (CNS, acronym in Portuguese) and its realization was approved by the Research Ethics Committee of the university where the research was carried out (CAAE nº 55141116.0.0000.5054). Data collection was conducted by trained researchers. Each child was asked to identify who they considered to be their main guardian and then to respond to the instruments described above. The average time to complete the questionnaire was 25 minutes.

Regarding the cognitive development particularities of different age groups, it is important to note that, during data collection with younger children (6 to 8 years old), individual monitoring was provided by the researchers during the reading of the questionnaires, minimizing biases in the administration of the instruments among children of different ages and ensuring adequate understanding of what was being requested. Thus, the data collection carried out with this age group was conducted in an individual interview format with smaller groups (3 children and 3 trained researchers). For older children (9 to 12 years old), data collection was carried out collectively, with groups of 8 to 10 children, in which each participant answered the questionnaire individually, directing any doubts to the two researchers present at the time.

Data analysis

The data was analyzed using the software IBM SPSS 21 (Statistical Package for the Social Sciences). In addition to descriptive statistics, other statistics were carried out to verify the research objectives. Due to potential particularities regarding the cognitive and social differences of distinct age groups, it was decided to include the participants’ age as a variable in some of the analyzes performed and described below.

Initially, a Student's t-test for independent samples was performed in order to check for possible differences in the magnitude of the children's value priorities as a function of their perception of the parenting style (positive or negative). In this analysis, parenting styles scores, answered by the children, were transformed into a categorical variable. For this purpose, the participants' scores were standardized by subtracting them from the sample mean and dividing the result by the standard deviation. However, as this procedure creates negative scores, the standardized score (z) was converted into a T-score, using the formula: T = 50 + 10z. Considering the empirical median as a cutoff point for each of the two age groups mentioned, the standardized values of the Parenting Styles variable perceived by children were divided into above and below the cutoff point, resulting in two categories: lower scores, indicating the perception of negative parenting styles in their guardians, and higher scores, indicating the perception of positive parenting styles in their guardians, for both groups. For a subsequent analysis, participants were divided into two groups distributed by age group, 6 to 8 years old (group 1) and 9 to 12 years old (group 2). In these groups, the cutoff points to consider the perception of parenting style as positive or negative were, respectively, Md = 52.07 and Md = 50.78.

Before proceeding with the analyzes that aimed to respond to the other objectives, moderation analysis was conducted between the children’s types of orientation (social, central and personal) and those perceived in their guardians, as well as the parenting style perceived in the former group. We used these analyses to verify the possible influence of the variable age on the relationship between the other variables mentioned.

Subsequently, to verify the congruence between the children's values and those perceived by their guardians, a Dyadic Data Analysis (DyadicDA) was carried out, consisting in a paired data analysis (Alferes & Kenny, 2009Alferes, V. R., & Kenny, D. A. (2009). SPSS programs for the measurement of nonindependence in standard dyadic designs. Behavior Research Methods, 41(1), 47-54. https://doi.org/10.3758/BRM.41.1.47
https://doi.org/10.3758/BRM.41.1.47...
); therefore, intra-dyadic correlation coefficients (Within-dyad correlations; Kenny & Acitelli, 1994Kenny, D. A., & Acitelli, L. K. (1994). Measuring similarity in couples. Journal of Family Psychology, 8(4), 417. https://doi.org/10.1037/0893-3200.8.4.417
https://doi.org/10.1037/0893-3200.8.4.41...
) were calculated. Similar to the correlation coefficient, the intra-dyatic correlation also varies between - 1 (total incongruence) and +1 (total congruence). In this direction, coefficients below 0.30 (absolute value) indicate low associations, whereas coefficients above 0.50 (absolute value) indicate high associations (Cohen, 1988Cohen, J. (1988). Statistical power analysis for the behavioral sciences. Lawrence Erlbaum Associates Publishers.).

Finally, we also sought to perform hierarchical linear regression analysis considering personal (excitement and promotion), central (suprapersonal and existence) and social (interactive and normative) values to verify the predictive power of perceived parenting values and styles on children's value priorities. Hierarchical linear regression analysis allows the increment of variance examination of each variable added to the model (Hair et al., 2009Hair, J. F., Black, W. C., Babin, B. J., Anderson, R. E., & Tatham, R. L. (2009). Multivariate data analysis. Bookman Editora.).

Results

From means comparison tests, possible differences in value priorities perceived by the children in their guardians were evaluated, due to the parenting styles perceived as positive and negative, considering the two age groups (6 to 8 and 9 to 12). The results showed that no significant differences (p > 0.05) were observed between the groups means of perceived parenting styles (positive and negative) regarding the value priorities perceived by the children in their guardians (see Table 1). Thus, it is observed that the value priorities perceived in the guardians are presented independently of the parenting style perceived in the guardians. In other words, the value priorities perceived in guardians are not distinguished, due to the type of parenting style that the child perceives in them.

Table 1
Comparison of Means of the Value Subfunctions between Parenting Styles (PS) Perceived by Children in the Two Age Groups

Thereafter, to verify the influence of children's age on the relationship between the values perceived in their guardians and the values endorsed by themselves, moderation analyzes were conducted for each of the three types of value orientation (personal, central and social). All interactions were not significant, indicating that age does not have a moderating role in the relationship between central [B = 0.22; SE = 0.15; t = 1.46; p = 0.14], personal [B = 0.13; SE = 0.16; t = 0.85; p = 0.39] and social values [B = 0.12; SE = 0.12; t = 1.13; p = 0.31] perceived in their guardians and their own values.

Similarly, we sought to verify whether the participants’ age would influence the relationship between the parenting styles perceived in their guardians and the children's values for the three types of value orientation. The results of this analysis indicated that only the interaction for the central orientation was significant [B = 0.15; SE = 0.05; t = 2.79; p = 0.01], with interactions for personal [B = 0.03; SE = 0.07; t = 0.49; p = 0.06] and social values [B = 0.07; SE = 0.06; t = 1.23; p = 0.21] not significant. Despite the significant result for the moderating role of the children's age in the relationship between the parenting styles perceived in the guardians and their central values, based on parsimony, and considering that, in this sample, age did not present a moderating role for the other interactions studied, we decided to carry out the subsequent analyzes considering the whole sample.

In order to verify the congruence between the children's values and those perceived in their guardians, the intra-dyadic correlation coefficients were calculated according to the two groups: guardians perceived with negative parenting styles and guardians perceived with positive parenting styles. Correlations were calculated between the values represented by the six subfunctions, dividing them into two groups: children's own values and values perceived in their guardians. The results of the correlations between the children's values and the values perceived by them in their guardians who were categorized as having a negative parenting style are shown in Table 2. In addition, the results of the correlations between the children's values and the values perceived by them in their guardians who were categorized as having a positive parenting style are described in Table 3.

Table 2
Value Congruence between Children and Guardians Perceived with Negative Parenting Styles
Table 3
Value Congruence between Children and Guardians Perceived with Positive Parenting Styles

As shown in Tables 2 and 3, the results allow us to confirm the existence of congruence between the children's values and those perceived in their guardians; for both parenting styles groups, all correlations presented were positive and statistically significant (p < 0.05). However, the correlations observed in the group of guardians perceived with positive parenting styles were, in general, higher when compared to the group of guardians perceived with negative parenting styles. The coefficients presented in the first group ranged between 0.48 (excitement and suprapersonal) and 0.77 (normative), whereas in the second group the coefficients were between 0.28 (suprapersonal) and 0.55 (promotion).

Considering the previous results, we sought to verify the predictive power of parenting styles and the values perceived by children in their guardians over the values they endorsed. Hierarchical linear regression analyzes were conducted for each type of value orientation (personal, central, and social values). Step 1 consists of the values perceived in the guardians. Step 2 consists of adding the parenting styles perceived in the guardians to the model. The results are described in Table 4.

Table 4
Hierarchical Linear Regression according to the Type of Value Orientation

For the three types of orientation, the results indicate that the values ​​perceived in the guardians are significant explanatory variables of the children's values ​​in Step 1. In Step 2, the equation remains significant when the parenting styles variable is added to the model, so that the values ​​perceived in guardians remain a significant explanatory variable.

For personal values, the model with the variables mentioned was able to explain 37% of the variance of this type of orientation in children. Regarding central values, the model, with both variables, has an explanatory power of 26% of the variation in children's values. Finally, concerning social values, the model was able to explain 46% of the variance in children's values regarding this type of value orientation. For each type of orientation, nested F-tests were performed to compare the models, confirming that the model with both variables significantly contributes to explain the children's values for personal [R²-change = 0.07; F(1. 116) = 12.46; p = 0.001], central [R²-change = 0.02; F(1. 116) = 3.36; p = 0.05] and social values [R²-change = 0.02; F(1. 116) = 3.87; p = 0.05].

Discussion

The main aim of this research was to investigate the relation between parenting styles and values perceived by children in their guardians and child’s values. We sought to verify how values and perceived parenting styles are related, and to assess if there are differences between the groups of perceived parenting styles: guardians with parenting styles considered negative and those with parenting styles considered positive as for the values dimensions perceived in them by the children.

Results showed that values perceived in the guardians did not differ according to the type of parenting style perceived in them. It is conjectured that, although values are determinant for the orientation of human actions (Gouveia, 2013Gouveia, V. V. (2013). Teoria Funcionalista dos Valores Humanos: Fundamentos, aplicações e perspectivas. Casa do Psicólogo.; Gouveia et al., 2015Gouveia, V. V., Vione, K. C., Milfont, T. L., & Santos, W. S. (2015). Guiding actions and expressing needs: On the psychological functions of values. Psykhe, 24(2), 1-14. https://doi.org/10.7764/psykhe.24.2.884
https://doi.org/10.7764/psykhe.24.2.884...
), they are not determinant to establish the strategies used by parents/guardians for the socialization of children. Therefore, guardians may signal to children that they share the same value priorities as other guardians with a different parenting style than their own; in other words, guardians with different parenting styles may endorse the same human values.

The possible influences of the participants’ age on the relationships between our variables of interest were examined and we found that, considering the two age groups (6 to 8 years old, and 9 to 12 years old), age does not act as a moderator of the relationship between values perceived in the guardians and values endorsed by the child in the present sample. As for the association with parenting styles perceived in guardians, it was identified that, in regard only to central values, age played a moderating role in the relation between the variables.

Central values are considered a pillar of the Functional Theory of Human Values and a source of reference for the other values. They are related to general purposes of life, ranging from the most basic aspects (such as the need for survival) to the more general needs, for example self-actualization (Gouveia et al., 2014Gouveia, V. V., Milfont, T. L., & Guerra, V. M. (2014). Functional theory of human values: Testing its content and structure hypotheses. Personality and Individual Differences, 60, 41-47. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.paid.2013.12.012
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.paid.2013.12.0...
), associated with values viewed as more abstract (such as art and beauty).

Given the complexity of the content of central values, it can be inferred that certain parental socialization practices perceived by children need to be associated with advances in child development, to benefit the adoption of these values by them. Increasing age can help in the process of recognizing the practices employed by guardians when trying to transmit central values. As for personal and social values, it is understood that, on a more concrete level, the actions related to the expression of these values may be more evident in the guardians’ behavior and can be perceived by children of different age groups. Thus, guardians who prioritize personal values (according to the children) can employ and reinforce behaviors to ensure individual benefits and reach personal goals. Furthermore, guardians who prioritize social values, also according to the children’s perception, can use behaviors that denote the appreciation of collective aspects, such as social interaction and harmony among individuals in their group, as well as reinforce these practices in children.

Based on the particularities of positive and negative parenting styles, we analyzed the effectiveness of the child’s perception of the parenting style in the value transmission, considering value congruence between values perceived in the guardians and children’s values. The similarity between guardians and children’s values has been an important indicator of the effectiveness of the parental role in children’s socialization (Barni et al., 2013Barni, D., Alfieri, S., Marta, E., & Rosnati, R. (2013). Overall and unique similarities between parents' values and adolescent or emerging adult children's values. Journal of Adolescence, 36(6), 1135-1141. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.adolescence.2013.09.002
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.adolescence.20...
, 2014Barni, D., Knafo, A., Ben-Arieh, A., & Haj-Yahia, M. M. (2014). Parent-child value similarity across and within cultures. Journal of Cross-Cultural Psychology, 45(6), 853-867. https://doi.org/10.1177/0022022114530494
https://doi.org/10.1177/0022022114530494...
; Döring et al., 2016Döring, A. K., Daniel, E., & Knafo‐Noam, A. (2016). Introduction to the special section value development from middle childhood to early adulthood-new insights from longitudinal and genetically informed research. Social Development, 25(3), 471-481. https://doi.org/10.1111/sode.12177
https://doi.org/10.1111/sode.12177...
; Knafo & Schwartz, 2009Knafo, A., & Schwartz, S. H. (2009). Accounting for parent-child value congruence: Theoretical considerations and empirical evidence. In U. Schönpflug (Ed.), Cultural transmission: Psychological, developmental, social, and methodological aspects (pp. 240-268). Oxford University Press.). In order to meet this purpose, we performed intra-dyadic correlation analysis between scores of the children’s value subfunctions and those perceived by them in their guardians, separately for the group with parenting styles perceived as negative and the group with parenting styles perceived as positive.

Results indicated moderate to high levels of values congruence in both groups of perceived parenting styles (r > 0.40). However, it is noted that guardians with styles perceived as positive presented higher correlations in all subfunctions compared to guardians perceived with negative parenting styles. Suprapersonal subfunction was the one with the lowest correlation coefficient in this second group (r = 0.28). These results show that guardians perceived with more positive parenting styles are more likely to succeed in value transmission, especially considering the children’s perception.

For the internalization of values, first, children must perceive which values are endorsed by their parents/guardians and then accept them as their own (Barni et al., 2011Barni, D., Ranieri, S., Scabini, E., & Rosnati, R. (2011). Value transmission in the family: Do adolescents accept the values their parents want to transmit? Journal of Moral Education, 40(1), 105-121. https://doi.org/10.1080/03057240.2011.553797
https://doi.org/10.1080/03057240.2011.55...
; Ciciolla et al., 2017Ciciolla, L., Curlee, A. S., Karageorge, J., & Luthar, S. S. (2017). When mothers and fathers are seen as disproportionately valuing achievements: Implications for adjustment among upper middle class youth. Journal of Youth and Adolescence, 46(5), 1057-1075. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10964-016-0596-x
https://doi.org/10.1007/s10964-016-0596-...
; Grusec & Goodnow, 1994Grusec, J. E., & Goodnow, J. J. (1994) Impact of parental discipline methods on the child’s internalization of values: A reconceptualization of current points of view. Developmental Psychology, 30(1), 4-19. https://doi.org/10.1037/0012-1649.30.1.4
https://doi.org/10.1037/0012-1649.30.1.4...
; Knafo & Schwartz, 2009Knafo, A., & Schwartz, S. H. (2009). Accounting for parent-child value congruence: Theoretical considerations and empirical evidence. In U. Schönpflug (Ed.), Cultural transmission: Psychological, developmental, social, and methodological aspects (pp. 240-268). Oxford University Press.). If children accurately perceive their parents’ values and accept them as their own, value congruence between parents and children will be high (Knafo & Schwartz, 2009Knafo, A., & Schwartz, S. H. (2009). Accounting for parent-child value congruence: Theoretical considerations and empirical evidence. In U. Schönpflug (Ed.), Cultural transmission: Psychological, developmental, social, and methodological aspects (pp. 240-268). Oxford University Press.; Medeiros et al., 2016Medeiros, E. D., Soares, A. K. S., & Vione, K. C. (2016). O estudo dos valores na psicologia do desenvolvimento. In V. V. Gouveia (Org.), Teoria Funcionalista dos Valores Humanos: Áreas de estudo e aplicações (pp. 83-98). Vetor.). Furthermore, this acceptance or rejection will be influenced by the existence of a warm relationship between parents and children (Grusec & Goodnow, 1994Grusec, J. E., & Goodnow, J. J. (1994) Impact of parental discipline methods on the child’s internalization of values: A reconceptualization of current points of view. Developmental Psychology, 30(1), 4-19. https://doi.org/10.1037/0012-1649.30.1.4
https://doi.org/10.1037/0012-1649.30.1.4...
).

Barni et al. (2011Barni, D., Ranieri, S., Scabini, E., & Rosnati, R. (2011). Value transmission in the family: Do adolescents accept the values their parents want to transmit? Journal of Moral Education, 40(1), 105-121. https://doi.org/10.1080/03057240.2011.553797
https://doi.org/10.1080/03057240.2011.55...
) supported this aspect. In their study, the quality of parent-child relationship acts as a significant predictor of acceptance of parents’ values and their consequent internalization. According to the authors, the willingness to accept parental values increases in a close and supportive family context, since this promotes in children a greater desire to obey their parents.

Similarly, Friedlmeier and Trommsdorff (2011Friedlmeier, M., & Trommsdorff, G. (2011). Are mother-child similarities in value orientations related to mothers' parenting? A comparative study of American and Romanian mothers and their adolescent children. European Journal of Developmental Psychology, 8(6), 661-680. http://doi.org/10.1080/17405629.2011.590649
http://doi.org/10.1080/17405629.2011.590...
) identified maternal acceptance and control function as moderating variables; specifically, the highest levels of value congruence were found between dyads in which children perceived mothers as less controlling. In this sense, the authors indicated that excessive parental control can be seen as a threat to individual autonomy, reducing children’s motivation to act in accordance with guardians’ desire.

Value congruence between parents and children provides greater compatibility between them and increases commitment between family members, reducing conflicts, and consequently, increasing subjective well-being. In addition, sharing values with people who are part of the same group promotes identification between them, boosting acceptance of common goals and actions that must be taken to achieve these goals (Barni et al., 2014Barni, D., Knafo, A., Ben-Arieh, A., & Haj-Yahia, M. M. (2014). Parent-child value similarity across and within cultures. Journal of Cross-Cultural Psychology, 45(6), 853-867. https://doi.org/10.1177/0022022114530494
https://doi.org/10.1177/0022022114530494...
).

For the three types of value orientation (personal, central, and social), our results indicated that the addition of parenting styles, perceived in guardians to an explanatory model of values endorsed by the children that included values perceived in guardians, increased explanatory power of the model. These results suggested that the perception of parents’ styles and values is determinant for the assimilation of values by the children. In this way, the explanatory power related to guardians’ values is due to children’s perception, followed by the acceptance of these values as their own. Consistent with the literature, these findings show that regardless of types of values that are prioritized by their guardians, the importance that children attach to certain values tends to be more related to those values that are viewed as being endorsed by parents/guardians than to values truly adopted by them (Ciciolla et al., 2017Ciciolla, L., Curlee, A. S., Karageorge, J., & Luthar, S. S. (2017). When mothers and fathers are seen as disproportionately valuing achievements: Implications for adjustment among upper middle class youth. Journal of Youth and Adolescence, 46(5), 1057-1075. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10964-016-0596-x
https://doi.org/10.1007/s10964-016-0596-...
; Soares et al., 2020Soares, A. K. S., Cavalcanti, T. M., Freire, S. E. A., Rezende, T.A., Ribeiro, M. G. C., & Gouveia, V. V. (2020). “Do What I Say, Not What I Do”? A Study of Value Transmission between Fathers/Mothers and Children. Revista Colombiana de Psicología, 29, 29-44. doi: https://doi.org/10.15446/rcp.v29n1.72405
https://doi.org/10.15446/rcp.v29n1.72405...
).

The model proposed for values with social orientation presented the greatest explanatory power (ΔR² = 0.46). This result is in agreement with the literature, as it indicates that children tend to have greater acceptance of parental influence to social values as tradition, compared to values related to personal domain (Friedlmeier & Trommsdorff, 2011Friedlmeier, M., & Trommsdorff, G. (2011). Are mother-child similarities in value orientations related to mothers' parenting? A comparative study of American and Romanian mothers and their adolescent children. European Journal of Developmental Psychology, 8(6), 661-680. http://doi.org/10.1080/17405629.2011.590649
http://doi.org/10.1080/17405629.2011.590...
; Knafo & Schwartz, 2009Knafo, A., & Schwartz, S. H. (2009). Accounting for parent-child value congruence: Theoretical considerations and empirical evidence. In U. Schönpflug (Ed.), Cultural transmission: Psychological, developmental, social, and methodological aspects (pp. 240-268). Oxford University Press.). In contrast, the model proposed for central values presented the lowest explanatory power (ΔR² = 0.26). This result is consistent with the level of value congruence between children’s values and values perceived in their guardians. In general, there is a higher correlation regarding personal and social values when compared to central values, which may require greater cognitive development combined with parental practices more directly related to them, in contrast to personal and social values.

The results indicated the possibility that the role played by parenting styles in the value transmission is due to the type of style prioritized by the guardians and the type perceived by children. Parents/guardians with parenting style perceived as more negative tend to be less effective in transmitting values compared to those with parenting style perceived as positive.

Parents with a negative parenting style develop relationships with their children based on poor attachment, which are associated with the development of antisocial behavior, low self-esteem, feelings of hostility, vulnerability, and aggressiveness in interpersonal relationships (Gomide, 2006/2011Gomide, P. I. C. (2011). Inventário de Estilos Parentais (IEP): Modelo teórico, manual de aplicação, apuração e interpretação. Vozes. (Trabalho original publicado 2006); Nascimento & Leal, 2017Nascimento, G. O., & Leal, F. S. F. (2017). Positive and Negative Parenting Practices as collaborative factors in school performance. Revista de Estudios e Investigación en Psicología y Educación, 5, 283-288. https://doi.org/10.17979/reipe.2017.0.05.2762
https://doi.org/10.17979/reipe.2017.0.05...
). Parents with a positive parenting style develop closer family ties, demonstrating affectionate and empathetic parent-child relationship. This increases the child's chances of being able to generalize value models to other contexts, making the transmission of values more efficient (Prust & Gomide, 2007Prust, L. W., & Gomide, P. I. C. (2007). Relation between parents' and adolescents' moral behavior. Estudos de Psicologia, 24(1), 53-60.). Although the value priorities of children go through greater changes over time compared to their parents, there is a tendency to change in the same direction. This indicates a possible stability in the degree of value congruence within a family (Knafo & Schwartz, 2009Knafo, A., & Schwartz, S. H. (2009). Accounting for parent-child value congruence: Theoretical considerations and empirical evidence. In U. Schönpflug (Ed.), Cultural transmission: Psychological, developmental, social, and methodological aspects (pp. 240-268). Oxford University Press.).

The aims of this study were achieved. However, some limitations can be indicated. Our sample was a non-probabilistic sample including only children and we used only self-report measures. This way, we performed an indirect assessment, considering children’s perception about parenting styles and values of their guardians. Thus, it was not possible to compare the answers given by guardians and children.

These aspects should be addressed by future research. Future studies should also consider larger samples, including direct data collection with the guardians. In addition to data referring to parents’ values and parenting styles, new variables could be included, for example, personality, parental self-efficacy, and aspects related to the influence of sociocultural context.

Literature provides relevant information related to mutual influence in parent-child relationship (Barni et al., 2013Barni, D., Alfieri, S., Marta, E., & Rosnati, R. (2013). Overall and unique similarities between parents' values and adolescent or emerging adult children's values. Journal of Adolescence, 36(6), 1135-1141. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.adolescence.2013.09.002
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.adolescence.20...
), thus this is another component to be investigated in future studies. The inclusion of these variables would increase the collected data, benefiting from crossing information between them, and the use of more robust statistical analyses. Specifically, related to our results, future research should investigate the understanding of central values in different stages of the child’s development.

In summary, this study provided data about parenting styles and human values from the child’s perspective and how the perception of these variables is important in the value transmission process in the Brazilian context.

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Publication Dates

  • Publication in this collection
    15 Aug 2022
  • Date of issue
    2022

History

  • Received
    25 Mar 2020
  • Accepted
    08 July 2021
Instituto de Psicologia, Universidade de Brasília Instituto de Psicologia, Universidade de Brasília, 70910-900 - Brasília - DF - Brazil, Tel./Fax: (061) 274-6455 - Brasília - DF - Brazil
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