In vitro activities of glycoalkaloids from the Solanum lycocarpum against Leishmania infantum

ABSTRACT

Leishmania infantum is an etiologic agent of visceral leishmaniasis. This disease is a neglected disease that can be fatal if not treated and additionally, the few therapeutic option present several drawbacks, including difficult route of administration and toxicity, which turn the search for new therapeutic alternatives necessary. Herein, we evaluated the leishmanicidal in vitro activity of the solanum extract from Solanum lycocarpum A. St.-Hil., Solanaceae, and the isolated alkaloids solasodine, solamargine and solasonine against promastigotes and intracellular amastigotes of L. infantum. Solasodine (IC_50-pro = 4.7 µg/ml; IC_50-ama = 10.8 µg/ml) and solamargine (IC_50-pro = 8.1 µg/ml; IC_50-ama = 3.0 µg/ml) exhibited interesting leishmanicidal ativity. Solasonine was approximately four-times (Selective Index 3.7) more selective to the parasite than to the host cells. This data suggest that solasonine might be considered as a potential drug candidate for leishmaniasis treatment.

Keywords:
Neglected disease; Glycoalkaloids; Visceral leishmaniasis; Solasonine; Solamargine; Solasodine

Introduction

Visceral leishmaniasis (VL), also known as kala-azar, is a neglected disease that reported 300,000 cases annually and leads 20,000 people per year to death around the world (WHO, 2018). More than twenty species of Leishmania can cause leishmaniasis, whereas Leishmania (Leishmania) donovani causes VL in India and other Asian and African countries and Leishmania (Leishmania) infantum or Leishmania (Leishmania) infantum chagasi cause VL in America and Europe (Lindoso et al., 2016). These parasitic diseases affect spleen, liver, bone marrow and lymph nodes, producing fever and anemia and usually is fatal if left untreated (Murray et al., 2005). Visceral leishmaniasis has emerged as an important opportunistic infection associated with HIV. Leishmania–HIV coinfection has been reported in 35 countries and VL-HIV has increased in the last years (Lindoso et al., 2016).

Pentavalent antimonials, paromomycin, amphotericin B or miltefosine are the commonly used drugs. However, treatment with these drugs requires long periods of administration leading to serious adverse effects, poor tolerance and development of resistant strains (Souza-Silva et al., 2015). Moreover, increasing resistance of the parasites contributes for the ineffectiveness of therapeutic regimens (Croft et al., 2006; Natera et al., 2007). Putting all these together, it is urgent the developing of new therapeutic strategies for VL.

Plants are interesting source of natural products and can be explored as hits for antileishmanial drug development (Onocha and Ali, 2010; González-Coloma et al., 2012; Mansour et al., 2013; Machado et al., 2014; Torres et al., 2014; Coqueiro et al., 2014; Funari et al., 2016). Recent studies showed that various plant species possess leishmanicidal activity against many different types of Leishmania such as L. amazonensis (Guimaraes et al., 2010; Miranda, 2010; Miranda et al., 2013; Coqueiro et al., 2014; Funari et al., 2016), L. infantum (Mansour et al., 2013; Machado et al., 2014), L. braziliensis (Munoz et al., 1994; Yamamoto et al., 2014), L. chagasi (Rondon et al., 2012), L. major (Ogeto et al., 2013), L. tropica (Iqbal et al., 2012), L. aethiopica (Bekele et al., 2013), L. mexicana (Gamboa-Leon et al., 2014), and L. donovani (Sachdeva et al., 2014a,b).

This is the case from the plants containing alkaloids (Munoz et al., 1994; Waechter et al., 1999; Miranda, 2010; Santos et al., 2012; Mansour et al., 2013; Miranda et al., 2013). Mishra et al. (2009) has reported the leishmanicidal activity of various alkaloids from Apocynaceae (Kopsia griffithii, Peschirea australis, Aspidosperma ramiflorum, Peschiera van heurkii), Rubiaceae (Corynanthe pachyceras), Annonaceae (Guatteria boliviana, Pseudoxandra sclerocarpa, Annona foetida, Guatteria foliosa Guatteria dumetorum Rollinia emarginata, Guatteria sp. and Unonopsis buchtienii), Ancistrocladaceae (Ancistrocladus griffithii, Ancistrocladus likoko, Ancistrocladaceae sp., Ancistrocladus tanzaniensis), Hernandiaceae (Gyrocarpus americanus), Menispermaceae (Albertisia papuana, Caryomene olivasans, Limaciopsis loangensis) Rutaceae (Galipea longiflora, Dictyoloma peruviana).

Plants containing steroidal alkaloids from Solanaceae also are cited in the literature as containing antileishmanial activity such as Saracha punctata against Leishmania braziliensis, Solanum glabratum against L. infantum and Solanum lycocarpum against L. amazonensis promastigotes forms (Miranda et al., 2013) among others. S. lycocarpum A. St.-Hil. is a common plant that grows spontaneously in tropical and temperate zones, including the Cerrado of Brazil (Cruz and Silva, 1995; Lorenzi, 2000), where is popularly known as "lobeira" or "fruta-do-lobo", having great importance as food and as traditional remedy because of its alleged hypoglycemic effect (Dall'Agnol and Von Poser, 2000). Furthermore, their biological activities have been intensively investigated, particularly anti-viral, diuretic, anti-fungi, anti-spasmodic and anti-inflammatory (Fewell et al., 1994; Vieira et al., 2003; Balasubramanian et al., 2007; Martins, 2013). Several studies also evidenced that extracts of S. lycocarpum are active against flagellated protozoa, such as Giardia lamblia (Martins, 2013), L. amazonensis (Miranda et al., 2013) and Trypanosoma cruzi (Hall et al., 2006; Moreira et al., 2013), as well as, against helminthes, Strongyloides stercoralis (Miranda, 2010) and Schistosoma mansoni (Miranda et al., 2012). The glycoalkaloids solasonine (1) and solamargine (2) are pointed as phytochemicals responsible for such activities, although the probable contribution of several other compounds, such as phenolic acids, tannins, flavonoids, steroids and triterpenes (Tiossi et al., 2012; Martins, 2013).

The compounds 1 and 2 are steroid glycosides sharing the same aglycone but differing in the sugar moieties, rhamnose–galactose–glucose in the first and rhamnose-glucose-rhamnose in the last. The difference among the sugar moieties may influence how these compounds cross cell membranes (Udalova et al., 2004; Tiossi et al., 2012). As previously mentioned, 1 and 2 as well as the equimolar mixture of both were proved to be active against L. amazonensis (Miranda et al., 2013). For this reason and considering the epidemiological relevance of VL, we report here on the in vitro activity of these glycoalkaloids against L. infantum.

Materials and methods

Plant material

Fruits of Solanum lycocarpum A. St.-Hil., Solanaceae, were collected in Barretos, São Paulo, Brazil, S 20° 34 × 15.898″/W 48° 34 × 29.989″. A voucher specimen (SPFR 11.308) was deposited at the Herbarium of the Faculty of Philosophy Science and Letters, University of São Paulo, Ribeirão Preto, São Paulo, Brazil. The fruits of S. lycocarpum were dried, reduced to powder and extracted with ethanol 96%. Extract corresponds to the ethanol 96% dry extract. Solanum extract, 1, 2 and 3 were used for all the experiments were previously prepared and fully characterized. Details on the preparation and composition were previously reported (Martins et al., 2015).

Parasites and cultures

Promastigotes of Leishmania infantum strain (MHOM/BR/1972/LD), provided by Prof. José Angelo Lindoso of University of São Paulo, Brazil, were maintained at 28 °C in Schneider's medium (Sigma), supplemented with 10% heat-inactivated fetal calf serum (hi-FCS, Gibco), 10% male human urine, 1% penicilin/streptomycin (Pen/Strep, Sigma–Aldrich).

In vitro antileishmanial activity against Leishmania infantum promastigotes

The efficacy of compounds and extract against L. infantum were tested according methodology previously described with some modifications (Velásquez et al., 2016; De Almeida et al., 2017). Briefly, 1 × 10⁷ parasites/ml of L. infantum promastigotes were seeded at in 96-well flat-bottom plates (TPP; Sigma-Aldrich). The tested compounds were dissolved in DMSO (the highest concentration was 3%, which was not hazardous to the parasites) and amphotericin B (AmpB) was used at positive control for assay. Control parasites were incubated with Schneider's medium alone. 3 µl of compounds and control were tested in 97 µl/well of parasites diluted in a different concentrations (100 µg/ml to 1.56 µg/ml) and incubated at 28 °C for 72 h. Leishmanicidal effects were assessed by counting motile promastigotes in a Neubauer chamber and the concentration that caused a 50% decrease in parasite viability compared to the control was calculated by non-linear regression expressed as the IC_50-PRO in µg/ml.

Cytotoxicity assay

The cytotoxicity against murine macrophages was determined as previously described with some modifications (Dutra et al., 2014). In summary, for collected of mouse peritoneal macrophages, adult male Swiss albino mice were stimulated with 3% thioglycolate to collect the cells in concordance to protocol approved by the Institutional Ethics Committee, protocol CEUA/FCF/CAr No. 42/2016. Immediately, the cells were seeded in 96-well flat-bottom plates at a density of 10⁵ cells/well (100 µl/well) in RPMI 1640 medium supplemented with 10% hi-FCS, 25 mM HEPES, and 2 mM L-glutamine, 1% Pen/Strep and incubated for 4 h at 37 ± 2 °C in a 5% CO₂–air mixture. Then, different concentrations of compounds diluted in RPMI medium were tested (100 µg/ml to 1.56 µg/ml) against the murine macrophages for 24 h and incubated under the same conditions. Cells without compounds were used as a negative control and with AmpB were used as a positive control. Finally, the MTT colorimetric assay was carried out and the absorbance was read at 540 nm using the Tecan Infinite M200 PRO microplate reader. The drug concentration that corresponds to 50% of cell growth inhibition is expressed as the 50% cytotoxic concentration (CC₅₀). The cytotoxicity for host cells and L. infantum were compared and expressed as the selectivity index (SI = CC_{50macrophages}/IC_50leishmania), which was defined as the ratio of the CC₅₀ for macrophages to the IC₅₀ for parasite.

In vitro antileishmanial activity against Leishmania infantum intracellular amastigotes forms

The activity compounds and extract of S. lycocarpum against intracellular amastigotes was evaluated in mouse peritoneal macrophages infected with L. infantum according methodology previously described with some modifications (De Almeida et al., 2017). Murine macrophages were collected from the peritoneal cavity of Swiss mice after thioglycolate-stimulation and plated at 3 × 10⁵ cells/well on coverslips (13-mm diameter), previously arranged in a 24-well plate containing RPMI1640 medium supplemented with 10% of hiFCS, 25 mM HEPES, 2 mM L-glutamine and 1% Pen/Strep, and allowed to adhere for 6 h at 37 °C in 5% CO₂–air mixture. Adherent macrophages were infected with promastigotes forms in the stationary growth phase using a ratio of 10:1 parasites per macrophage at 37 °C in 5% CO₂ for 18 h to allow parasite multiplication. The non-internalize parasites were removed by washed using 1× PBS. Then, infected cells were treated with different concentrations of each compound, extract and AmpB (20 µg/ml to 2.5 µg/ml) for 24 h. After incubation, the cells were fixed with methanol, Giemsa stained and examined by light microscopy. The number of amastigotes/100 macrophage cells and the percentage of infected cells were determined. The concentration that caused 50% growth inhibition compared to the control was expressed as the IC_50-AMA in µg/ml. The infection index was calculated by multiplying the percentage of infected macrophages by the mean number of amastigotes per infected cells (Velásquez et al., 2017).

Statistical analysis

The concentrations of compounds that inhibited culture growth (parasites or mammalian cells) by 50% compared to the control were determined by non-linear dose-response regression analysis using software origin 7.0. The assays were carried out in biological and experimental duplicates. The statistical differences between groups were evaluated using one-way analysis of variance, followed by the Student–Newman–Keuls multiple comparison and Tukey tests (using GraphPad InStat software). Differences were considered significant when p values were ≤0.05 (Mean 95% Confidence Interval).

Results and discussion

Visceral leishmaniasis is the most severe life-threatening form of leishmaniasis and treatment of patients bearing this parasitic disease is mandatory. The unavailability of vaccines for human use and the few chemotherapeutical options associated with long-term, severe side effects, high cost and the appearance of resistant strains prove the importance of find new therapeutic alternatives against this extremely neglected disease (Chung et al., 2007; Pham et al., 2013). In order to contribute to the discovery of new antileishmanial agents, the in vitro anti-L. infantum promastigote activity was determined and the glycoalkaloids 3 and 2 were the most active compounds (IC_50-PRO 4.7 µg/ml and 8.1 µg/ml, respectively) when compared with 1 (IC_50-PRO 22.7 µg/ml) and solanum extract from S. lycocarpum (IC_50-PRO 16.7 µg/ml) (Table 1). On the other hand, for the most clinically relevant life cycle stage form of the parasite, 1 and 2 also exhibited good anti-L. infantum amastigote activity (IC_50-AMA 3.2 µg/ml and 3 µg/ml, respectively), and 3 (IC_50-AMA 10.8 µg/ml), only mild activity, which was twice lower than AmpB (2.3 µg/ml).

Table 1
Leishmanicidal activities (IC₅₀ concentration that caused a 50% decrease in parasite viability), mammalian cell toxicities (CC₅₀ drug concentration that corresponds to 50% of cell growth inhibition), and selective indices (SI = CC_{50 -macrophages}/IC_{50- Leishmania} ) of extracts and glycoalkaloids of Solanum lycocarpum.

Compound	IC50-PRO (µg/ml)	SI	IC50-AMA (µg/ml)	SI	CC50 (µg/ml)
Solasonine (1)	22.7 ± 2.9A,b	(0.5)	3.2 ± 0.4	(3.7)	12.0 ± 1.3A
Solamargine (2)	8.1 ± 0.9a,b,γ,*	(0.4)	3.0 ± 0.2*	(1.1)	3.4 ± 0.01A,c
Solasodine (3)	4.7 ± 0.1β,γ	(2.5)	10.8 ± 0.5A,γ	(1.1)	11.5 ± 0.5α,c
Solanum extract	16.7 ± 1.3A	(0.5)	ND	ND	8.3 ± 2.9
Amphotericin B	0.8 ± 0.1	(26.2)	2.3 ± 0.5	(9.2)	21.3 ± 2.5

• Data are expressed as averages plus the standard deviations (SD) for two independent experiments. a,α,A: statistically significant difference relative to amphotericin B (p < 0.05, p < 0.01, p < 0.001). b,β: statistically significant difference relative to solanum extract (p < 0.05, p < 0.01). c,γ: statistically significant difference relative to solasonine (p < 0.05, p < 0.001).*: statistically significant difference relative to solasodine (p < 0.001). ND, not determinated.

Others studies also reported the antileishmanial activity for extracts from other Solanum species (Abdel-Sattar et al., 2010; Hubert et al., 2013; Estevez et al., 2007; Filho et al., 2013; Miranda et al., 2013). Hubert et al. (2013) reported that extract of Solanum torvum (IC₅₀ 96.1 µg/ml) inhibited the proliferation of promastigotes of L. donovani. Filho et al. (2013) demonstrated inhibition of promastigotes forms of L. amazonensis and L. brasiliensis in the presence of extracts from Solanumsisym briifolim (IC₅₀ 33.8 µg/ml and 20.5 µg/ml). Mothana et al. (2014) showed that the methanol extract of Solanum glabratum presented IC₅₀ values equal 8.1 µg/ml against L. infantum.Miranda et al. (2013) isolated 2 and 1 from the fruits of S. lycocarpum and showed in vitro leishmanicidal activity against promastigotes forms of L. amazonensis. In this work, we observed that the isolated compounds, solamargine and solasonine, were high toxic against the amastigote forms of parasites as well as against macrophages, additionally the solanum extract (with a pool of molecules included solasonine (1), solamargine (2) and solasodine (3)) had been showed too highly toxic against macrophages, for these reasons we decided not tested it. The susceptibility of L. infantum to the solanum extract points out to a potential addictive effect in the antiparasitic activity. The cytotoxicity was evaluated against murine peritoneal macrophages and the anti-amastigote effect of the compounds and solanum extract on intracellular amastigotes. The selective index (SI) was determined using the relationship between CC₅₀ and IC₅₀ of both parasites forms of L. infantum, Table 1. The compound 1 reduced the amount of intracellular amastigote similarly to AmpB (Fig. 1) and was the most selective (SI ∼4) to the intracellular amastigotes forms of L. infantum when compared to 2 and 3, Table 1.

Fig. 1
In vitro effect of solasodine, solamargine, solasonine and amphotericin B on L. infantum intracellular amastigotes. The infection index (% of infected cells × number of the intracellular parasites) was calculated after 24 h of treatment with 5 µg/ml of each compounds. The negative control is L. infantum intracellular amastigotes not treated. Data are expressed as averages plus the standard deviations (SD) for two independent experiments. *: statistically significant difference relative to the negative control (p < 0.05).

The observed antileishmanial activity might be attributed to the steroidal alkaloids, which represent the major constituents in Solanum species. It is interesting to mention that Devkota et al. (2007) reported that the varieties of functionalities present in ring A of the steroidal alkaloids might be playing a role in the antileishmanial activity. It is well known that glycosylphosphatidylinositol-anchored glycoproteins are the most prevalent cell-surface molecule present in Leishmania surface (Cham and Daunter, 1990; Ndjakou Lenta et al., 2007). Thus, the steroidal glycoalkaloids that contain chacotriose chain (rhamnose-glucose-rhamnose), as 1, might be easily diffusing through Leishmania membranes and interacting with intracellular targets (Cham and Daunter, 1990).

Conclusions

The present study describes for the first time the activity of 1 against L. infantum and its potential to be considered a hit for the antileishmanial drug development efforts. Data herein reported suggest that 1 showed the best potential of antileishmanial activity against intracellular amastigotes forms of L. infantum, the most relevant forms of VL. Therefore, it is suggested that these compounds can be considered as templates for drug design and development of novel leishmanicidal therapeutic agents. However, further studies are necessary in order to fully comprehend their potential as hits for leishmaniasis treatment.

• Ethical disclosures

  Protection of human and animal subjects. The authors declare that no experiments were performed on humans or animals for this study.
  Confidentiality of data. The authors declare that no patient data appear in this article.
  Right to privacy and informed consent The authors declare that no patient data appear in this article.

Acknowledgments

This work was supported by Programa Operacional Ciência e Inovação 2010 (POCI)/FEDER da Fundação para a Ciência e Tecnologia. Ciência Sem Fronteiras/CNPq; INCT-if: Instituto Nacional de Ciência e Tecnologia para Inovação Farmacêutica. PADC-FCFARUNESP-Araraquara, SP, Brasil and Fundação de Amparo a Pesquisa do Estado de São Paulo (FAPESP) # 2017/03552-5.

References

• Abdel-Sattar, E., Maes, L., Salama, M.M., 2010. In vitro activities of plant extracts from Saudi Arabia against malaria, leishmaniasis, sleeping sickness and Chagas disease. Phytother. Res. 24, 1322-1328.
• Balasubramanian, G., Sarathi, M., Kumar, S.R., Hameed, A.S.S., 2007. Screening the antiviral activity of Indian medicinal plants against white spot syndrome virus in shrimp. Aquaculture 263, 15-19.
• Bekele, B., Adane, L., Tariku, Y., Hailu, A., 2013. Evaluation of antileishmanial activities of triglycerides isolated from roots of Moringa stenopetala Med. Chem. Res. 22, 4592-4599.
• Cham, B.E., Daunter, B., 1990. Solasodine glycosides. Selective cytotoxicity for cancer cells and inhibition of cytotoxicity by rhamnose in mice with sarcoma 180. Cancer Lett. 55, 221-225.
• Chung, M.C., Ferreira, E.I., Santos, J.L., Giarolla, J., Rando, D.G., Almeida, A.E., Bosquesi, P.L., Menegon, R.F., Blau, L., 2007. Prodrugs for the treatment of neglected diseases. Molecules 13, 616-677.
• Coqueiro, A., Regasini, L.O., Leme, G.M., Polese, L., Nogueira, C.T., Cistia, M.L., Graminha, M.A.S., Bolzani, V.S., 2014. Leishmanicidal activity of Brosimum glaziovii (Moraceae) and chemical composition of the bioactive fractions by using High-Resolution Gas Chromatography and GC–MS. J. Braz. Chem. Soc. 25, 1839-1847.
• Croft, S.L., Sundar, S., Fairlamb, A.H., 2006. Drug resistance in leishmaniasis. Clin. Microbiol. Rev. 19, 111-126.
• Cruz, G.L.A., Silva, C., 1995. Dicionário De Plantas úteis do Brasil. Bertrand, Rio de Janeiro.
• Dall'Agnol, R., Von Poser, G.L., 2000. The use of complex polysaccharides in the management of metabolic diseases: the case of Solanum lycocarpum fruits. J. Ethnopharmacol. 71, 337-341.
• De Almeida, L., Passalacqua, T.G., Dutra, L.A., Fonseca, J.N.V.D., Nascimento, R.F.Q., Imamura, K.B., de Andrade, C.R., Dos Santos, J.L., Graminha, M.A.S., 2017. In vivo antileishmanial activity and histopathological evaluation in Leishmania infantum infected hamsters after treatment with a furoxan derivative. Biomed. Pharmacother. 95, 536-547.
• Devkota, K.P., Choudhary, M.I., Ranjit, R., Sewald, N., 2007. Structure activity relationship studies on antileishmanial steroidal alkaloids from Sarcococca hookeriana Nat. Prod. Res. 21, 292-297.
• Dutra, L.A., de Almeida, L., Passalacqua, T.G., Reis, J.S., Torres, F.A., Martinez, I., Peccinini, R.G., Chin, C.M., Chegaev, K., Guglielmo, S., Fruttero, R., Graminha, M.A.S., dos Santos, J.L., 2014. Leishmanicidal activities of novel synthetic furoxan and benzofuroxan derivatives. Antimicrob. Agents Chemother. 58, 4837-4847.
• Estevez, Y., Castillo, D., Tangoa Pisango, M., Arevalo, J., Rojas, R., Alban, J., Deharo, E., Bourdy, G., Sauvain, M., 2007. Evaluation of the leishmanicidal activity of plants used by Peruvian Chayahuita ethnic group. J. Ethnopharmacol. 114, 254-259.
• Fewell, A.M., Roddick, J.G., Weissenberg, M., 1994. Interactions between the glycoalkaloids solasonine and solamargine in relation to inhibition of fungal growth. Phytochemistry 37, 1007-1011.
• Filho, V.C., Meyre-Silva, C., Niero, R., Bolda Mariano, L.N., Gomes do Nascimento, F., Vicente Farias, I., Gazoni, V.F., Dos Santos Silva, B., Giménez, A., Gutierrez-Yapu, D., Salamanca, E., Malheiros, A., 2013. Evaluation of antileishmanial activity of selected Brazilian plants and identification of the active principles. Evid. Based Complement. Alternat. Med., http://dx.doi.org/10.1155/2013/265025
  » http://dx.doi.org/10.1155/2013/265025
• Funari, C.S., De Almeida, L., Passalacqua, T.G., Martinez, I., Ambrosio, D.L., Cicarelli, R.M.B., Silva, D.H.S., Graminha, M.A.S., 2016. Oleanonic acid from Lippia lupulina (Verbenaceae) shows strong in vitro antileishmanial and antitrypanosomal activity. Acta Amaz. 46, 411-416.
• Gamboa-Leon, R., Vera-Ku, M., Peraza-Sanchez, S.R., Ku-Chulim, C., Horta-Baas, A., Rosado-Vallado, M., 2014. Antileishmanial activity of a mixture of Tridax procumbens and Allium sativum in mice. Parasite, http://dx.doi.org/10.1051/parasite/2014016
  » http://dx.doi.org/10.1051/parasite/2014016
• González-Coloma, A., Reina, M., Sáenz, C., Lacret, R., Ruiz-Mesia, L., Arán, V.J., Sanz, J., Martínez-Díaz, R.A., 2012. Antileishmanial, antitrypanosomal, and cytotoxic screening of ethnopharmacologically selected Peruvian plants. Parasitol. Res. 110, 1381-1392.
• Guimaraes, L.R., Rodrigues, A.P., Marinho, P.S., Muller, A.H., Guilhon, G.M., Santos, L.S., do Nascimento, J.L., Silva, E.O., 2010. Activity of the julocrotine, a glutarimide alkaloid from Croton pullei var. glabrior, on Leishmania (L) amazonensis Parasitol. Res. 107, 1075-1081.
• Hall, C.A., Hobby, T., Cipollini, M., 2006. Efficacy and mechanisms of alpha-solasonine-and alpha-solamargine-induced cytolysis on two strains of Trypanosoma cruzi J. Chem. Ecol. 32, 2405-2416.
• Hubert, D.J., Céline, N., Michel, N., Gogulamudi, V.R., Florence, N.T., Johnson, B.N., Bonaventure, N.T., Singh, I.P., Sehgal, R., 2013. In vitro leishmanicidal activity of some Cameroonian medicinal plants. Exp. Parasitol. 134, 304-308.
• Iqbal, H., Khattak, B., Ayaz, S., Rehman, A., Ishfaq, M., Naseer Abbas, M., Rehman, H.U., Waheed, S., Wahab, A., 2012. Comparative efficacy of Aloe vera and Tamarix aphylla against cutaneous leishmaniasis. Int. J. Basic Med. Sci. Pharm. 2, 42-45.
• Lindoso, J.A.L., Cunha, M.A., Queiroz, I.T., Moreira, C.H.V., 2016. Leishmaniasis–HIV coinfection: current challenges. HIV AIDS (Auckl.) 8, 147-156.
• Lorenzi, H., 2000. Plantas Daninhas do Brasil: Terrestres, Aquáticas, Parasitas, e Tóxicas. Plantarum, Nova Odessa.
• Machado, M., Dinis, A.M., Santos-Rosa, M., Alves, V., Salgueiro, L., Cavaleiro, C., Sousa, M.C., 2014. Activity of Thymus capitellatus volatile extract, 1.8-cineole and borneol against Leishmania species. Vet. Parasitol. 200, 39-49.
• Mansour, R., Haouas, N., Kahla-Nakbi, A.B., Hammami, S., Mighri, Z., Mhenni, F., Babbab, H., 2013. The effect of Vitis vinifera L. leaves extract on Leishmania infantum Iran J. Pharm. Res. 12, 349-355.
• Martins, G.Z., Ph.D. Thesis 2013. Estudo Farmacognóstico e Screening Biológico de Solanum lycocarpum St. Hill (Solanaceae). Faculdade de Ciências Farmacêuticas, Universidade Estadual Paulista, pp. 173.
• Martins, G.Z., Moreira, R.R., Planeta, C.S., Almeida, A.E., Bastos, J.K., Salgueiro, L., Cavaleiro, C., Sousa, M.C., 2015. Effects of the extract and glycoalkaloids of Solanum lycocarpum St. Hill on Giardia lamblia trophozoites. Pharmacogn. Mag. 11, S161-S165.
• Miranda, M.A., Ph.D. Thesis 2010. Avaliação do Potencial Antiparasitário do Extrato Alcaloídico de Alcalóides Esteroidais dos Frutos de Solanum lycocarpum A. St. -Hil. Faculdadede Ciências Farmacêuticas, Universidade de São Paulo, pp. 97.
• Miranda, M.A., Magalhães, L.G., Tiossi, R.F., Kuehn, C.C., Oliveira, L.G., Rodrigues, V., McChesney, J.D., Bastos, J.K., 2012. Evaluation of the schistosomicidal activity of the steroidal alkaloids from Solanum lycocarpum fruits. Parasitol. Res. 111, 257-262.
• Miranda, M.A., Tiossi, R.F., da Silva, M.R., Rodrigues, K.C., Kuehn, C.C., Rodrigues Oliveira, L.G., Albuquerque, S., McChesney, J.D., Lezama-Davila, C.M., Isaac-Marquez, A.P., Kenupp Bastos, J., 2013. In vitro Leishmanicidal and cytotoxic activities of the glycoalkaloids from Solanum lycocarpum (Solanaceae) fruits. Chem. Biodivers. 10, 642-648.
• Mishra, B.B., Singh, R.K., Srivastava, A., Tripathi, V.J., Tiwari, V.K., 2009. Fighting against leishmaniasis: search of alkaloids as future true potential anti-Leishmanial agents. Mini. Rev. Med. Chem. 9, 107-123.
• Moreira, R.R.D., Martins, G.Z., Magalhães, N.O., Almeida, A.E., Pietro, R.C.L.R., Silva, A.J.F., Cicarelli, R.M.B., 2013. In vitro trypanocidal activity of solamargine and extracts from Solanum palinacanthum and Solanum lycocarpum of Brazilian Cerrado. An. Acad. Bras. Ciênc. 85, 903-907.
• Mothana, R.A., Al-Musayeib, N.M., Al-Ajmi, M.F., Cos, P., Maes, L., 2014. Evaluation of the in vitro antiplasmodial, antileishmanial, and antitrypanosomal activity of medicinal plants used in Saudi and Yemeni traditional medicine. Evid. Based Complement. Alternat. Med., http://dx.doi.org/10.1155/2014/905639
  » http://dx.doi.org/10.1155/2014/905639
• Munoz, V., Moretii, C., Sauvain, M., Caron, C., Porzel, A., Massiot, G., Richard, B., Men-Olivier, L.L., 1994. Isolation of bis-indole alkaloids with antileishmanial and antibacterial activities from Peschiera van heurkii (syn. Tabernaemontana van heurkii). Planta Med. 60, 455-459.
• Murray, H.W., Berman, J.D., Davies, C.R., Saravia, N.G., 2005. Advances in leishmaniasis. Lancet 366, 1561-1577.
• Natera, S., Machuca, C., Padrón-Nieves, M., Romero, A., Díaz, E., Ponte-Sucre, A., 2007. Leishmania spp.: proficiency of drug-resistant parasites. Int. J. Antimicrob. Agents 29, 637-642.
• Ndjakou Lenta, B., Vonthron-Sénécheau, C., Fongang Soh, R., Tantangmo, F., Ngouela, S., Kaiser, M., Tsamo, E., Anton, R., Weniger, B., 2007. In vitro antiprotozoal activities and cytotoxicity of some selected Cameroonian medicinal plants. J. Ethnopharmacol. 111, 8-12.
• Ogeto, T.K., Odhiambo, R.A., Shivairo, R.S., Muleke, C.I., Osero, B.O., Anjili, C., Ingonga, J.M., Osuga, I.M., 2013. Antileishmanial activity of Aloe secundiflora plant extracts against Leishmania major Adv. Life. Sci. Technol. 13, 9-18.
• Onocha, P.A., Ali, M.S., 2010. Antileishmaniasis, phytotoxicity and cytotoxicity of Nigerian Euphorbiaceous plants 2: Phyllanthus amarus and Phyllanthus muellerianus extracts. Afr. Sci. 11, 79-83.
• Pham, T.T., Loiseau, P.M., Barratt, G., 2013. Strategies for the design of orally bioavailable antileishmanial treatments. Int. J. Pharm. 454, 539-552.
• Rondon, F.C.M., Bevilaqua, C.M.L., Accioly, M.P., de Morais, S.M., de Andrade-Júnior, H.F., de Carvalho, C.A., Lima, J.C., Magalhães, H.C.R., 2012. In vitro efficacy of Coriandrum sativum, Lippia sidoides and Copaifera reticulata against Leishmania chagasi Rev. Bras. Parasitol. Vet. 21, 185-191.
• Sachdeva, H., Sehgal, R., Kaur, S., 2014. Tinospora cordifolia as a protective and immunomodulatory agent in combination with cisplatin against murine visceral leishmaniasis. Exp. Parasitol. 137, 53-65.
• Sachdeva, H., Sehgal, R., Kaur, S., 2014. Asparagus racemosus ameliorates cisplatin induced toxicities and augments its antileishmanial activity by immuno-modulation in vivo. Parasitol. Int. 63, 21-30.
• Santos, V.A., Regasini, L.O., Nogueira, C.R., Passerini, G.D., Martinez, I., Bolzani, V.S., Graminha, M.A., Cicarelli, R.M., Furlan, M., 2012. Antiprotozoal sesquiterpene pyridine alkaloids from Maytenus ilicifolia J. Nat. Prod. 75, 991-995.
• Souza-Silva, F., Bourguignon, S.C., Pereira, B.A., Côrtes, L.M., de Oliveira, L.F., Henriques-Pons, A., Finkelstein, L.C., Ferreira, V.F., Carneiro, P.F., de Pinho, R.T., Caffarena, E.R., Alves, C.R., 2015. Epoxy-α-lapachone has in vitro and in vivo anti-Leishmania (Leishmania) amazonensis effects and inhibits eerine proteinase activity in this parasite. Antimicrob. Agents Chemother. 59, 1910-1918.
• Tiossi, R.F.J., Miranda, M.A., de Sousa, J.P.B., Praça, F.S.G., Bentley, M.V.L.B., McChesney, J.D., Bastos, J.K., 2012. A validated reverse phase HPLC analytical method for quantitation of glycoalkaloids in Solanum lycocarpum and its extracts. J. Anal. Meth. Chem., http://dx.doi.org/10.1155/2012/947836
  » http://dx.doi.org/10.1155/2012/947836
• Torres, F.A.E., Passalacqua, T.G., Velásquez, A.M.A., Souza, R.A., Colepicolo Neto, P., Graminha, M.A.S., 2014. New drugs with antiprotozoal activity from marine algae: a review. Rev. Bras. Farmacogn. 24, 265-276.
• Udalova, Z.V., Zinov'eva, S.V., Vasil'eva, I.S., Paseshnichenko, V.A., 2004. Correlation between the structure of plant steroids and their effects on phytoparasitic nematodes. Appl. Biochem. Microbiol. 40, 93-97.
• Velásquez, A.M.A., de Souza, R.A., Passalacqua, T.G., Ribeiro, A.R., Scontri, M., Chin, C.M., de Almeida, L., Del Cistia, M.L., da Rosa, J.A., Mauro, A.E., Graminha, M.A.S., 2016. Antiprotozoal activity of the cyclopalladated complexes against Leishmania amazonensis and Trypanosoma cruzi J. Braz. Chem. Soc. 27, 1032-1039.
• Velásquez, A.M.A., Ribeiro, W.C., Venn, V., Castelli, S., Camargo, M.S., de Assis, R.P., de Souza, R.A., Ribeiro, A.R., Passalacqua, T.G., da Rosa, J.A., Baviera, A.M., Mauro, A.E., Desideri, A., Almeida-Amaral, E.E., Graminha, M.A.S., 2017. Efficacy of a binuclear cyclopalladated compound therapy for cutaneous leishmaniasis in the murine model of infection with Leishmania amazonensis and its inhibitory effect on topoisomerase 1B. Antimicrob. Agents Chemother. 61, e00688-e717.
• Vieira, G., Ferreira, P.M., Matos, L.G., Ferreira, E.C., Rodovalho, W., Ferri, P.H., Ferreira, H.D., Costa, E.A., 2003. Anti-inflammatory effect of Solanum lycocarpum fruits. Phytother. Res. 17, 892-896.
• Waechter, A.I., Cavé, A., Hocquemiller, R., Bories, C., Muñoz, V., Fournet, A., 1999. Antiprotozoal activity of aporphine alkaloids isolated from Unonopsis buchtienii (Annonaceae). Phytother. Res. 13, 175-177.
• WHO, 2018. Leishmaniasis. World Health Organization, http://www.who.int/leishmaniasis/en/ (accessed 21.03. 2018).
  » http://www.who.int/leishmaniasis/en/
• Yamamoto, E.S., Campos, B.L., Laurenti, M.D., Lago, J.H., Grecco Sdos, S., Corbett, C.E., Passero, L.F., 2014. Treatment with triterpenic fraction purified from Baccharis uncinella leaves inhibits Leishmania (Leishmania) amazonensis spreading and improves Th1 immune response in infected mice. Parasitol. Res. 113, 333-339.

Publication Dates

• Publication in this collection
  Nov-Dec 2018

History

• Received
  11 Apr 2018
• Accepted
  16 July 2018
• Published
  28 Sept 2018