Acessibilidade / Reportar erro

Characterization of Child Maltreatment Cases Identified in Health Services

Caracterização de Casos de Maus-Tratos Infantis Identificados em Serviços de Saúde

Caracterización de los Casos de Maltrato Infantil Identificados en Servicios de Salud

Abstract

Child maltreatment is a severe Public Health issue. To understand its associated factors, our study analyzed 14.564 cases of child maltreatment recorded in the state of Rio Grande do Sul between 2010 and 2014. In our study, we analyzed immediate contextual aspects (child’s gender and developmental stage, perpetrator’s gender, family relationship between the victim and the perpetrator) and intermediate aspects (health professionals’ response). Chi-square analysis showed that girls were more likely to be vulnerable to sexual and psychological abuse, especially in middle childhood. Boys, on the other hand, were more likely to experience neglect in infancy and physical abuse in middle childhood. Males were the main perpetrators. Our results are discussed, based on a theoretical review of the sociocultural conceptions of child developmental characteristics, parenting practices, and gender roles. We suggest changes in the notification process and case referral.

Keywords:
violence in children; childhood; public health

Resumo

Os maus-tratos infantis são um grave problema de saúde pública. A fim de elucidar fatores associados à sua ocorrência, no presente estudo foram analisados 14.564 casos de maus tratos contra crianças reportados no Rio Grande do Sul entre 2010 e 2014. Foram analisados aspectos que operam em níveis contextuais imediatos (gênero da criança e fase do desenvolvimento, sexo do perpetrador, parentesco entre a vítima e perpetrador) e intermediários (respostas do profissional da saúde) dos casos reportados. Resultados de qui quadrado demonstraram que meninas tendem a ser vulneráveis ao abuso sexual e psicológico, principalmente durante a terceira infância. Meninos tendem a ser expostos a maus tratos físicos, na terceira infância, e à negligência na primeira infância. Homens foram os principais agressores identificados. Os resultados são discutidos com base em revisão teórica sobre concepções socioculturais de características desenvolvimentais infantis, práticas parentais e papéis de gênero. Sugerem-se modificações no processo de notificação e encaminhamento dos casos.

Palavras-chave:
violência na criança; infância; saúde pública

Resumen

El maltrato infantil es un grave problema de salud pública. Con el fin de exponer los factores asociados a su ocurrencia, en el presente estudio se analizaron 14.564 casos de maltrato infantil reportados en Rio Grande do Sul entre 2010 y 2014. Se analizaron aspectos que operan a niveles contextuales inmediatos (género del niño y etapa de desarrollo, sexo del perpetrador, parentesco entre la víctima y el perpetrador) e intermediarios (respuestas del profesional de la salud) de los casos reportados. Los resultados del chi-cuadrado mostraron que las niñas tienden a ser vulnerables al abuso sexual y psicológico, especialmente durante su tercera infancia. Los niños tienden a ser expuestos al maltrato físico en la tercera infancia y a la negligencia en la primera infancia. Los principales agresores identificados fueron los hombres. Los resultados se discuten en base a una revisión teórica sobre las concepciones socioculturales de las características del desarrollo infantil, las prácticas parentales y los roles de género. Se sugieren modificaciones en el proceso de notificación y el direccionamiento de casos.

Palabras clave:
violencia en niño; infancia; salud pública

Child maltreatment is a severe public health issue on the political agenda worldwide. It consists of all forms of maltreatment that can result in harm to children’s health, survival, and development, usually occurring in a relationship of power, trust, and responsibility towards a child (World Health Organization [WHO] & International Society for Prevention of Child Abuse and Neglect [ISPCAN], 2006World Health Organization, & International Society for Prevention of Child Abuse and Neglect. (2006). Preventing child maltreatment: A guide to taking action and generating evidence. Geneva, Switzerland: WHO. Retrieved from https://www.who.int/violence_injury_prevention/publications/violence/child_maltreatment/en/
https://www.who.int/violence_injury_prev...
). The most common categories of maltreatment in the literature are neglect and physical, psychological, and sexual abuse (United Nations Children’s Fund [UNICEF], 2014United Nations Children’s Fund. (2014). Hidden in plain sight: A statistical analysis of violence against children. New York, NY: UNICEF.; WHO & ISPCAN, 2006World Health Organization, & International Society for Prevention of Child Abuse and Neglect. (2006). Preventing child maltreatment: A guide to taking action and generating evidence. Geneva, Switzerland: WHO. Retrieved from https://www.who.int/violence_injury_prevention/publications/violence/child_maltreatment/en/
https://www.who.int/violence_injury_prev...
).

Neglect is defined as the omission of basic needs for physical, emotional and social development (e.g., lack of hygiene, the absence of stimuli, abandonment). Physical abuse is defined as actions that use intentional physical force to cause the victim to suffer damage, wounds, or destruction (e.g. kicking, shoving, and throwing). Psychological abuse, in turn, is seen as any behavior that causes damage to the mental health, self-esteem, identity or development of others (e.g., depreciation, discrimination, rejection). Sexual abuse includes a range of practices to force another to perform any sexual activity through physical strength, coercion or personal influence (e.g., sexual harassment, rape, use of erotic language; UNICEF, 2014United Nations Children’s Fund. (2014). Hidden in plain sight: A statistical analysis of violence against children. New York, NY: UNICEF.; WHO & ISPCAN, 2006World Health Organization, & International Society for Prevention of Child Abuse and Neglect. (2006). Preventing child maltreatment: A guide to taking action and generating evidence. Geneva, Switzerland: WHO. Retrieved from https://www.who.int/violence_injury_prevention/publications/violence/child_maltreatment/en/
https://www.who.int/violence_injury_prev...
).

The etiology of child maltreatment is influenced by the everyday interaction of children and their families (UNICEF, 2014United Nations Children’s Fund. (2014). Hidden in plain sight: A statistical analysis of violence against children. New York, NY: UNICEF.). Models based on the Bioecological Systems Theory of Human Development (Bronfenbrenner, 1994Bronfenbrenner, U. (1994). Ecological models of human development. In M. Gauvain & M. Cole (Eds.), Readings on the development of children (2nd ed., pp. 37-43). New York, NY: Freeman.) have proposed that analysing how factors from different contextual levels interact can contribute to better understanding child maltreatment occurrences. In a more immediate level, characteristics of the children (e.g., developmental stage, gender, personality), caregivers (e.g., gender, relationship with the child, level of education) and familiar environment (e.g., housing conditions, number of occupants) can influence how maltreatment manifests . In an intermediate level, occurrence and perpetuation of child maltreatment may be influenced by the interaction between children, caregivers and the surrounding community, such as schools, community centers, health services and social welfare organizations. In a broader level, sociocultural conceptions about childhood, parenting, gender roles and maltreatment itself can influence how parents respond to child behavior and how other adults that interact with the child (e.g., teacher, health professionals) identify and respond to suspected or confirmed child maltreatment cases (Belsky 1993Belsky, J. (1993). Etiology of child maltreatment: A developmental-ecological analysis. Psychological Bulletin, 114(3), 413-434. doi: 10.1037/0033-2909.114.3.413
https://doi.org/10.1037/0033-2909.114.3....
; Bronfenbrenner, 1994Bronfenbrenner, U. (1994). Ecological models of human development. In M. Gauvain & M. Cole (Eds.), Readings on the development of children (2nd ed., pp. 37-43). New York, NY: Freeman.; Cicchetti & Valentino, 2006Cicchetti, D., & Valentino, K. (2006). An ecological-transactional perspective on child maltreatment: Failure of the average expectable environment and its influence on child development. In D. Cicchetti & D. J. Cohen (Eds.), Developmental psychopathology: Vol. 3. Risk, disorder and adaptation (2nd ed., pp. 129-201). Hoboken, NJ: John Wileys & Sons. ).

The Notifiable Disease Information System (SINAN - Sistema de Informação de Agravos de Notificação) collects information on cases of child maltreatment identified in the health system (e.g., hospital, emergency stations, health units). On SINAN , details are recorded on characteristics of the victims and perpetrators, particularities of the maltreatment episode, and the referrals made for each case (Ministério da Saúde, 2017Ministério da Saúde. (2017). Sistema de Informação de Agravos de Notificação [Notifiable Disease Information System]. Retrieved from http://portalsinan.saude.gov.br/
http://portalsinan.saude.gov.br/...
). Analysis on a national level demonstrates that child maltreatment cases identified in the Health context occurs mainly in the children’s household and is often perpetrated by caregivers. Differences in prevalence rates according to victim’s age and gender are also observed (Assis, Avanci, Pesce, Pires, & Gomes, 2012Assis, S. G., Avanci, J. Q., Pesce, R. P., Pires, T. O., & Gomes, D. L. (2012). Notificações de violência doméstica, sexual e outras violências contra crianças no Brasil [Domestic, sexual and other violences notification against children in Brazil]. Ciência & Saúde Coletiva, 17(9), 2305-2317. doi: 10.1590/S1413-81232012000900012
https://doi.org/10.1590/S1413-8123201200...
; Rates, Melo, Mascarenhas, & Malta, 2015Rates, S. M. M., Melo, E. M., Mascarenhas, M. D. M., & Malta, D. C. (2015). Violence against children: An analysis of mandatory reporting on violence, Brazil 2011. Ciência & Saúde Coletiva, 20(3), 655-665. doi: 10.1590/1413-81232015203.15242014
https://doi.org/10.1590/1413-81232015203...
).

The analysis of 17,900 SINAN reports of child victims in 2011 showed that sexual and psychological abuse were more frequently perpetrated against female children aged between 6 and 9 . Neglect was more frequently observed amongst boys aged between 0 and 1 and physical abuse among 6-9 year-old boys. No analysis based on the sex of perpetrators was provided (Rates et al., 2015Rates, S. M. M., Melo, E. M., Mascarenhas, M. D. M., & Malta, D. C. (2015). Violence against children: An analysis of mandatory reporting on violence, Brazil 2011. Ciência & Saúde Coletiva, 20(3), 655-665. doi: 10.1590/1413-81232015203.15242014
https://doi.org/10.1590/1413-81232015203...
). Another study analyzed 10,682 SINAN reports on victims aged between 0 and 9 in 2010. Higher prevalence of physical abuse and neglect was observed among boys and psychological and sexual abuse was found to be more common among girls. The main perpetrators identified were parents. Analysis by perpetrators’ gender evidenced the prevalence of males (Assis et al., 2012Assis, S. G., Avanci, J. Q., Pesce, R. P., Pires, T. O., & Gomes, D. L. (2012). Notificações de violência doméstica, sexual e outras violências contra crianças no Brasil [Domestic, sexual and other violences notification against children in Brazil]. Ciência & Saúde Coletiva, 17(9), 2305-2317. doi: 10.1590/S1413-81232012000900012
https://doi.org/10.1590/S1413-8123201200...
).

The prevalence of parents as the main perpetrators and the differences between children’s and caregivers’ characteristics (e.g., age, gender) for the occurrence of different types of maltreatment may indicate the importance of considering sociocultural conceptions of parenting, childhood, and gender roles in understanding the etiology of the phenomena (Belsky, 1993Belsky, J. (1993). Etiology of child maltreatment: A developmental-ecological analysis. Psychological Bulletin, 114(3), 413-434. doi: 10.1037/0033-2909.114.3.413
https://doi.org/10.1037/0033-2909.114.3....
). Attention to factors operating at the intermediate level (Belsky, 1993Belsky, J. (1993). Etiology of child maltreatment: A developmental-ecological analysis. Psychological Bulletin, 114(3), 413-434. doi: 10.1037/0033-2909.114.3.413
https://doi.org/10.1037/0033-2909.114.3....
; Cicchetti & Valentino, 2006Cicchetti, D., & Valentino, K. (2006). An ecological-transactional perspective on child maltreatment: Failure of the average expectable environment and its influence on child development. In D. Cicchetti & D. J. Cohen (Eds.), Developmental psychopathology: Vol. 3. Risk, disorder and adaptation (2nd ed., pp. 129-201). Hoboken, NJ: John Wileys & Sons. ), as the professional’s responsive actions to cases, can contribute to increase child maltreatment identification and protective responses (Assis et al., 2012Assis, S. G., Avanci, J. Q., Pesce, R. P., Pires, T. O., & Gomes, D. L. (2012). Notificações de violência doméstica, sexual e outras violências contra crianças no Brasil [Domestic, sexual and other violences notification against children in Brazil]. Ciência & Saúde Coletiva, 17(9), 2305-2317. doi: 10.1590/S1413-81232012000900012
https://doi.org/10.1590/S1413-8123201200...
). This analysis can account for the political and institutional aspects commonly involved in public health phenomena (Lynch, 2000Lynch, J. (2000). Social epidemiology: Some observations about the past, present and future. Australasian Epidemiologist, 7(3), 7-15. Retrieved from https://search.informit.com.au/documentSummary;dn=433223249557305;res=IELHEA
https://search.informit.com.au/documentS...
) that can contribute to better assessment and reformulation of public policies to reduce child maltreatment occurrence (Assis et al., 2012Assis, S. G., Avanci, J. Q., Pesce, R. P., Pires, T. O., & Gomes, D. L. (2012). Notificações de violência doméstica, sexual e outras violências contra crianças no Brasil [Domestic, sexual and other violences notification against children in Brazil]. Ciência & Saúde Coletiva, 17(9), 2305-2317. doi: 10.1590/S1413-81232012000900012
https://doi.org/10.1590/S1413-8123201200...
).

To explore the interaction of factors from different contextual levels in child maltreatment occurrence (Belsky, 1993Belsky, J. (1993). Etiology of child maltreatment: A developmental-ecological analysis. Psychological Bulletin, 114(3), 413-434. doi: 10.1037/0033-2909.114.3.413
https://doi.org/10.1037/0033-2909.114.3....
; Cicchetti & Valentino, 2006Cicchetti, D., & Valentino, K. (2006). An ecological-transactional perspective on child maltreatment: Failure of the average expectable environment and its influence on child development. In D. Cicchetti & D. J. Cohen (Eds.), Developmental psychopathology: Vol. 3. Risk, disorder and adaptation (2nd ed., pp. 129-201). Hoboken, NJ: John Wileys & Sons. ), our study focuses on aspects that operate at the immediate (child gender and developmental stage, perpetrators’ gender, relationship between victims and perpetrators) and intermediate (health professionals’ response) levels of the cases reported on SINAN. Accordingly, the specific aimsof our study were: (1) to describe characteristics of victims (e.g, gender, developmental stage) and alleged perpetrators (e.g., gender, relationship with the victim) of the child maltreatment cases identified in health care context; (2) to describe details of the child maltreatment episodes (e.g., place of occurrence, number of episodes) identified in the health care context; (3) to verify the interaction between victims’ gender and developmental stage and perpetrator’s gender for the different types of child maltreatment identified in the health care context; and (4) to characterize the protective actions performed by the health professionals responsible for the cases. Based on the literature of sociocultural concepts of childhood, parenting, and gender roles, we address the sociocultural aspects that influence child maltreatment and the differences between child and perpetrators’ characteristics (Belsky, 1993Belsky, J. (1993). Etiology of child maltreatment: A developmental-ecological analysis. Psychological Bulletin, 114(3), 413-434. doi: 10.1037/0033-2909.114.3.413
https://doi.org/10.1037/0033-2909.114.3....
; Cicchetti & Valentino, 2006Cicchetti, D., & Valentino, K. (2006). An ecological-transactional perspective on child maltreatment: Failure of the average expectable environment and its influence on child development. In D. Cicchetti & D. J. Cohen (Eds.), Developmental psychopathology: Vol. 3. Risk, disorder and adaptation (2nd ed., pp. 129-201). Hoboken, NJ: John Wileys & Sons. ).

Method

Participants

The sample analyzed corresponded to a SINAN database of 14.564 suspected or confirmed cases of maltreatment of children aged 0-12 years (Law No. 8,069, 1990Lei No. 8.069. (1990, 13 de julho). Dispõe sobre o Estatuto da Criança e do Adolescente e dá outras providências [Law 8.069 (1990, July 13). Legislates over the Child and Adolescents Rights Statute and decurrent recommendations]. Retrieved from http://www.planalto.gov.br/ccivil_03/leis/L8069.htm
http://www.planalto.gov.br/ccivil_03/lei...
). The cases were reported between 01/01/2010 and 07/31/2014 in the Brazilian state of Rio Grande do Sul. Cases were reported mandatorily during health professionals’ daily practice in public and private health services (e.g., hospitals, primary health units, emergency health services), when they identified/suspected of child maltreatment occurrence. After collection procedures, governmental health surveillance agents transferred the data to an electronic database.

Instruments

The cases were reported through the SINAN Individual Report Form (FIN-SINAN - Ficha Individual de Notificação), completed accordingly to Brazilian Ministry of Health pre-specified guidelines (Ministério da Saúde, 2008Ministério da Saúde. (2008). Sistema de Informação de Agravos de Notificação - Ficha de Notificação Individual Violência Interpessoal/Autoprovocada [Notifiable Disease Information System - Individual Notification of Interpersonal/Self-inflicted Violence Form, 2017Ministério da Saúde. (2017). Sistema de Informação de Agravos de Notificação [Notifiable Disease Information System]. Retrieved from http://portalsinan.saude.gov.br/
http://portalsinan.saude.gov.br/...
).

Procedure

Data collection. Representants of the Health Surveillance Center of Rio Grande do Sul contacted the research team for a partnership aiming to analyze the available data and share the results with health professionals across the state of Rio Grande do Sul. A copy of the data set was then provided after the partnership was formally stablished. Data from 2010 onwards was used, as SINAN data collection started in the whole state of Rio Grande do Sul from this date. After the second half of 2014, a new report form template was proposed, and the analysis of this new cohort is still not published.

Data analysis. The sample was divided into three sub-groups according to child’s age at the time of report, using criterion from Papalia & Feldman (2013Papalia, D. E., & Feldman, R. D. (2013). Desenvolvimento humano [Human development] (C. F. M. P. Vercesi, Trans., 12th ed.). Porto Alegre, RS: Artmed .): (1) infancy (0 - 3 incomplete years); (2) early childhood (3-6 incomplete years); and (3) middle childhood (6-12 incomplete years). The typologies of maltreatment analyzed were: physical, psychological and sexual abuse, and neglect (UNICEF, 2014United Nations Children’s Fund. (2014). Hidden in plain sight: A statistical analysis of violence against children. New York, NY: UNICEF.). Statistically significant associations among categorical variables (developmental stage of victims vs. type of maltreatment, victims’ gender vs. type of maltreatment, perpetrators’ gender vs. type of maltreatment) were checked through Pearson’s chi-square test (χ2). Cramer’s V was performed to demonstrate the effect size of the χ2. For analysis purposes, missing information was excluded.

Ethical Considerations

For ethical purposes, all information regarding participant’s identification was removed prior to contact with the database. The study was approved by the Ethics Committee of the Pontifícia Universidade Católica do Rio Grande do Sul under the reference number 930.888.

Results

Table 1 presents the descriptive analysis of the data (14.564 reports) regarding the sociodemographic characteristics of the child maltreatment victims, according to victims’ developmental stage.

Table 1
Biological and socio-demographic characteristics of the child maltreatment victims

The most frequent type of child maltreatment in infancy and early childhood was neglect. For victims in middle childhood, sexual abuse had the highest incidence among the maltreatment cases analyzed. Maltreatment occurred mainly in urban areas and within the victims’ households. Table 2 shows the characterization of the child maltreatment cases according to victims’ developmental stage.

Table 2
Frequencies and Percentages of characteristics associated with the child maltreatment reported

The prevalence of male perpetrators increased as victims aged, and the inverse occurred in regard to female perpetrators. Parents were the main perpetrators of maltreatment. Table 3 describe perpetrators’ characteristics according to the developmental stage of victims.

Table 3
Characteristics of perpetrators in the cases of child maltreatment reported

The main consequences of the child maltreatment cases, identified by the health professionals, were Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder (PTSD) and Behavioral Disorders (8.4%). However, the descriptions of these variables were limited by a considerable rate of missing cases. The number of absent information was also high for variables related to alcohol intake by perpetrators (n = 5602, 38.5%), suicide attempts by victims (n = 4598, 31.5%) and victims’ mental disorders (n = 4072, 31.1%). The data also showed that the prophylaxis for sexually transmitted diseases (STDs) in cases of sexual abuse increased accordingly to victims’ age, although the percentage was still not expressive. The majority of the notified cases was considered confirmed by the health professional responsible for notifying the case. Table 4 describes the consequences for maltreatment, the referrals of victims to support services, and confirmation status of cases, per victims’ developmental stage.

Table 4
Consequences for victims, referrals, progression and final classification of reported child maltreatment

The results of the Pearson’s Chi-square analyses confirmed that there was an increase in number of child maltreatment notifications for older children. Middle childhood showed a statistically significant difference for the total number of reported cases (χ2(2) = 797.63, ρ ≤ 0.001) when compared with infancy and early childhood. A Chi-square analysis of type of maltreatment by age group indicated that children in middle childhood were more likely to experience physical abuse (χ2(4) = 331.83, ρ ≤ 0.001, V = .11), sexual abuse (χ2 = 2335.76, ρ ≤ 0.001, V = .29) and psychological abuse (χ2 (4) = 1383.28, ρ ≤ 0.001, V = .23) when compared with those in infancy and early childhood. Children in infancy were more likely to experience neglect (χ2(4) = 60.48, ρ ≤ 0.001, V = .11) when compared with the other two groups.

A Chi-square analysis of the maltreatment occurrence by victims’ gender indicated that girls (χ2(2) = 7317.01, ρ ≤ 0.001) were more likely to be maltreated when compared to boys. Differences according to gender and type of maltreatment were also observed within each developmental stage. In infancy, female victims were more likely to suffer sexual (χ2(4) = 110.40, ρ ≤ 0.001, V = .10) and psychological abuse (χ2(4) = 40.14, ρ ≤ 0.001, V = .06) when compared with the male victims, whereas male victims were more likely to experience neglect (χ2(4) = 60.48, ρ ≤ 0.001, V = .08). The Chi-square analysis showed no statistically significant difference between victim’s gender for the occurrence of physical abuse in infancy.

In early childhood, the Chi-square analysis showed that male victims were more likely to experience physical abuse (χ2(4) = 22.20, ρ ≤ 0.001, V = .08) and neglect (χ2(4) = 59.65, ρ ≤ 0.001, V = .14) when compared tofemale victims. However, female victims were more likely to suffer psychological (χ2(4) = 21.06, ρ ≤ 0.001, V = .08) and sexual abuse (χ2(4) = 160.30, ρ ≤ 0.001, V = .23). In middle childhood, the same pattern was observed. Male victims were at higher risk of physical abuse (χ2 = 159.49, ρ ≤ 0.001, V = .17) and neglect (χ2 = 153.29, ρ ≤ 0.001, V = .17) when compared to female victims. Female victims were more likely to suffer psychological (χ2 = 25.83, ρ ≤ 0.001, V = .07) and sexual abuse (χ2 = 532.96, ρ ≤ 0.001, V = .31).

A Chi-square analysis of the gender of perpetrators by maltreatment occurrence, without distinction between types of maltreatment, showed that males were more likely to maltreat children (χ2(3) = 5224.64, ρ ≤ 0.001) when compared to females. Within each developmental stage, a Chi-square analysis of type of maltreatment by perpetrators’ gender showed that in infancy male perpetrators were more likely to subject children to psychological (χ2(6) = 493.33, ρ ≤ 0.001, V = .23), physical (χ2(6) = 626.25, ρ ≤ 0.001, V = .26) and sexual (χ2(6) = 1159.34, ρ ≤ 0.001, V = .36) abuse, whereas female perpetrators were more common in cases of neglect (χ2(6) = 1512.17, ρ ≤ 0.001, V = .40).

In early childhood, the male perpetrators were more likely to subject children to psychological (χ2(2) = 66.03, ρ ≤ 0.001, V = .16), physical (χ2(2) = 25.78, ρ ≤ 0.05, V = .10) and sexual abuse (χ2(2) = 1227.09, ρ ≤ 0.001, V = .68). Reports of neglect were significantly associated with the female perpetrators (χ2(2) = 803.22, ρ ≤ 0.001, V = .55). In middle childhood, the male perpetrators were more likely to be physically (χ2(2) = 83.92, ρ ≤ 0.001, V = .13) and sexually (χ2(2) = 1972.88, ρ ≤ 0.001, V = .62) abusive than female perpetrators. Male perpetrators were also more likely to be psychologically abusive, although the effect size was small (χ2(2) = 23.73, ρ ≤ 0.001, V = .07). There were no significant differences regarding the gender of perpetrator for the occurrence of neglect in this developmental stage.

Discussion

The analyzed reports showed the same patterns observed in SINAN reports on child maltreatment cases on a national level, such as preponderance of occurrence in the victims’ households, parents as the most frequent perpetrators, and differences between child age and gender and types of maltreatment (Assis et al., 2012Assis, S. G., Avanci, J. Q., Pesce, R. P., Pires, T. O., & Gomes, D. L. (2012). Notificações de violência doméstica, sexual e outras violências contra crianças no Brasil [Domestic, sexual and other violences notification against children in Brazil]. Ciência & Saúde Coletiva, 17(9), 2305-2317. doi: 10.1590/S1413-81232012000900012
https://doi.org/10.1590/S1413-8123201200...
; Rates et al., 2015Rates, S. M. M., Melo, E. M., Mascarenhas, M. D. M., & Malta, D. C. (2015). Violence against children: An analysis of mandatory reporting on violence, Brazil 2011. Ciência & Saúde Coletiva, 20(3), 655-665. doi: 10.1590/1413-81232015203.15242014
https://doi.org/10.1590/1413-81232015203...
). These similarities suggest that the state of Rio Grande do Sul does not present any particular feature in the manifestation of child maltreatment. The fact that most of the victims in this sample were Caucasian can be explained by the preponderance of Caucasians in the state of Rio Grande do Sul due to its colonization by Germans and Italians in the XIX century (Instituto Brasileiro de Geografia e Estatística [IBGE], 2011Instituto Brasileiro de Geografia e Estatística. (2011). Características étnico-raciais da população: Um estudo das categorias de classificação de cor ou raça 2008 [Ethnic-racial characteristics in the population: A study of skin color or race categories classification]. Rio de Janeiro, RJ: IBGE. Retrieved from http://biblioteca.ibge.gov.br/visualizacao/livros/liv49891.pdf
http://biblioteca.ibge.gov.br/visualizac...
). Notwithstanding, the lack of studies analyzing characteristics of victims and perpetrators within types of maltreatment in other regions limits intra-territorial comparisons (Macedo, D.M., Foschiera, L. N., Bordini, T. C. P. M., Habigzang, L. F., & Koller, S. H, 2019Macedo, D.M., Foschiera, L. N., Bordini, T. C. P. M., Habigzang, L. F., & Koller, S. H. (2019). Revisão sistemática de estudos sobre registros de violência contra crianças e adolescentes no Brasil [Systematic review of studies on reports of violence against children and adolescents in Brazil]. Ciência & Saúde Coletiva, 24(2), 487-496. doi: 10.1590/1413-81232018242.34132016
https://doi.org/10.1590/1413-81232018242...
). Differences in implementation levels of epidemiological surveillance of child maltreatment across the national territory can be another limitation for comparison purposes (Assis et al., 2012Assis, S. G., Avanci, J. Q., Pesce, R. P., Pires, T. O., & Gomes, D. L. (2012). Notificações de violência doméstica, sexual e outras violências contra crianças no Brasil [Domestic, sexual and other violences notification against children in Brazil]. Ciência & Saúde Coletiva, 17(9), 2305-2317. doi: 10.1590/S1413-81232012000900012
https://doi.org/10.1590/S1413-8123201200...
).

Differences between victims’ developmental stage and gender and perpetrators’ gender for types of child maltreatment

Infancy is a period when the child is physically fragile and more dependent on parental care (Papalia & Feldman, 2013Papalia, D. E., & Feldman, R. D. (2013). Desenvolvimento humano [Human development] (C. F. M. P. Vercesi, Trans., 12th ed.). Porto Alegre, RS: Artmed .). The higher prevalence of cases of neglect that required health assistance among infant children may be a consequence of parents’ poor knowledge of the child’s needs (e.g., nurturing and regular feeding) and the impact of poor care in such a sensitive developmental stage (Weber, Viezzer, Brandenburg, & Zocche, 2002Weber, L. N. D., Viezzer, A. P., Brandenburg, O. J., & Zocche, C. R. E. (2002). Famílias que maltratam: Uma tentativa de socialização pela violência [Families that commit maltreatment: An attempt of socialization through violence]. Psico-USF, 7(2), 163-173. doi: 10.1590/S1413-82712002000200005
https://doi.org/10.1590/S1413-8271200200...
). Moreover, since parenting is influenced by sociocultural factors and education attainment (Rodriguez, 2010Rodriguez, C. M. (2010). Parent-child aggression: Association with child abuse potential and parenting styles. Violence and Victims, 25(6), 728-741. doi: 10.1891/0886-6708.25.6.728
https://doi.org/10.1891/0886-6708.25.6.7...
), differences in parent’s conceptualization of care and maltreatment may also play a role. A national study emphasized that neglectful parents were unaware of the term “neglect”. These parents tended to conceptualize maltreatment only when visible consequences were present. Therefore, they failed to identify its occurrence and to pursuit support (Delfino, Biasoli-Alves, Sagim, & Venturini, 2005Delfino, V., Biasoli-Alves, Z. M. M., Sagim, M. B., & Venturini, F. P. (2005). A identificação da violência doméstica e da negligência por pais de camada média e popular [Domestic violence and negligence identification by middle and populat classes parents]. Texto & Contexto Enfermagem, 14(Spe.), 38-46. doi: 10.1590/S0104-07072005000500005
https://doi.org/10.1590/S0104-0707200500...
), possibly leading to poor health outcomes.

Sociocultural concepts about parenting and children upbringing can also contribute to the explanation of higher prevalence of physical and psychological abuse in middle childhood. The increased levels of child interaction with the wider family and surrounding community can trigger behavioral changes incompatible with parental expectations (Boudreaux & Lord, 2005Boudreaux, M. C., & Lord, W. D. (2005). Combating child homicide: Preventive policing for the new millennium. Journal of Interpersonal Violence, 20(4), 380-387. doi: 10.1177/0886260504269569
https://doi.org/10.1177/0886260504269569...
). Thus, caregivers can be more likely to be abusive as they expect punitive practices to change childrens’ behaviors (Donoso & Ricas, 2009Donoso, M. T. V., & Ricas, J. (2009). Perspectiva dos pais sobre educação e castigo físico [Parent’s perspective on child rearing and corporal punishment]. Revista de Saúde Pública, 43(1), 78-84. doi: 10.1590/S0034-89102009000100010
https://doi.org/10.1590/S0034-8910200900...
). Parents can also assume intentionality to emotions and behaviors consistent with the child age, such as environmental exploitation and crying, and apply violent punishment expecting behavioral change (Weber et al., 2002Weber, L. N. D., Viezzer, A. P., Brandenburg, O. J., & Zocche, C. R. E. (2002). Famílias que maltratam: Uma tentativa de socialização pela violência [Families that commit maltreatment: An attempt of socialization through violence]. Psico-USF, 7(2), 163-173. doi: 10.1590/S1413-82712002000200005
https://doi.org/10.1590/S1413-8271200200...
).

The higher incidence of physical abuse among boys can reflect differences in the socialization of boys and girls. Socially encouraged behaviors based on gender diffenreces are learned by children from preschool age and are established across childhood (Halim, Ruble, Tamis-LeMonda, & Shrout, 2013Halim, M. L., Ruble, D., Tamis-LeMonda, C., & Shrout, P. E. (2013). Rigidity in gender-typed behaviors in early childhood: A longitudinal study of ethnic minority children. Child Development, 84(4), 1269-1284. doi: 10.1111/cdev.12057
https://doi.org/10.1111/cdev.12057...
). Boys and men are socially expected to exhibit dominant attitudes, express anger, and suppress fear and helplessness (García, 2014García, A. M. (2014). Prevention of gender-based violence in the classroom: Some observations. Procedia - Social and Behavioral Sciences, 161, 275-280. doi: 10.1016/j.sbspro.2014.12.071
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.sbspro.2014.12...
). As boys tend to show more aggressiveness, physical punishments tend to be more severe when compared to the girls’ cases (Lysenko, Barker, & Jaffee, 2013Lysenko, L. J., Barker, E. D., & Jaffee, S. R. (2013). Sex differences in the relationship between harsh discipline and conduct problems. Social Development, 22(1), 197-214. doi: 10.1111/sode.12002
https://doi.org/10.1111/sode.12002...
); and since the use of harsh discipline amongst boys is associated with increase in child’s defiant behavior (Meier, Slutske, Heath, & Martin, 2009Meier, M. H., Slutske, W. S., Heath, A. C., & Martin, N. G. (2009). The role of harsh discipline in explaining sex differences in conduct disorder: A study of opposite-sex twin pairs. Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology, 37(5), 653-664. doi: 10.1007/s10802-009-9309-1
https://doi.org/10.1007/s10802-009-9309-...
), it is possible that maltreatment starts as a dysfunctional parenting practice that can escalate and lead to severe physical punishment, requiring health professionals’ attention more frequently.

Child developmental characteristics, such as the manifestation of secondary sexual characteristics, might contribute to the higher prevalence of sexual abuse in middle childhood (Alves, Silva, & Silva, 2012Alves, M. F. A., Silva, B. O., & Silva, E. G. (2012). Abuso sexual na infância e adolescência: Perfil social e médico-assistencial no centro de referência de Belém [Sexual abuse in childhood and adolescence: Social and medical-care profile in the center of reference of Belém]. Revista Paraense de Medicina, 26(2), 1-8.). Beyond such biological aspect, the cognitive development of the child and advances in the process of socialization can also help them understand the nature of this experience and seek for assistance (Baía, Veloso, Magalhães, & Dell’Aglio, 2013Baía, P. A. D., Veloso, M. M. X., Magalhães, C. M. C., & Dell’Aglio, D. D. (2013). Caracterização da revelação do abuso sexual de crianças e adolescentes: Negação, retratação e fatores associados [Characterizing children and adolescence sexual abuse disclosure: Denial, disclaimer, and associated factors]. Temas em Psicologia, 21(1), 193-202. doi: 10.9788/TP2013.1-14
https://doi.org/10.9788/TP2013.1-14...
). Abusive sexual practices can start early and only be disclosed or revealed as the child ages (Spiegel, 2003Spiegel, J. (2003). Sexual abuse of males: The SAM model of theory and practice. New York, NY: Routledge.). Concerns about the consequences of the sexual abuse (e.g., sexually transmitted diseases, pregnancy) by caregivers and health professionals might also contribute to its higher notification in the health system when compared with other forms of abuse amongst older children (Assis et al., 2012Assis, S. G., Avanci, J. Q., Pesce, R. P., Pires, T. O., & Gomes, D. L. (2012). Notificações de violência doméstica, sexual e outras violências contra crianças no Brasil [Domestic, sexual and other violences notification against children in Brazil]. Ciência & Saúde Coletiva, 17(9), 2305-2317. doi: 10.1590/S1413-81232012000900012
https://doi.org/10.1590/S1413-8123201200...
).

Moreover, sociocultural views of gender mightay also interact to shape child maltreatment. The prevalence of female victims in the sexual abuse cases can be linked to patterns of male dominance and female submission, characteristics ofthe patriarchal Brazilian society (García, 2014García, A. M. (2014). Prevention of gender-based violence in the classroom: Some observations. Procedia - Social and Behavioral Sciences, 161, 275-280. doi: 10.1016/j.sbspro.2014.12.071
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.sbspro.2014.12...
). The socially-constructed notion of male superiority and the concept of women as subservient and as a possession of men can foster sexual abuse occurrence against girls as they age (Carter, 2015Carter, J. (2015). Patriarchy and violence against women and girls. The Lancet, 385(9978), e40-e41. doi: 10.1016/S0140-6736(14)62217-0
https://doi.org/10.1016/S0140-6736(14)62...
; Sorj, 2013Sorj, B. (2013). Arenas de cuidado nas interseções entre gênero e classe social no Brasil [Ring of care in the intersection between gender and social class in Brazil]. Cadernos de Pesquisa, 43(149), 478-491. doi: 10.1590/S0100-15742013000200006
https://doi.org/10.1590/S0100-1574201300...
). Psychological violence can also be present in sexual abuse episodes, with stigmatization and deprecation being used to prevent victim’s disclosure, or to discredit their story (Spiegel, 2003Spiegel, J. (2003). Sexual abuse of males: The SAM model of theory and practice. New York, NY: Routledge.).

In all victims’ developmental stage, males tended to be more physically and psychologically abusive. This is specifically remarkable, considering that child care is a task socially attributed to female caregivers (De Antoni & Koller, 2012De Antoni, C., & Koller, S. H. (2012). Perfil da violência em famílias com história de abuso físico [Violence profile amongst families with physical abuse history]. In L. F. Habizang & S. H. Koller (Orgs.), Violência contra crianças e adolescentes (pp. 43-54). Porto Alegre, RS: Artmed.). Despite the significant prevalence of female perpetrators, more cases involving male perpetrators may have reached the health system due to their severity. Studies show that men may have a greater tendency to display violent behavior and adhere to rigid gender norms. This behavioral trend is more prominent when they do not see themselves as able to perform the social role of male or when they face situations that require practices considered to be feminine (Baugher & Gazmararian, 2015Baugher, A. R., & Gazmararian, J. A. (2015). Masculine gender role stress and violence: A literature review and future directions. Aggression and Violent Behavior, 24, 107-112. doi: 10.1016/j.avb.2015.04.002
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.avb.2015.04.00...
; Gallagher & Parrott, 2011Gallagher, K. E., & Parrott, D. J. (2011). What accounts for men’s hostile attitudes toward women? The influence of hegemonic male role norms and masculine gender role stress. Violence Against Women, 17(5), 568-583. doi: 10.1177/1077801211407296
https://doi.org/10.1177/1077801211407296...
). Men also tend not to recognize or access social support resources, as they might value notions of individuality and competition. It may lead them to be abusive towards children while performing their parental roles (De Antoni & Koller, 2012De Antoni, C., & Koller, S. H. (2012). Perfil da violência em famílias com história de abuso físico [Violence profile amongst families with physical abuse history]. In L. F. Habizang & S. H. Koller (Orgs.), Violência contra crianças e adolescentes (pp. 43-54). Porto Alegre, RS: Artmed.; Price-Wolf, 2015Price-Wolf, J. (2015). Social support, collective efficacy, and child physical abuse: Does parent gender matter? Child Maltreatment, 20(2), 125-135. doi: 10.1177/1077559514562606
https://doi.org/10.1177/1077559514562606...
). In turn, the higher prevalence of female perpetrators of neglect might be a consequence of the attribution of responsibility for household chores and childcare to women, which may lead them to neglect childrens’ needs due to work overload (De Antoni & Koller, 2012De Antoni, C., & Koller, S. H. (2012). Perfil da violência em famílias com história de abuso físico [Violence profile amongst families with physical abuse history]. In L. F. Habizang & S. H. Koller (Orgs.), Violência contra crianças e adolescentes (pp. 43-54). Porto Alegre, RS: Artmed.).

Health professionals’ responses to cases

The difficulties in identifying the consequences of child maltreatment are remarkable, resulting in a significant absence of information on the database. The attendance protocols did not specify if the health professionals should evaluate the consequences of child maltreatment through follow-ups. Moreover, no documental proof, such as a medical report, was required to fill up this section of FIN-SINAN (Ministério da Saúde, 2008Ministério da Saúde. (2008). Sistema de Informação de Agravos de Notificação - Ficha de Notificação Individual Violência Interpessoal/Autoprovocada [Notifiable Disease Information System - Individual Notification of Interpersonal/Self-inflicted Violence Form). These difficulties may have contributed to the exclusion of this section of information from the new version of FIN-SINAN (Ministério da Saúde, 2015Ministério da Saúde. (2015). Sistema de Informação de Agravos de Notificação - Ficha de Notificação Individual Violência Interpessoal/Autoprovocada [Notifiable Disease Information System - Individual Notification of Interpersonal/Self-inflicted Violence Form]. Retrieved from http://www.saude.pr.gov.br/arquivos/File/Ficha_Viol_5_1_Final_ 15_06_15.pdf
http://www.saude.pr.gov.br/arquivos/File...
).

Regarding the referrals to child protective services, the indication to the Guardianship Council (GC) prevailed. This institution is central to the provision of care for child maltreatment victims, as advocated by the Brazilian law (Law No. 8,069, 1990Lei No. 8.069. (1990, 13 de julho). Dispõe sobre o Estatuto da Criança e do Adolescente e dá outras providências [Law 8.069 (1990, July 13). Legislates over the Child and Adolescents Rights Statute and decurrent recommendations]. Retrieved from http://www.planalto.gov.br/ccivil_03/leis/L8069.htm
http://www.planalto.gov.br/ccivil_03/lei...
). Therefore, the GC would be expected to be present at all referral records. Due to the inexistence of a protocol of assistance for child victims, it was not clear which cases were previously attended by the GC and for which ones the referral would be unnecessary. The standardization of referral procedures on a national level wouldimprove care provision for the victims and enable a satisfactory analysis of its degree of effectiveness across the national territory.

Although prescribed in the Brazilian law (Law No. 12,845, 2013Lei No. 12.845. (2013, 1º de agosto). Dispõe sobre o atendimento obrigatório e integral de pessoas em situação de violência sexual [Law 12.845 (2013, August 1st). Legislates over the compulsory and comprehensive support assistance to victims of sexual violence]. Retrieved from http://www.planalto.gov.br/ccivil_03/_ato2011-2014/2013/lei/l12845.htm
http://www.planalto.gov.br/ccivil_03/_at...
), the rates of prophylaxis for cases of sexual abuse were considered low. The dynamics of this form of maltreatment show that health procedures cannot be based on the victims’ narrative once it is required that the child perceives a secure bond to report details of the abuse (Habigzang et al., 2008Habigzang, L. F., Koller, S. H., Stroeher, F. H., Hatzenberger, R., Cunha, R. C., & Ramos, M. S. (2008). Entrevista clínica com crianças e adolescentes vítimas de abuso sexual [Clinic interview with sexually abused children and adolescents]. Estudos de Psicologia (Natal), 13(3), 285-292. doi: 10.1590/S1413-294X2008000300011
https://doi.org/10.1590/S1413-294X200800...
). Health professionals must consider aspects of sexual abuse dynamics, together with other health practice guidelines, to prevent victims from receiving inadequate prophylaxis due to insufficient information. The data provided by FIN-SINAN does not clarify whether there were other reasons for the lack of performance of these procedures.

Regarding the maltreatment confirmation status, the health professionals’ classified the majority of cases as “confirmed”. As the victims aged, however, the confirmation levels decreased. This might be explained by the higher prevalence of sexual abuse in middle childhood and the difficulties to confirm this type of maltreatment (e.g., absence of physical signs; long interval between the sexual abuse and the physical examinations; Trindade et al., 2014Trindade, L. C., Linhares, S. M. G. M., Vanrell, J., Godoy, D., Martins, J. C. A., & Barbas, S. M. A. N. (2014). Sexual violence against children and vulnerability. Revista da Associação Médica Brasileira, 60(1), 70-74. doi: 10.1590/1806-9282.60.01.015
https://doi.org/10.1590/1806-9282.60.01....
). The classification of cases as “likely” can also reflect the professionals’ fear of reprimands from the victims’ family and community, as well as the absence of an institutional policy that preserves the identity of the health professional notifying the case, factors commonly reported by health professionals working in the Brazilian health system (Trindade et al., 2014Trindade, L. C., Linhares, S. M. G. M., Vanrell, J., Godoy, D., Martins, J. C. A., & Barbas, S. M. A. N. (2014). Sexual violence against children and vulnerability. Revista da Associação Médica Brasileira, 60(1), 70-74. doi: 10.1590/1806-9282.60.01.015
https://doi.org/10.1590/1806-9282.60.01....
).

The generalization of results and the discussion herein presented must be carefully considered. The data assessed was collected in the health context, which can bias the direction of the results. Child maltreatment cases that reach the health system are cases that resulted in victims’ health impairment (Malta et al., 2016Malta, D. C., Mascarenhas, M. D. M., Silva, M. M. A., Carvalho, M. G. O., Barufaldi, L. A., Avanci, J. Q., & Bernal, R. T. (2016). The occurrence of external causes in childhood in emergency care: Epidemiological aspects, Brazil, 2014. Ciência & Saúde Coletiva, 21(12), 3729-3744. doi: 10.1590/1413-812320152112.17532016
https://doi.org/10.1590/1413-81232015211...
).Therefore, they may not capture the extension of child maltreatment in society. Nevertheless, the results and discussion presented are efficient in describing specificities of child maltreatment cases attended by health professionals in Rio Grande do Sul and characterizes the health professional responses. It also discusses sociocultural aspects that might have influenced maltreatment occurrence. Attention to such aspects may assist health professionals in identifying and responding to cases in daily practice.

SINAN represents an improvement in the consolidation of epidemiological surveillance of interpersonal violence in Brazil (Assis et al., 2012Assis, S. G., Avanci, J. Q., Pesce, R. P., Pires, T. O., & Gomes, D. L. (2012). Notificações de violência doméstica, sexual e outras violências contra crianças no Brasil [Domestic, sexual and other violences notification against children in Brazil]. Ciência & Saúde Coletiva, 17(9), 2305-2317. doi: 10.1590/S1413-81232012000900012
https://doi.org/10.1590/S1413-8123201200...
). However, adjustments are needed to improve the quality of the available information. Investments have been made by public management to improve the epidemiological surveillance based on SINAN, including the improvements to FIN-SINAN between 2008 and 2015. Examples of the modifications added were identification of the violence motivation and the age of alleged perpetrators (Ministério da Saúde, 2015Ministério da Saúde. (2015). Sistema de Informação de Agravos de Notificação - Ficha de Notificação Individual Violência Interpessoal/Autoprovocada [Notifiable Disease Information System - Individual Notification of Interpersonal/Self-inflicted Violence Form]. Retrieved from http://www.saude.pr.gov.br/arquivos/File/Ficha_Viol_5_1_Final_ 15_06_15.pdf
http://www.saude.pr.gov.br/arquivos/File...
). In addition to such changes, the standardization of a referral model is suggested, which could contribute to the effective provision of healthcare and compilation of information for subsequent assessment. In a broader level, suggestions for preventing child maltreatment would involve targeting development of stable and healthy relationships between children and caregivers, as well asthe promotion of equality between genders, and changes of socio cultural patterns that instigate and tolerate maltreatment against children (WHO, 2014World Health Organization. (2014). Global status report on violence prevention 2014. Geneva, Switzerland: WHO . Retrieved from https://www.who.int/violence_injury_prevention/violence/status_report/2014/en/
https://www.who.int/violence_injury_prev...
).

Our study contributes to the understanding of child maltreatment by considering specificities of children developmental stages and cultural aspects that can interact to shape its occurrence. Its results permit to shape preventive actions and education of health professionals to improve this important epidemiological control action. A limitation of our study, is the absence of control over data collection procedures, since the report forms were completed according to the health professionals’ judgment and based on their knowledge of child maltreatment. Furthermore, we analyzed the cases identified in the health system, thus, results generalization must be done with care. No conflict of interest was identified.

References

  • Alves, M. F. A., Silva, B. O., & Silva, E. G. (2012). Abuso sexual na infância e adolescência: Perfil social e médico-assistencial no centro de referência de Belém [Sexual abuse in childhood and adolescence: Social and medical-care profile in the center of reference of Belém]. Revista Paraense de Medicina, 26(2), 1-8.
  • Assis, S. G., Avanci, J. Q., Pesce, R. P., Pires, T. O., & Gomes, D. L. (2012). Notificações de violência doméstica, sexual e outras violências contra crianças no Brasil [Domestic, sexual and other violences notification against children in Brazil]. Ciência & Saúde Coletiva, 17(9), 2305-2317. doi: 10.1590/S1413-81232012000900012
    » https://doi.org/10.1590/S1413-81232012000900012
  • Macedo, D.M., Foschiera, L. N., Bordini, T. C. P. M., Habigzang, L. F., & Koller, S. H. (2019). Revisão sistemática de estudos sobre registros de violência contra crianças e adolescentes no Brasil [Systematic review of studies on reports of violence against children and adolescents in Brazil]. Ciência & Saúde Coletiva, 24(2), 487-496. doi: 10.1590/1413-81232018242.34132016
    » https://doi.org/10.1590/1413-81232018242.34132016
  • Baía, P. A. D., Veloso, M. M. X., Magalhães, C. M. C., & Dell’Aglio, D. D. (2013). Caracterização da revelação do abuso sexual de crianças e adolescentes: Negação, retratação e fatores associados [Characterizing children and adolescence sexual abuse disclosure: Denial, disclaimer, and associated factors]. Temas em Psicologia, 21(1), 193-202. doi: 10.9788/TP2013.1-14
    » https://doi.org/10.9788/TP2013.1-14
  • Baugher, A. R., & Gazmararian, J. A. (2015). Masculine gender role stress and violence: A literature review and future directions. Aggression and Violent Behavior, 24, 107-112. doi: 10.1016/j.avb.2015.04.002
    » https://doi.org/10.1016/j.avb.2015.04.002
  • Belsky, J. (1993). Etiology of child maltreatment: A developmental-ecological analysis. Psychological Bulletin, 114(3), 413-434. doi: 10.1037/0033-2909.114.3.413
    » https://doi.org/10.1037/0033-2909.114.3.413
  • Boudreaux, M. C., & Lord, W. D. (2005). Combating child homicide: Preventive policing for the new millennium. Journal of Interpersonal Violence, 20(4), 380-387. doi: 10.1177/0886260504269569
    » https://doi.org/10.1177/0886260504269569
  • Bronfenbrenner, U. (1994). Ecological models of human development. In M. Gauvain & M. Cole (Eds.), Readings on the development of children (2nd ed., pp. 37-43). New York, NY: Freeman.
  • Carter, J. (2015). Patriarchy and violence against women and girls. The Lancet, 385(9978), e40-e41. doi: 10.1016/S0140-6736(14)62217-0
    » https://doi.org/10.1016/S0140-6736(14)62217-0
  • Cicchetti, D., & Valentino, K. (2006). An ecological-transactional perspective on child maltreatment: Failure of the average expectable environment and its influence on child development. In D. Cicchetti & D. J. Cohen (Eds.), Developmental psychopathology: Vol. 3. Risk, disorder and adaptation (2nd ed., pp. 129-201). Hoboken, NJ: John Wileys & Sons.
  • De Antoni, C., & Koller, S. H. (2012). Perfil da violência em famílias com história de abuso físico [Violence profile amongst families with physical abuse history]. In L. F. Habizang & S. H. Koller (Orgs.), Violência contra crianças e adolescentes (pp. 43-54). Porto Alegre, RS: Artmed.
  • Delfino, V., Biasoli-Alves, Z. M. M., Sagim, M. B., & Venturini, F. P. (2005). A identificação da violência doméstica e da negligência por pais de camada média e popular [Domestic violence and negligence identification by middle and populat classes parents]. Texto & Contexto Enfermagem, 14(Spe.), 38-46. doi: 10.1590/S0104-07072005000500005
    » https://doi.org/10.1590/S0104-07072005000500005
  • Donoso, M. T. V., & Ricas, J. (2009). Perspectiva dos pais sobre educação e castigo físico [Parent’s perspective on child rearing and corporal punishment]. Revista de Saúde Pública, 43(1), 78-84. doi: 10.1590/S0034-89102009000100010
    » https://doi.org/10.1590/S0034-89102009000100010
  • Gallagher, K. E., & Parrott, D. J. (2011). What accounts for men’s hostile attitudes toward women? The influence of hegemonic male role norms and masculine gender role stress. Violence Against Women, 17(5), 568-583. doi: 10.1177/1077801211407296
    » https://doi.org/10.1177/1077801211407296
  • García, A. M. (2014). Prevention of gender-based violence in the classroom: Some observations. Procedia - Social and Behavioral Sciences, 161, 275-280. doi: 10.1016/j.sbspro.2014.12.071
    » https://doi.org/10.1016/j.sbspro.2014.12.071
  • Habigzang, L. F., Koller, S. H., Stroeher, F. H., Hatzenberger, R., Cunha, R. C., & Ramos, M. S. (2008). Entrevista clínica com crianças e adolescentes vítimas de abuso sexual [Clinic interview with sexually abused children and adolescents]. Estudos de Psicologia (Natal), 13(3), 285-292. doi: 10.1590/S1413-294X2008000300011
    » https://doi.org/10.1590/S1413-294X2008000300011
  • Halim, M. L., Ruble, D., Tamis-LeMonda, C., & Shrout, P. E. (2013). Rigidity in gender-typed behaviors in early childhood: A longitudinal study of ethnic minority children. Child Development, 84(4), 1269-1284. doi: 10.1111/cdev.12057
    » https://doi.org/10.1111/cdev.12057
  • Instituto Brasileiro de Geografia e Estatística. (2011). Características étnico-raciais da população: Um estudo das categorias de classificação de cor ou raça 2008 [Ethnic-racial characteristics in the population: A study of skin color or race categories classification]. Rio de Janeiro, RJ: IBGE. Retrieved from http://biblioteca.ibge.gov.br/visualizacao/livros/liv49891.pdf
    » http://biblioteca.ibge.gov.br/visualizacao/livros/liv49891.pdf
  • Lei No. 8.069. (1990, 13 de julho). Dispõe sobre o Estatuto da Criança e do Adolescente e dá outras providências [Law 8.069 (1990, July 13). Legislates over the Child and Adolescents Rights Statute and decurrent recommendations]. Retrieved from http://www.planalto.gov.br/ccivil_03/leis/L8069.htm
    » http://www.planalto.gov.br/ccivil_03/leis/L8069.htm
  • Lei No. 12.845. (2013, 1º de agosto). Dispõe sobre o atendimento obrigatório e integral de pessoas em situação de violência sexual [Law 12.845 (2013, August 1st). Legislates over the compulsory and comprehensive support assistance to victims of sexual violence]. Retrieved from http://www.planalto.gov.br/ccivil_03/_ato2011-2014/2013/lei/l12845.htm
    » http://www.planalto.gov.br/ccivil_03/_ato2011-2014/2013/lei/l12845.htm
  • Lynch, J. (2000). Social epidemiology: Some observations about the past, present and future. Australasian Epidemiologist, 7(3), 7-15. Retrieved from https://search.informit.com.au/documentSummary;dn=433223249557305;res=IELHEA
    » https://search.informit.com.au/documentSummary;dn=433223249557305;res=IELHEA
  • Lysenko, L. J., Barker, E. D., & Jaffee, S. R. (2013). Sex differences in the relationship between harsh discipline and conduct problems. Social Development, 22(1), 197-214. doi: 10.1111/sode.12002
    » https://doi.org/10.1111/sode.12002
  • Malta, D. C., Mascarenhas, M. D. M., Silva, M. M. A., Carvalho, M. G. O., Barufaldi, L. A., Avanci, J. Q., & Bernal, R. T. (2016). The occurrence of external causes in childhood in emergency care: Epidemiological aspects, Brazil, 2014. Ciência & Saúde Coletiva, 21(12), 3729-3744. doi: 10.1590/1413-812320152112.17532016
    » https://doi.org/10.1590/1413-812320152112.17532016
  • Meier, M. H., Slutske, W. S., Heath, A. C., & Martin, N. G. (2009). The role of harsh discipline in explaining sex differences in conduct disorder: A study of opposite-sex twin pairs. Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology, 37(5), 653-664. doi: 10.1007/s10802-009-9309-1
    » https://doi.org/10.1007/s10802-009-9309-1
  • Ministério da Saúde. (2008). Sistema de Informação de Agravos de Notificação - Ficha de Notificação Individual Violência Interpessoal/Autoprovocada [Notifiable Disease Information System - Individual Notification of Interpersonal/Self-inflicted Violence Form
  • Ministério da Saúde. (2015). Sistema de Informação de Agravos de Notificação - Ficha de Notificação Individual Violência Interpessoal/Autoprovocada [Notifiable Disease Information System - Individual Notification of Interpersonal/Self-inflicted Violence Form]. Retrieved from http://www.saude.pr.gov.br/arquivos/File/Ficha_Viol_5_1_Final_ 15_06_15.pdf
    » http://www.saude.pr.gov.br/arquivos/File/Ficha_Viol_5_1_Final_ 15_06_15.pdf
  • Ministério da Saúde. (2017). Sistema de Informação de Agravos de Notificação [Notifiable Disease Information System]. Retrieved from http://portalsinan.saude.gov.br/
    » http://portalsinan.saude.gov.br/
  • Papalia, D. E., & Feldman, R. D. (2013). Desenvolvimento humano [Human development] (C. F. M. P. Vercesi, Trans., 12th ed.). Porto Alegre, RS: Artmed .
  • Price-Wolf, J. (2015). Social support, collective efficacy, and child physical abuse: Does parent gender matter? Child Maltreatment, 20(2), 125-135. doi: 10.1177/1077559514562606
    » https://doi.org/10.1177/1077559514562606
  • Rates, S. M. M., Melo, E. M., Mascarenhas, M. D. M., & Malta, D. C. (2015). Violence against children: An analysis of mandatory reporting on violence, Brazil 2011. Ciência & Saúde Coletiva, 20(3), 655-665. doi: 10.1590/1413-81232015203.15242014
    » https://doi.org/10.1590/1413-81232015203.15242014
  • Rodriguez, C. M. (2010). Parent-child aggression: Association with child abuse potential and parenting styles. Violence and Victims, 25(6), 728-741. doi: 10.1891/0886-6708.25.6.728
    » https://doi.org/10.1891/0886-6708.25.6.728
  • Sorj, B. (2013). Arenas de cuidado nas interseções entre gênero e classe social no Brasil [Ring of care in the intersection between gender and social class in Brazil]. Cadernos de Pesquisa, 43(149), 478-491. doi: 10.1590/S0100-15742013000200006
    » https://doi.org/10.1590/S0100-15742013000200006
  • Spiegel, J. (2003). Sexual abuse of males: The SAM model of theory and practice. New York, NY: Routledge.
  • Trindade, L. C., Linhares, S. M. G. M., Vanrell, J., Godoy, D., Martins, J. C. A., & Barbas, S. M. A. N. (2014). Sexual violence against children and vulnerability. Revista da Associação Médica Brasileira, 60(1), 70-74. doi: 10.1590/1806-9282.60.01.015
    » https://doi.org/10.1590/1806-9282.60.01.015
  • United Nations Children’s Fund. (2014). Hidden in plain sight: A statistical analysis of violence against children. New York, NY: UNICEF.
  • Weber, L. N. D., Viezzer, A. P., Brandenburg, O. J., & Zocche, C. R. E. (2002). Famílias que maltratam: Uma tentativa de socialização pela violência [Families that commit maltreatment: An attempt of socialization through violence]. Psico-USF, 7(2), 163-173. doi: 10.1590/S1413-82712002000200005
    » https://doi.org/10.1590/S1413-82712002000200005
  • World Health Organization, & International Society for Prevention of Child Abuse and Neglect. (2006). Preventing child maltreatment: A guide to taking action and generating evidence. Geneva, Switzerland: WHO. Retrieved from https://www.who.int/violence_injury_prevention/publications/violence/child_maltreatment/en/
    » https://www.who.int/violence_injury_prevention/publications/violence/child_maltreatment/en/
  • World Health Organization. (2014). Global status report on violence prevention 2014. Geneva, Switzerland: WHO . Retrieved from https://www.who.int/violence_injury_prevention/violence/status_report/2014/en/
    » https://www.who.int/violence_injury_prevention/violence/status_report/2014/en/

Publication Dates

  • Publication in this collection
    08 July 2020
  • Date of issue
    2020

History

  • Received
    30 Oct 2017
  • Reviewed
    11 Apr 2018
  • Reviewed
    31 May 2018
  • Accepted
    05 June 2018
Universidade de São Paulo, Faculdade de Filosofia Ciências e Letras de Ribeirão Preto, Programa de Pós-Graduação em Psicologia Av.Bandeirantes 3900 - Monte Alegre, 14040-901 Ribeirão Preto - São Paulo - Brasil, Tel.: (55 16) 3315-3829 - Ribeirão Preto - SP - Brazil
E-mail: paideia@usp.br