Predictors of Subjective Well-Being of Expatriates on Mission in Brazil

Preditores de Bem-Estar Subjetivo em Expatriados em Missão no Brasil

Predictores del Bienestar Subjetivo de Expatriados en Misión en Brasil

Abstract

Expatriation for work presents several challenges before departure, during expatriation, and on the return to the country of origin that can impact the subjective well-being of these professionals. This study evaluated sociodemographic, labor, cultural distance, and intercultural efficacy variables as possible predictors for Subjective Well-being in 238 expatriates on mission in Brazil. The instruments used were a sociodemographic and labor questionnaire, The Satisfaction with Life Scale, The Scores of Cultural Distance, and the Multicultural Personality Questionnaire. The results, analyzed via Stepwise multiple linear regression, revealed a predictor model of SWB consisting of the variables: having children, cultural empathy, social initiative, and emotional stability. The results indicate the need for interventions focusing on subjective well-being aimed at adapting expatriates in Brazil.

Keywords:
mental health; alien labor; affection; cross cultural psychology

Resumo

A expatriação por trabalho apresenta vários desafios, antes da partida, durante a expatriação e no retorno ao país de origem, que podem impactar no bem-estar subjetivo dos profissionais. Este estudo teve por objetivo avaliar as variáveis sociodemográficas, laborais, a distância cultural e a eficácia intercultural como preditoras para o bem-estar subjetivo em 238 expatriados em missão no Brasil. Os instrumentos utilizados foram um questionário sociodemográfico e laboral, a Escala de Satisfação com a Vida, os escores de Distância Cultural, a Escala de afetos positivos e negativos e o Questionário de Personalidade Multicultural. Os resultados, examinados por meio da Análise de Regressão Linear, revelaram um modelo preditor de bem-estar subjetivo constituído pelas variáveis ter filhos, empatia cultural, iniciativa social e estabilidade emocional. Os resultados, ainda, indicaram a necessidade de intervenções com foco no bem-estar subjetivo visando à adaptação dos expatriados no Brasil.

Palavras-chave:
saúde mental; trabalho estrangeiro; afeição; psicologia intercultural

Resumen

La expatriación por trabajo presenta varios desafíos antes de la salida, durante la expatriación y en el regreso al país de origen que pueden impactar en el bienestar subjetivo de estos profesionales. Este estudio tuvo como objetivo evaluar variables sociodemográficas y laborales, distancia cultural y efectividad intercultural como predictores de bienestar subjetivo en 238 expatriados en misión en Brasil. Los instrumentos utilizados fueron un cuestionario sociodemográfico y laboral, la Escala de Satisfacción con la Vida, los puntajes de Distancia Cultural, la Escala de Afectos Positivos y Negativos y el Cuestionario de Personalidad Multicultural. Los resultados se evaluaron desde un Análisis de Regresión Lineal y revelaron un modelo predictivo del bienestar subjetivo constituido por las variables tener hijos, empatía cultural, iniciativa social y estabilidad emocional. Los resultados indican la necesidad de intervenciones enfocadas en el bienestar subjetivo dirigidas a la adaptación de los expatriados en Brasil.

Palabras clave:
salud mental; trabajo extranjero; afección; psicología intercultural

Expatriation and repatriation have concerned multinational companies and several scholars and professionals have dedicated themselves to identify the factors that influence the success of international missions (Shen & Kim, 2022; Wan, 2019). Multinational companies send employees on international missions to maintain their global operations, which are called expatriates and can be called up by the company for the international trade mission or volunteer for the mission (Caligiuri & Colakoglu, 2007).

Expatriation are usually a response to problems such as the lack of local professionals with the necessary technical knowledge, to implement new projects, to transfer technology, and to have a representative of the headquarters in the branch (Tsegaye, Su, & Malik, 2019). This situation has arisen due to the intensification of internationalization that many companies have gone through, with a focus on the impact of cultural diversity (Moraes, Moreira, Machado, & Guimarães, 2022).

Companies that have expatriates in their workforce experience problems such as professionals giving up, low productivity at work, and early return to home (Moraes et al., 2022). Work-related expatriation presents various challenges before departure, during the expatriation, and upon returning to the home country. Therefore, managing cultural differences is an essential skill for managers and professionals dealing with expatriates (Morin & Talbot, 2021).

Expatriates face many difficulties when they arrive in a new country. The professionals begin working in a new institution with unfamiliar work routines and people. They must deal with a new culture, meet expectations, and be effective at work in a country with new rules and norms (Van der Zee & Oudenhoven, 2000). Adaptation involves personal, family, cultural, and social life (Maciel & Silva, 2019). These issues can impact Subjective Well-Being (SWB) and hinder adaptation, reduce professional performance, and lead to thoughts of abandoning the mission (Biswas, Mäkelä, & Andresen, 2022).

Research on Subjective Well-Being (SWB) seek to explain how people feel and how they evaluate their life experiences. SWB is the result of interactions among the sociodemographic factors, the personality traits, the society in which the person is inserted, the social equality, and the access to education (Keyes, Shmotkin, & Ryff, 2002).

The SWB is structured in three dimensions: life satisfaction, positive affects, and negative affects (Diener, 1985). Life satisfaction is a self-evaluation process in which an individual reflect about their quality of life, based on personal criteria. It is a conscious mechanism whose judgment criteria are up to the individual. Considering that quality of life evaluates how and why people assess their lives as good or happy, it is the cognitive measure of SWB (Diener, Emmons, Larsen, & Griffin, 1985). Positive affects are pleasant involvement states and indicate how enthusiastic, active, and alert a person feels. Negative affect refers to states of sadness, inertia, anguish, and aversive moods such as anger, fear, and anxiety (Diener, 1985).

Researchers, policymakers, and the general public agree about the importance of SWB as an indicator of individual and social well-being (Diego-Rosell, Tortora, & Bird, 2018). Subjective well-being is an important value for people’s lives and can be considered an index of social progress (Voukelatou et al., 2021). Its importance is demonstrated by the significant growth in the last 20 years of publications reporting on the many variables related to SWB (Diego-Rosell et al., 2018).

As studies progressed, the influence of culture on well-being was perceived, increasing the interest in cross-cultural studies (Lucas & Diener, 2021). These authors also argue that it is crucial to acknowledge the influence of culture on personality, as well as the impact of personality on culture, since this dynamic interaction is essential to understand SWB.

Despite the presence of universal predictors for SWB - such as self-esteem, optimism, income, democratic governance, human rights, longevity, financial, family, and work satisfaction -, SWB predictors differ across cultures (Diener, 2021). According to the authors, the differences are related to cultural aspects regarding congruence, i.e., how much individuals fit into the dominant culture.

A high Subjective well-being is the result of many positive and few negative experiences and satisfaction with life in general. Diener and Tov (2012) argue that people who experience more positive emotions are more likely to earn higher salaries, receive better job evaluations, and be workers who help others. These subjects are more likely to believe in the communities they are involved. They tend to be more sociable and friendly and enjoy being liked by others.

Personal, group, social, and organizational factors play an important role in expatriates’ perception of SWB, although at different degrees (Merchant, Rao-Nicholson, & Iheikhena, 2023). According to these authors, social factors are the most influential, followed by personal and organizational influences, and to a lesser extent by group factors, which might conform a hierarchy regarding all these factors impact on the individuals.

The expatriate, in turn, must acquire the ability to be effective in this new work environment by adapting to it to generate a higher SWB for themselves. (Van der Zee & Oudenhouven, 2000). The adaptation of the expatriate is crucial for the success of the international mission, and multicultural effectiveness plays an important role in this adaptation (Chen & Chang, 2016).

Multicultural skills and knowledge are essential for the effectiveness of expatriates in the new country. Socio-emotional competencies are fundamental for these workers to participate socially and professionally in an effective manner (Wan, 2019). Van der Zee and Oudenhoven (2000) define seven dimensions for multicultural effectiveness: (1). Cultural empathy: ability to empathize with the feelings, thoughts, and behaviors of members of different cultures; (2). Open-mindedness: openness to people outside of their group, with different norms and values; (3). Emotional stability: ability to deal with frustrations, divergent political systems, social alienation, financial problems, and interpersonal conflicts; (4). Orientation to Action: seek results, take initiatives, and solve problems, knowing the expected results; (5). Adventurousness/Curiosity: to not be frightened by new and unexpected situations. Willingness to change, accept a life with more challenges and adventures and enjoy experiencing different cultures; (6). Flexibility: easily changing strategies when necessary, as the way to deal with unforeseen events varies from culture to culture; (7). Extraversion: establish and maintain contacts with people in the new culture and make friends between locals.

Living conditions in other countries can influence the intercultural adjustment of the expatriate and the duration of the mission, which can even lead to early repatriation (Moraes et al., 2022). Understanding the cultural distance between countries can help in the strategy of improving the effectiveness of the collaborator in the mission (Moreira & Ogasavara, 2018). Cross-cultural adjustment of expatriates is associated with better mental health (Gai, Brough, & Gardiner, 2022).

Moreira and Ogasavara (2018) defend the urgency in studying cultural distance, mainly because of its importance in the adaptation and adjustment of expatriates. Cultural distance refers to the degree of cultural differences among countries; and for this research, we applied the methods by Hofstede (1980) and Minkov and Hofstede (2011). Hofstede (1980) conducted a comparative study of work-related values at International Business Machines (IBM), an American company focused on Informatics, initially in 40 countries and later in 53 countries. In 2010, the replicated research of IBM’s study in different populations was expanded to 76 countries (Hofstede, Hofstede, & Minkov, 2010), and currently there are already 103 participating countries (Hofstede, 2017).

Based on the survey outcomes, a theoretical model was established regarding values and cultural differences. The theory establishes that cultural differences in work-related values, beliefs, norms, and self-descriptions, as well as social variables, can be explained by six cultural dimensions (Hofstede, 1980; Hofstede et al., 2010; Sent & Kroese, 2022): (1). Power Distance: the extent to which less powerful members of organizations accept that power is unevenly distributed; (2). Uncertainty Avoidance: the extent to which people feel threatened by ambiguous situations and have created beliefs to avoid them; (3). Individualism versus Collectivism: individualism is defined as the situation in which people should look out for themselves and their families only. Collectivism is defined as the situation in which people belong to the group and must protect each other in exchange for loyalty; (4). Masculinity versus Femininity: Masculinity is the situation in which the dominant values are success, money, and material things. Femininity is the situation in which the dominant values are caring about others and quality of life; (5). Long Term versus Short Term Orientation: Short Term refers to the extent to which society prefers to maintain norms and traditions while watching changes of society with suspicion. In turn, Long Term refers to the extent to which society encourages and makes efforts to maintain a modern education as a way to prepare for the future; (6). Indulgence versus Restraint: refers to the extent to which society tries to control the desires and impulses of its members. In Indulgence, society tends to allow for the free and immediate gratification of human desires, as well as to enjoy life and have fun. In Restraint, society has the conviction that such gratification must be controlled and regulated by rigid norms.

Hofstede’s work generated the first major collection of data on work-related values across cultures (Minkov & Hofstede, 2011). This theoretical model has leveraged the development of intercultural research and its theory is one of the most widely used worldwide in intercultural studies (Sent & Kroese, 2022). This model argues that its dimensions reflect stable national differences because cultures evolve in the same direction (Minkov & Hofstede, 2011).

The SWB is closely linked to the individuals’ culture and how their life is structured, as a result of conditions that reflect the individuals’ cultural values (Diener et al., 2018). The authors also state that Subjective well-being tends to be higher in individualistic cultures than in collectivistic cultures since individuals from individualistic cultures pursue their own goals rather than common goals.

Although most people across nations report relatively high SWB, there are distinct differences in SWB between nations that can be explained, to some extent, by the influence of culture (Diener & Tov, 2012). Diener et al. (2018) identified that cultural characteristics of countries had a greater influence in explaining SWB than individual characteristics. Cultural patterns influence how to evaluate aspects of life that, in turn, determine SWB (Voukelatou et al., 2021).

Considering the limited knowledge about the variables that impact the SWB of expatriates on mission in Brazil, this research aimed to contribute to the theory of Multicultural Psychology and international people management, thus allowing the development of actions aiming at preventing occupational health issues. Based on these theoretical assumptions, this study aimed to assess sociodemographic, labor cultural distance and intercultural effectiveness variables as predictors of subjective well-being among expatriates on mission in Brazil. Considering the literature review, the study worked with the following hypothesis: positive SWB would be predicted by declaring oneself as female, having a partner, having children, living with family, having higher monthly income, longer professional experience, longer expatriation time in Brazil, having worked in some international mission, lower cultural distance, and higher multicultural effectiveness.

Methods

Participants

This exploratory, observational, analytical, and cross-sectional study included 238 expatriates on mission in Brazil. The inclusion criteria for this study were expatriates with fluent English skills (reading, writing, speaking, and listening) and who had not participated in intercultural training.

Most participants were women (55.5%), married or in a relationship (60%), lived with their partner in Brazil (60%), did not have children (65%), and had a monthly income U$ 5,001.00-U$ 10,000.00.Mean age of the participants was 39.3 years old (SD = 10.9); the mean length of residence in Brazil was 25.9 months (SD = 18.4); and the mean length of employment was 5.9 years (SD = 4.1). The majority participated for the first time in an international mission (53.4%). The participants came from the following countries: South Africa, Germany, Angola, Argentina, Australia, Austria, Belgium, Canada, Chile, China, Colombia, Costa Rica, Croatia, Denmark, Egypt, the United Arab Emirates, Ecuador, Spain, the United States, France, Greece, Haiti, India, England, Iran, Ireland, Israel, Italy, Jamaica, Japan, Mexico, Mozambique, Norway, New Zealand, the Netherlands, Peru, Poland, Portugal, the Dominican Republic, the United Kingdom, Russia, Senegal, Sweden, Switzerland, Uruguay, and Venezuela.

Instruments

Five self-administered instruments were used for data collection in their original English version:

Sociodemographic data questionnaire: (gender, age, marital status, children, living with family) and labor-related data (monthly income, length of professional experience, length of expatriation in Brazil, previous experience as an expatriate);

Scores of Cultural Distance (Hofstede et al., 2010): scores resulting from Hofstede’s research updated in 2017, available from https://www.hofstede-insights.com, which assess cultural differences among countries. Brazil scores were used for comparison with the scores of other countries to evaluate whether there is cultural distance or not in relation to the expatriate’s country of origin with Brazil. Thus, expatriates were categorized as “Culturally Distant” = 1 and “Not Culturally Distant” = 0;

Scale of Positive and Negative Experience (SPANE) (Diener et al., 2009) is a two-dimensional scale that assesses a wide range of positive and negative experiences, including feelings that may be labeled differently in each culture. It consists of 12 items, with six items assessing positive experiences (SPANE-P/Positive Feelings) (alpha = 0.87; in the present study, alpha = 0.83). Example: Report how much you experienced each of the following feelings, using the scale below: Positive; Good; Pleasant; Happy; Joyful; Contented), and six items assess negative experiences (SPANE-N/Negative feelings) (alpha = 0.81; in this study, alpha = 0.78); Example: Report how much you experienced each of the following feelings, using the scale below: Negative; Bad; Unpleasant; Sad; Afraid: Angry). The score is a 5-point frequency scale (1 = Never or Very Rarely to 5 = Always or Very Often);

Satisfaction with Life Scale (Diener et al., 1985). The SWLS scale is designed to measure global cognitive-judgemental aspects and life satisfaction. Consisting of five items and alpha = 0.8. Example: In most ways my life is close to my ideal. The answers follow a Likert scale from 1 to 7 points (1 = Strongly disagree to 7 = Strongly agree);

Multicultural Personality Questionnaire (MPQ) (Van der Zee & Oudenhoven, 2000) that assesses the degree of multicultural effectiveness. It consists of 91 items distributed in five dimensions: (1). Cultural Empathy (alpha = 0.70; in this study alpha = 0.90, example: one who understands other people’s feelings); 18 items that assess one’s ability to identify with feelings, thoughts, and behaviors of individuals from different cultures. (2). Open-mindedness (alpha = 0.72; in this study alpha = 0.85; example: one who shows interest in other cultures); 17 items that assess the individual’s ability to be open-minded and have no prejudice when encountering people from outside their own culture who may have different values and norms. (3). Social Initiative (alpha = 0.70; in this study alpha = 0.89; example: One who takes initiatives); 17 items that evince the individual’s tendency to actively approach social situations and take initiative. (4). Emotional Stability (alpha = 0.70; in this study, alpha = 0.76; example: One who is nervous): 20 items that assess the degree to which people tend to remain calm in stressful situations. (5). Flexibility (alpha = 0.70; in this study alpha = 0.86; example: one who likes low-comfort holidays): 18 items that assess the person’s ability to adjust their behavior to new and unknown situations. The answers follow a scale of 1 to 5 points (1 = Totally not applicable to 5 = Totally applicable).

Procedures

Data collection. The data was collected via an online platform, using the researcher’s network contacts, companies (email), and social networks (Facebook, LinkedIn, WhatsApp). To recruit expatriates, the snowball recruitment technique was used, by which the participants themselves are invited to pass on the invitation to other respondents.

Participants were given a link to respond to the survey. It was explained that it was a voluntary, anonymous, and confidential survey. Access to the research occurred only after reading and accepting an informed consent form.

Data analysis. Data were analyzed using the Statistical Package for the Social Sciences (SPSS) program, version 20.0. To evaluate the relationship between dependent and independent variables, Multiple Linear Regression was used, in which variables associated in the bivariate analysis (Pearson’s Correlation) with p < 0.20 with the outcome were included. The effect size was obtained by the standardized regression coefficients calculated in the final model.

Ethical Considerations

To comply with ethical standards in health research -Resolution No. 466/2012 of the Brazilian Ministry of Health that addresses human subjects, this research was submitted to the Research Ethics Committee. The study was approved by the Research Ethics Committee of the Universidade do Vale do Rio dos Sinos under the CAAE No.: 86788218.4.0000.5344.

Results

The assumptions for the tested Linear Regression Analysis identified acceptable values according to Marôco (2007). No multicollinearity was verified, as the Variance Inflation Factor (VIF) values were below four (1.02 - 3.7) and the tolerance values were below one (0.27 - 0.98). The analysis of the Durbin-Watson coefficient identified values close to two (1.76 - 2.32), thus indicating the independence of the distribution and the non-correlation of residuals. The Cook distance showed mean from 0.004 to 0.005 in the models, which is below one, indicating that there were no outlier predictors and a good fit of the models. The scales showed good reliability indices. The SPANE-N presented alpha = 0.78; SPANE-P presented alpha = 0.86; SWLS presented alpha = 0.89; and MPQ presented alpha = 0.95.

Table 1 shows the results obtained via multiple linear regression, that revealed a predictive model of SWB for the SPANE-P (Positive Feelings) dimension, consisting of the variables: having children and the dimension of intercultural efficacy of greater emotional stability, which, together, explained 27% of the dimension. Regarding SPANE-N (Negative Feelings) dimension, the set of variables explained 22% of the variability. As predictive models for this dimension, we found: Social Initiative, Intercultural Effectiveness, and Emotional Stability. The higher the dimension of Social Initiative and Emotional Stability, the lower the negative feelings. Regarding the Satisfaction with Life Scale (SWLS), it was found that the higher the Social Initiative, the higher the satisfaction with life, with this variable explaining 21% of the variability.

Table 1
Stepwise multiple linear regression analysis for SWB (n= 239)

Characteristic	SPANE-P			SPANE-N			SWLS
	B (95%CI)	p	β	B (95%CI)	p	β	B (95%CI)	p	β
Gender (a)				−1.2 (−2.4/0.1)	0.05	−0.12	1.6 (−0.6/3.7)	0.16	0.08
Marital status (b)	1.0 (−0.5/2.5)	0.18	0.08	0.2 (−1.9/2.2)	0.88	0.01	0.6 (−0.1/1.2)	0.10	0.10
Having Children (c)	0.5 (0.1/1.0)	0.02	0.14				−1.0 (−2.2/0.3)	0.13	−0.09
Culturally distant (c)	−0.7 (−1.5/0.2)	0.11	−0.09
First international mission (c)				−1.0 (−2.2/0.1)	0.08	−0.10	1.8 (−0.2/3.8)	0.08	0.19
Cultural Empathy	1.6 (0.3/3.0)	0.02	0.25				−1.1 (−3.4/1.1)	0.32	−0.11
Open-mindedness	−0.8 (−2.3/0.7)	0.32	−0.11				−0.3 (−1.6/1.0)	0.65	−0.04
Social Initiative	0.2 (−0.7/1.1)	0.70	0.03	1.3 (0.1/2.4)	0.03	−0.16	5.4 (3.8/7.0)	<0.00	0.49
Emotional Stability	3.3 (2.2/4.3)	<0.00	0.43	−4.6 (−0.6/3.1)	<0.00	−0.45	−1.1 (−2.4/0.2)	0.10	−0.13
Flexibility	−0.2 (−1.1/0.6)	0.58	−0.04	−1.1 (−2.2/0.1)	0.06	−0.14	1.6 (−0.6/3.7)	0.16	0.08
R2	0.27			0.22			0.21

• Note: (a) 0 = Men, 1 = Women; (b) 0 = Married, 1 = Single/Divorced; (c) 0 = No, 1 = Yes.

The results revealed effect sizes ranging from medium (R² = 0.21) to high (R² = 0.27), according to the parameters recommended by Marôco (2007), which indicates a medium effect for values of R² from 0.10 to 0.25 and high for values from 0.26 to 0.50. In this sense, the identified relationships would possibly also be present in the target population.

Discussion

This study aimed to assess sociodemographic, work-related, cultural distance, and intercultural efficacy variables as potential predictors for Subjective Well-Being (SWB) (SPANE-N, SPANE-P, and SWLS) among expatriates on assignment in Brazil. To this end, the results were discussed according to each dimension of SWB.

For the SPANE-P (Positive Feelings) dimension, having children and higher indices of emotional stability impacted this dimension. Therefore, it was possible to hypothesize that expatriates with children may have already experienced and managed stressors from an important life transition phase: parenthood. In this process, parents need to deal with parental functions such as authority, negotiation, and conflict management, evolving from the experiential context of their own family of origin to the new one being formed. The formation of family identity occurs via advances and setbacks in responding to difficulties in a continuous learning process, which requires intense personal mobilization to deal with frustrations, enhancing other forms of maturity and integration of knowledge and emotions (Sousa, 2006).

Under this perspective, one can think that this process of re-elaboration and learning at parenthood seem to be useful and possibly transposed by the expatriate in the process of insertion into a new context. This means that individuals who have greater responsibilities with their children make more effort to adjust to the new country’s environment (Dang, Rammal, & Michailova, 2022). Another possibility is that children act as a psychosocial support network that favors positive feelings.

Regarding Emotional Stability, considered the ability to remain emotionally stable when dealing with pressure, it is assumed that emotional management leads to better outcomes and, consequently, more positive feelings. The result confirms the findings of Zanini, Pais-Ribeiro, and Fernandes (2021), who also found a correlation between emotional stability and positive affect. Workers with higher emotional stability tend to filter pressure better and perceive work difficulties as opportunities (Kundi, Sardar, & Badar, 2021). It can be assumed that emotionally stable expatriates can better manage their reactions to stressors and productively deal with them, which favors their process of adaptation to the culture of the new country.

Regarding SPANE-N (Negative Feelings) dimension, it was verified that, as Social Initiative and Emotional Stability increase, negative feelings decrease. This result is in line with a study that identified a positive relationship between SWB and the individual’s Social Initiative (Feng & Zhang, 2021). A person with a high score in Social Initiative makes friends more easily, has a lot of initiative, and instigates plans and activities. By favoring the management of stressors, emotional stability, reduces negative feelings.

Regarding SWLS, it was found that the higher the Social Initiative, the higher the satisfaction with life. This result confirms the findings of Sousa and Gonçalves (2017), who concluded that, in the context of Multicultural Personality, this dimension indicates the ability to initiate and to establish new social relationships, as well as a tendency to seek and explore new situations, approaching them as challenges. Additionally, individuals with this dimension are able to easily establish and maintain contacts. In this sense, one can think that participants, by showing themselves to be more open to new contacts, integrate themselves into the new context more easily, and consequently, have a positive impact on their satisfaction with life and with SWB.

The results obtained in this study identified a predictive model for SWB composed of the sociodemographic variable of having children and the variables related to multicultural effectiveness, in its dimensions of Emotional Stability and Social Initiative. As strengths of this study, the use of original tools in English stands out, as the expatriates come from various parts of the world. The sample size was sufficient to reveal good effect size indices for the analysis, and, therefore, the results can be identified in the population of expatriates working in Brazil; as well as in the use of consistent theoretical constructs and models widely used in investigation studies.

There are some limitations in this study that should be considered when interpreting its results, such as the use of self-report measures, which are influenced by socially desirable responses; the use of a non-probabilistic sample type, which does not allow for generalization of its results; and the lack of control for the municipality/region variable, given that Brazil has important cultural differences according to the region. In this sense, we suggest that new studies should be carried out with stratification by region and inclusion of other variables such as motivational aspects, work characteristics, and organizational characteristics to increase the predictive power of subjective well-being in this population. Longitudinal studies would also be important to verify the stability of the predictive model, as well as qualitative studies to understand how the adaptation process develops, possible stressors, coping strategies, and implications for SWB in the context of expatriation.

The study contributed to the construction of an explanatory model for SWB specifically in expatriates working in Brazil and to the development of strategies that can be implemented by companies, as well as for personal planning by the expatriates themselves. As implications for practice, it is possible to consider actions for the human resource management of multinational companies that have expatriates in their workforce, specifically intercultural training strategies focused on the dimensions of Social Initiative and Emotional Stability. These actions are justified since high levels of SWB are associated with better financial outcomes, greater job satisfaction, better health, high-quality interpersonal relationships, and increased creativity (Shen & Kim, 2022).

References

• Biswas, T., Mäkelä, L., & Andresen, M. (2022). Work and non-work-related antecedents of expatriates’ well-being: A meta-analysis. Human Resource Management Review, 32(3), 100889. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.hrmr.2021.100889
  » https://doi.org/10.1016/j.hrmr.2021.100889
• Caligiuri, P. M., & Colakoglu, S. (2007). A strategic contingency approach to expatriate assignment management. Human Resource Management Journal, 17(4), 393-410. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1748-8583.2007.00052.x
  » https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1748-8583.2007.00052.x
• Chen, H. M., & Chang, C. C. (2016). Contingent expatriate training strategies with examples of Taiwan MNEs. Journal of Human Resource and Sustainability Studies, 4(1), 1-14. https://doi.org/10.4236/jhrss.2016.41001
  » https://doi.org/10.4236/jhrss.2016.41001
• Dang, Q. T., Rammal, H. G., & Michailova, S. (2022). Expatriates’ families: A systematic literature review and research agenda. Human Resource Management Review , 32(4), 100877. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.hrmr.2021.100877
  » https://doi.org/10.1016/j.hrmr.2021.100877
• Diego-Rosell, P., Tortora, R., & Bird, J. (2018). International determinants of subjective well-being: Living in a subjectively material world. Journal of Happiness Studies, 19(1), 123-143. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10902-016-9812-3
  » https://doi.org/10.1007/s10902-016-9812-3
• Diener, E. (2021). Subjective well-being in cross-cultural perspective. In H. Grad, A. Blanco, & J. Georgas (Eds.), Key issues in cross-cultural psychology (pp. 319-330). Garland Science.
• Diener, E., & Tov, W. (2012). National accounts of well-being. In C. K. Land, A. C. Michalos, & M. J. Sirgy (Eds.), Handbook of social indicators and quality of life research (pp. 137-157). Springer.
• Diener, E., Emmons, R. A., Larsen, R. J., & Griffin, S. (1985). The satisfaction with life scale. Journal of Personality Assessment, 49(1), 71-75. https://doi.org/10.1207/s15327752jpa4901_13
  » https://doi.org/10.1207/s15327752jpa4901_13
• Feng, L., & Zhang, L. (2021). Prosocial tendencies and subjective well-being: The mediating role of basic psychological needs satisfaction. Social Behavior and Personality, 49(5), e9986. https://doi.org/10.2224/sbp.9986
  » https://doi.org/10.2224/sbp.9986
• Gai, S., Brough, P., & Gardiner, E. (2022). Psychological adjustment and post-arrival cross-cultural training for better expatriation. In P. Brough, E. Gardiner, & K. Daniels (Eds.), Handbook on management and employment practices (pp. 827-853). Springer.
• Hofstede, G. (1980). Culture’s consequences: International differences in work-relates values. Sage.
• Hofstede, G. (2017). Hofstede’s insights. http://www.hofstede-insights.com
  » http://www.hofstede-insights.com
• Hofstede, G., Hofstede, G. J., & Minkov, M. (2010). Cultures and organizations: Software of the mind: Intercultural cooperation and its importance for survival (3rd ed.). McGraw-Hill.
• Keyes, C. L., Shmotkin, D., & Ryff, C. D. (2002). Optimizing well-being: The empirical encounter of two traditions. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 82(6), 1007-1022. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.82.6.1007
  » https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.82.6.1007
• Kundi, Y. M., Sardar, S., & Badar, K. (2022). Linking performance pressure to employee work engagement: The moderating role of emotional stability. Personnel Review, 51(3), 841-860. https://doi.org/10.1108/pr-05-2020-0313
  » https://doi.org/10.1108/pr-05-2020-0313
• Lucas, R. E., & Diener, E. (2021). Personality and subjective well-being. In O. P. John & R. W. Robins (Eds.), Handbook of personality: Theory and research (4th ed., pp. 724-742). Guilford.
• Maciel, M. S. D., & Silva, A. P. F. (2019). Aspectos que influenciam o processo de adaptação de expatriados: Um estudo qualitativo [Aspects that influence the process of adaptation of expatriates: A qualitative study]. Brazilian Journal of Business, 1(2), 393-420. https://brazilianjournals.com/ojs/index.php/BJB/article/view/2396/2418
  » https://brazilianjournals.com/ojs/index.php/BJB/article/view/2396/2418
• Marôco, J. (2007). Análise estatística com utilização do SPSS [Statistical analysis using SPSS] (3rd ed.). Edições Sílabo.
• Merchant, H., Rao-Nicholson, R., & Iheikhena, E. G. (2023). A multi-dimensional analysis of the subjective well-being of self-initiated expatriates: The case of Nigerian expatriates in Germany. Thunderbird International Business Review, 65(1), 117-130. https://doi.org/10.1002/tie.22280
  » https://doi.org/10.1002/tie.22280
• Minkov, M., & Hofstede, G. (2011). The evolution of Hofstede’s doctrine. Cross Cultural Management: An International Journal, 18(1), 10-20. https://doi.org/10.1108/13527601111104269
  » https://doi.org/10.1108/13527601111104269
• Moraes, M. R., Moreira, M. Z., Machado, D. Q., & Guimarães, D. B. (2022). A perspectiva dos expatriados sobre aspectos do ambiente institucional que influenciam suas condições de vida nos países hospedeiros [Expatriates’ perspective on aspects of the institutional environment that influence their living conditions in host countries]. Internext: Revista Eletrônica de Negócios Internacionais, 17(1), 64-80. https://doi.org/10.18568/internext.v17i1.631
  » https://doi.org/10.18568/internext.v17i1.631
• Moreira, M. Z., & Ogasavara, M. H. (2018). Distância cultural e expatriação japonesa na América Latina [Cultural distance and Japanese expatriation in Latin America]. Gestão & Regionalidade, 34(101), 91-106. https://doi.org/10.13037/gr.vol34n101.3843
  » https://doi.org/10.13037/gr.vol34n101.3843
• Morin, G., & Talbot, D. (2021). Cultural intelligence of expatriate workers: A systematic review. Management Review Quarterly. Advance online publication. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11301-021-00245-6
  » https://doi.org/10.1007/s11301-021-00245-6
• Sent, E.-M., & Kroese, A. L. J. (2022). Commemorating Geert Hofstede, a pioneer in the study of culture and institutions. Journal of Institutional Economics, 18, 15-27. https://doi.org/10.1017/S174413742000051X
  » https://doi.org/10.1017/S174413742000051X
• Shen, Y., & Kim, N. (2022). Successful expatriation and repatriation for both employers and assignees: A developmental relationship perspective. In R. Ghosh & H. M. Hutchins (Eds.), HRD perspectives on developmental relationships: Connecting and relating at work (pp. 335-365). Palgrave Macmillan.
• Sousa, C., & Gonçalves, G. (2017). Expatriates and non-expatriates: Effects of cultural intelligence and multicultural personality on passion for work and satisfaction with life. Psychological Thought, 10(1), 90-108. https://doi.org/10.5964/psyct.v10i1.197
  » https://doi.org/10.5964/psyct.v10i1.197
• Sousa, J. E. P. (2006). As famílias como projectos de vida: O desenvolvimento de competências resilientes na conjugalidade e na parentalidade [Families as life projects: The development of resilient skills in conjugality and parenting]. Saber (e) Educar, 11, 41-47. https://core.ac.uk/download/pdf/62496170.pdf
  » https://core.ac.uk/download/pdf/62496170.pdf
• Tsegaye, W. K., Su, Q., & Malik, M. (2019). Expatriate cultural values alignment: The mediating effect of cross-cultural adjustment level on innovative behavior. Creativity and Innovation Management, 28(2), 218-229. https://doi.org/10.1111/caim.12308
  » https://doi.org/10.1111/caim.12308
• Van der Zee, K. I., & Oudenhoven, J. P. (2000). The multicultural personality questionnaire: A multidimensional instrument of multicultural effectiveness. European Journal of Personality, 14(4), 291-309. https://doi.org/10.1002/1099-0984(200007/08)14:4<291::AID-PER377>3.0.CO;2-6
  » https://doi.org/10.1002/1099-0984(200007/08)14:4<291::AID-PER377>3.0.CO;2-6
• Voukelatou, V., Gabrielli, L., Miliou, I., Cresci, S., Sharma, R., Tesconi, M., & Pappalardo, L. (2021). Measuring objective and subjective well-being: Dimensions and data sources. International Journal of Data Science and Analytics, 11, 279-309. https://doi.org/10.1007/s41060-020-00224-2
  » https://doi.org/10.1007/s41060-020-00224-2
• Wan, H. L. (2019). Global human resources: A key to mission accomplishment. Journal of Global Mobility, 7(1), 5-26. https://doi.org/10.1108/JGM-01-2018-0007
  » https://doi.org/10.1108/JGM-01-2018-0007
• Zanini, D., Pais-Ribeiro, J. L., & Fernandes, I. (2021). Psicologia positiva e saúde: Desenvolvimento e intervençõeS [Positive psychology and health: Development and interventions]. Psicologia, Saúde & Doenças, 22(1), 3-13. https://doi.org/10.15309/21psd220102
  » https://doi.org/10.15309/21psd220102

Edited by

Associate editor: Vanessa Barbosa Romera Leme

Publication Dates

• Publication in this collection
  04 Dec 2023
• Date of issue
  2023

History

• Received
  27 July 2022
• Reviewed
  03 Oct 2022
• Accepted
  10 Oct 2022