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Characterization of potential CO2 emissions in agricultural areas using magnetic susceptibility

ABSTRACT

Soil CO2 emissions (fCO2) in agricultural areas have been widely studied in global climate change research, but its characterization and quantification are restricted to small areas. Because spatial and time variability affect emissions, tools need to be developed to predict fCO2 for large areas. This study aimed to investigate soil magnetic susceptibility (MS) and its correlation with fCO2 in an agricultural environment. The experiment was carried out on a Typic Eutrudox located in Guariba-SP, Brazil. Results showed that there was negative spatial correlation between fCO2 and the magnetic susceptibility of Air Dried Soil (MSADS) up to 34.3 m distant. However, the fCO2 had no significant correlation with MSADS, magnetic susceptibility of sand (MSSAND) nor clay (MSCLAY). However, MSADS could be a supplemental mean of identifying regions of high fCO2 potential over large areas.

magnetism; soil respiration; spatial variability; geostatistics

Introduction

Soil CO2 emissions (fCO2) are dependent on soil carbon stock (Scharlemann et al., 2014Scharlemann, J.P.W.; Tanner, E.V.J.; Hiedererd, R.; Kapos, V. 2014. Global soil carbon: understanding and managing the largest terrestrial carbon pool. Carbon Management 5: 81-91.) which can be easily increased or decreased by the adoption of different agricultural practices (Boeckx et al., 2011Boeckx, P.; Nieuland, K.V.; Cleemput, O.V. 2011. Short-term effect of tillage intensity on N2O and CO2 emissions. Agronomy for Sustainable Development 31: 453-461.). Consequently, spatial and temporal variability for fCO2 are high, which complicates efforts to monitor them. The fCO2 is controlled by soil CO2 production and transportation to the atmosphere (Fang and Moncrieff, 1999Fang, C.; Moncrieff, J.B. 1999. A model for soil CO2 production and transport. I. Model development. Agricultural and Forest Meteorology 95: 225-236.), processes which are affected by factors that determine spatial (physical, chemical, mineralogical and microbiological characteristics of soil) (Saiz et al., 2006Saiz, G.; Green, C.; Butterbach-Bahl, K.; Kiese, R.; Avitabile, V.; Farrell, E.P. 2006. Seasonal and spatial variability of soil respiration in four Sitka spruce stands. Plant and Soil 287: 161-176.; Allaire et al., 2012Allaire, S.E.; Lange, S.F.; Lafond, J.A.; Pelletier, B.; Cambouris, A.N.; Dutilleul, P. 2012. Multiscale spatial variability of CO2 emissions and correlations with physico-chemical soil properties. Geoderma 170: 251-260.) and temporal variation in fCO2. Time variability is mainly influenced by temperature and soil moisture, and their corresponding impact on microbial processes, or their interaction (Yuste et al., 2007Yuste, J.C.; Baldocchi, W.D.D.; Gershenson, A.; Goldstein, A.; Misson, L.; Wong, S. 2007. Microbial soil respiration and its dependency on carbon inputs, soil temperature and moisture. Global Change Biology 13: 2018-2035.). Since soil characteristics that influence fCO2 vary across the landscape, strategies to map and identify locations with different emission potentials are needed. A number of authors have explored emission models for different locations focusing on topographic features (Barrios et al., 2012Barrios, M.R.; Marques Júnior, J.; Panosso, A.R.; Siqueira, D.S.; La Scala, N. 2012. Magnetic susceptibility to identify landscape segments on a detailed scale in the region of Jaboticabal, São Paulo, Brazil. Revista Brasileira de Ciência do Solo 36: 1073-1082.) and spatial variability of cause and effect relationships for soil properties and fCO2 using geostatistics and fractal techniques (Panosso et al., 2012Panosso, A.R.; Perillo, L.I.; Ferraudo, A.S.; Pereira, G.T.; Vivas-Miranda, J.G.; La Scala, N. 2012. Fractal dimension and anisotropy of soil CO2 emission in a mechanically harvested sugarcane production area. Soil and Tillage Research 124: 8-16.). Both methods need information that is not acquired quickly and accurately across the field.

In this context, magnetic susceptibility (MS) is a rapid technique that can be performed in the field or laboratory which decreases the amount of reagents in mineralogical analysis (Bahia et al., 2014Bahia, A.S.R.S.; Marques Júnior, J.; Panosso, A.R.; Camargo, L.A.; Siqueira, D.S.; La Scala, N. 2014. Iron oxides as proxies for characterizing anisotropy in soil CO2 emission in sugarcane areas under green harvest. Agriculture, Ecosystems & Environment 192: 152-162.). MS is the degree of magnetization of certain materials (minerals in rocks and soils) in response to a magnetic field application (Dearing, 1994Dearing, J.A. 1994. Environmental Magnetic Susceptibility. Chi Publishing, Kenilworth, UK.). La Scala et al. (2000)La Scala, N.; Marques Júnior, J.; Pereira, G.T.; Corá, J.E. 2000. Carbon dioxide emission related to chemical properties of a tropical bare soil. Soil Biology and Biochemistry 32: 1469-1473. found that the mineralogy of soils influences the potential of fCO2.

The methods for characterizing locations with different fCO2 potentials are limited by the time allocated to evaluation (Teixeira et al., 2013Teixeira, D.B.; Bicalho, E.S.; Panosso, A.R.; Cerri, C.E.P.; Pereira, G.T.; La Scala, N. 2013. Spatial variability of soil CO2 emission in a sugarcane area characterized by secondary information. Scientia Agricola 70: 195-203.). Larger scale eddy covariance and associated plume methodologies assume that the source strength is constant, a feature that has already been demonstrated to be heterogeneous. In the search for potential covariates, MS is ideal for studies with a large number of samples since it is rapid and inexpensive (Dearing et al., 1996Dearing, J.A.; Hay, K.L.; Baban, S.M.K.; Huddleston, A.S.; Wellington, E.M.H.; Loveland, P.J. 1996. Magnetic susceptibility of soil: an evaluation of conflicting theories using a national data set. Geophysical Journal International 127: 728-734.). Our hypothesis was based on a cause and effect relationship between iron oxides and fCO2 (Bahia et al., 2014Bahia, A.S.R.S.; Marques Júnior, J.; Panosso, A.R.; Camargo, L.A.; Siqueira, D.S.; La Scala, N. 2014. Iron oxides as proxies for characterizing anisotropy in soil CO2 emission in sugarcane areas under green harvest. Agriculture, Ecosystems & Environment 192: 152-162.). Moreover, MS is directly related to iron oxide mineralogy (Balsam et al., 2004Balsam, W.; Ji, J.; Chen, J. 2004. Climatic interpretation of the Luochuan and Lingtai loess sections, China, based on changing iron oxide mineralogy and magnetic susceptibility. Earth and Planetary Science Letters 223: 335-348.). Thus, because of the different mineralogical composition of soils, MS could be an important property with potential application in the study of the cause and effect relationship between soil mineralogy and fCO2.

Materials and Methods

The experiment was conducted in Guariba, SP, Brazil (21°21’ S; 48°11’ W). According to the revised Thornthwaite climate classification system (1948), the local climate is mesothermal humid (B1rB'4a' type) with little water deficiency (mean annual precipitation = 1,432 mm). The experimental area was set up on a Typic Eutrudox (Soil Survey Staff, 1999Soil Survey Staff. 1999. Soil Taxonomy: A Basic System of Soil Classification for Making and Interpreting Soil Surveys. 2ed. USDA-NRCS, Washington, DC, USA.) with very clayey texture (clay content > 600 g kg−1). The soil had been cultivated with raw sugarcane under mechanical harvesting for the past 8 years and had generated a large amount of crop residue left on the soil surface (12,000 kg ha−1 yr−1). The experimental area is inserted in a lithostratigraphic division of sandstone-basalt. Geological material in the study area is associated with sandstones of the Bauru Group - Adamantina Formation and basalt of Serra Geral Formation. An irregular 60 × 60 m grid with 141 sample points was installed within the area with distances of 0.50 to 10.0 m between points (Figure 1). Soil samples were collected at a depth of 0-15 cm.

Figure 1
– Sampling scheme used to collect soil samples and evaluate soil CO2 emissions (fCO2).

The fCO2 flux was measured by means of a portable system that monitors changes in CO2 concentration through infrared radiation analysis inside a chamber placed on the PVC soil collars during the field measurements (Healy et al., 1996Healy, R.W.; Striegl, R.G.; Russel, T.F.; Hutchinson, G.L.; Livingston, G.P. 1996. Numerical evaluation of static chamber measurements of soil-atmosphere gas exchange: identification of physical processes. Soil Science Society of America Journal 60: 740-747.). Evaluations were done for 7 days during mornings (8:00 a.m. to 9:30 a.m.), on Julian days 195, 196, 197, 200, 201, 204 and 207 in 2010.

In order to obtain sand and clay fractions for MS evaluation, a treatment with 0.5 N NaOH and mechanical stirring for 10 minutes to disperse the particles was first carried out. Then, the sand fraction was removed through sifting with a 0.05-mm sieve. Silt and clay were separated by centrifugation (1,600 rpm) for a period determined by sample temperatures ranging from 16 to 30 °C. After centrifugation, the suspended clay was flocculated with concentrated HCl, and centrifuged (2,000 rpm for 2 minutes) to yield decanted clay and a supernatant solution with silt. The supernatant solution was discarded and the clay dried in an oven at 105 °C for 24 hours.

MS determinations for ADS (Air Dried Soil) (MSADS) and sand (MSSAND) and clay (MSCLAY) fractions were made using Bartington MS2 equipment coupled to a Bartington MS2B sensor. The evaluation was done at low frequency (0.47 kHz).

A descriptive statistics was conducted (average ± standard error; standard deviation; coefficient of variation; minimum; maximum; asymmetry; and kurtosis). Linear and polynomial regressions between MSADS, MSSAND, MSCLAY and fCO2 were analyzed. Spatial variability was evaluated by GS+ 9.0 software. Experimental semivariogram modeling was based on the theory of regionalized variables, estimated by the following equation:

where:γ^(h) is the experimental semi variance for an h distance; z (xi) is the property value at the I point; and N (h) is the number of pairs of points separated by an h distance. The semi-variogram represents variable spatial continuity as a function of the distance between two locations. Spatial dependency between fCO2 and magnetic susceptibilities of MSADS, MSSAND, and MSCLAY were modeled by means of cross-semivariograms, and estimated by means of the following equation:

where:h distance; z (xi) the value of the main variable (the one to be estimated) at point I; y (xi) the value of the secondary variable at i point; and N (h) the number of pairs of points separated by an h distance. Note that a simple variogram is a particular case of a cross variogram wherein the semi-variance is calculated for one property only. Consequently, it is considered a measurement tool of variable spatial autocorrelation. In this study, we used adjusted spherical and Gaussian models; the best-fitted model to the variogram was set up in a lower Residual Sum of Squares (RSS), and a Coefficient of determination (R2) obtained for model adjustment.is the experimental cross semi variance for an

Results and Discussion

The fCO2 had an average of 1.69 ± 0.08 µmol m−2 s−1, with a minimum value of 0.34 µmol m−2 s−1 and a maximum of 4.49 µmol m−2 s−1 (Table 1) which is lower than that of Panosso et al. (2012)Panosso, A.R.; Perillo, L.I.; Ferraudo, A.S.; Pereira, G.T.; Vivas-Miranda, J.G.; La Scala, N. 2012. Fractal dimension and anisotropy of soil CO2 emission in a mechanically harvested sugarcane production area. Soil and Tillage Research 124: 8-16. who studied sugarcane cultivation in red Oxisols. The lack of rainfall prior to the experimental period, the low soil organic matter content (4.75 ± 0.05 g dm−3), and the high soil compaction represented by a bulk density average of 1.50 ± 0.01 g cm−3 as was noted by Teixeira et al. (2013)Teixeira, D.B.; Bicalho, E.S.; Panosso, A.R.; Cerri, C.E.P.; Pereira, G.T.; La Scala, N. 2013. Spatial variability of soil CO2 emission in a sugarcane area characterized by secondary information. Scientia Agricola 70: 195-203., could be an explanation for the low average emission. The fCO2 coefficient of variation (CV) was 57 %, which is typical for this property (La Scala et al., 2000La Scala, N.; Marques Júnior, J.; Pereira, G.T.; Corá, J.E. 2000. Carbon dioxide emission related to chemical properties of a tropical bare soil. Soil Biology and Biochemistry 32: 1469-1473.). Brito et al. (2009)Brito, L.F.; Marques Júnior, J.; Pereira, G.T.; Souza, Z.M.; La Scala, N. 2009. Soil CO2 emission of sugarcane fields as affected by topography. Scientia Agricola 66: 77-83., who obtained similar results in sugarcane areas, observed a mean CV of 55 % for fCO2.

Table 1
− Descriptive statistics for fCO2, MSADS, MSSAND and MSCLAY.

For MSADS, an average of 2,064 ± 9 × 10−8 m3 kg−1 was obtained, with a minimum value of 1,844 × 10−8 m3 kg−1 and a maximum of 2,522 × 10−8 m3 kg−1. The MSSAND had an average of 2,426 ± 352 × 10−8 m3 kg−1, with a minimum value of 1,703 × 10−8 m3 kg−1 and a maximum of 4,202 × 10−8 m3 kg−1. Whereas for MSCLAY, the average was of 1,452 ± 94 × 10−8 m3 kg−1 with a minimum of 1,029 × 10−8 m3 kg−1 and a maximum of 1,729 × 10−8 m3 kg−1. The highest average value of MSSAND is attributable to the primary mineral, magnetite, in the soil fine sand fraction, which have magnetic behavior more evident compared to the second mineral maghemite, found in the clay fraction (Fabris et al., 1998Fabris, J.D.; Coey, J.M.D.; Mussel, W.N. 1998. Magnetic soils from mafic Lithodomains in Brazil. Hyperfine Interactions 113: 249-258.) and produced by oxidation with its formation intensified by fire (Ketterings et al., 2000Ketterings, Q.M.; Bigham, J.M.; Laperche, V. 2000. Changes in soil mineralogy and texture caused by slash-and-burn fires in Sumatra, Indonesia. Soil Science Society of America Journal 64: 1108-1117.; Terefe et al., 2008Terefe, T.; Mariscal-Sancho, I.; Peregrina, F.; Espejo, R. 2008. Influence of heating on various properties of six Mediterranean soils. A laboratory study. Geoderma 143: 273-280.). Thus, the variations of MS values can be explained by minerals in soils derived from basalt and the historical management of sugar cane burning in the harvesting system.

The MSADS was lower than MSSAND, since the first resulted from the interaction of various magnetic fields with different intensities, some even with negative intensity. While for MSSAND, only the MS of these minerals in this fraction is accounted for, and there was no interaction with other magnetism types, which resulted in the highest value. Matias et al. (2014)Matias, S.S.R.; Marques Júnior, J.; Siqueira, D.S.; Pereira, G.T. 2014. Outlining precision boundaries among areas with different variability standards using magnetic susceptibility and geomorphic surfaces. Engenharia Agrícola 34: 695-706. observed similar results in Oxisols and found MSADS average values between 2,300 × 10−8 m3 kg−1 and 2,700 × 10−8 m3 kg−1.

We noted that the CVs of MSADS, MSSAND, and MSCLAY are much lower when compared to fCO2, which can be explained by a greater uniformity of MS within the area studied. Barrios et al. (2012)Barrios, M.R.; Marques Júnior, J.; Panosso, A.R.; Siqueira, D.S.; La Scala, N. 2012. Magnetic susceptibility to identify landscape segments on a detailed scale in the region of Jaboticabal, São Paulo, Brazil. Revista Brasileira de Ciência do Solo 36: 1073-1082., studying the potential of MS in identifying of landscape compartments on a detailed scale in Jaboticabal-SP, reported similar CVs for MSADS, MSSAND and MSCLAY that were, respectively, from 5 to 13 %, 11 to 18 %, and 5 to 12 %, depending on the landscape segment. -

No models of linear and polynomial regression (p > 0.05) were found between fCO2 and MSADS, MSSAND and MSCLAY. This fact may be related to the high coefficients of variation found for fCO2 (La Scala et al., 2000La Scala, N.; Marques Júnior, J.; Pereira, G.T.; Corá, J.E. 2000. Carbon dioxide emission related to chemical properties of a tropical bare soil. Soil Biology and Biochemistry 32: 1469-1473.; Rayment and Jarvis, 2000Rayment, M.B.; Jarvis, P.G. 2000. Temporal and spatial variation of soil CO2 efflux in a Canadian boreal forest. Soil Biology and Biochemistry 32: 35-45.; Adachi et al., 2009)Adachi, M.; Ishida, A.; Bunyavejchewin, S.; Okuda, T.; Koizum, H. 2009. Spatial and temporal variation in soil respiration in a seasonally dry tropical forest. Journal of Tropical Ecology 25: 531-539., which make it difficult to establish linear and polynomial relations. Consequently, the use of geostatistics is of great importance, when recording spatial correlations between soil attributes, in the production of the most accurate mappings for fCO2. Bahia et al. (2014)Bahia, A.S.R.S.; Marques Júnior, J.; Panosso, A.R.; Camargo, L.A.; Siqueira, D.S.; La Scala, N. 2014. Iron oxides as proxies for characterizing anisotropy in soil CO2 emission in sugarcane areas under green harvest. Agriculture, Ecosystems & Environment 192: 152-162. illustrated the spatial dependence between mineralogy and fCO2.

The simple semivariogram models that best fit were the spherical (fCO2, MSSAND and MSCLAY) and the Gaussian (MSADS) as revealed by low values for RSS and high values for R2 (Table 2). Kosugi et al. (2007)Kosugi, Y.; Mitani, T.; Itoh, M.; Noguchi, S.; Tano, M.; Takanashi, S.; Ohkubo, S.; Nik, A.R. 2007. Spatial and temporal variation in soil respiration in a southeast Asian tropical rainforest. Agricultural and Forest Meteorology 147: 35-47. and Santos et al. (2013)Santos, H.L.; Marques Júnior, J.; Matias, S.S.R.; Siqueira, D.S.; Martins Filho, M.V. 2013. Erosion factors and magnetic susceptibility in different compartments of a slope in Gilbués-PI, Brazil. Engenharia Agrícola 33: 64-74. adjusted similar semivariogram models for fCO2 and MSADS. In addition, the spherical model is associated with abrupt changes in the pattern of variability (Teixeira et al., 2012Teixeira, D.B.; Bicalho, E.S.; Panosso, A.R.; Perillo, L.I.; Iamaguti, J.L.; Pereira, G.T.; La Scala, N. 2012. Uncertainties in the prediction of spatial variability of soil CO2 emissions and related properties. Revista Brasileira de Ciência do Solo 36: 1466-1475.), especially in relation to more distal points. On the contrary, the Gaussian model is related to small changes in the pattern of variability (Teixeira et al., 2012Teixeira, D.B.; Bicalho, E.S.; Panosso, A.R.; Perillo, L.I.; Iamaguti, J.L.; Pereira, G.T.; La Scala, N. 2012. Uncertainties in the prediction of spatial variability of soil CO2 emissions and related properties. Revista Brasileira de Ciência do Solo 36: 1466-1475.).

Table 2
− Models of semivariogram and parameters.

Range values were for fCO2 (37.3 m), MSADS (37.7 m), MSSAND (5.3 m) and MSCLAY (5.6 m) (Table 2). Similar range values were also found by Brito et al. (2010)Brito, L.F.; Marques Júnior, J.; Pereira, G.T.; La Scala, N. 2010. Spatial variability of soil CO2 emission in different topographic positions. Bragantia: 19-27. in a soil derived from similar geologic parent material. The fCO2 and MSADS showed very tight range values, suggesting a potentially similar pattern of variability, which was not observed for MSCLAY and MSSAND, that attained range values quite different from fCO2. According to the classification proposed by Cambardella et al. (1994)Cambardella, C.A.; Moorman, T.B.; Novak, J.M.; Parkin, T.B.; Karlen, D.L.; Turco, R.F.; Konopka, A.E. 1994. Field-scale variability of soil properties in central Iowa soils. Soil Science Society of America Journal 58: 1501-1511., when the ratio is lower than or equal to 25 %, spatial dependence is considered strong; between 25 and 75 %, moderate; and higher than 75 %, weak. In this study, we found a strong degree of spatial dependence for MSADS and moderate for fCO2, MSSAND and MSCLAY.

Furthermore, negative spatial dependence was found between fCO2 and MSADS for a distance of 34.3 m (Figure 2A). The Gaussian model was the best fit to the fCO2 × MSADS cross semivariogram, while other values of MSSAND and MSCLAY were not correlated with fCO2, which is indicated by the absence of spatial dependence (pure nugget effect). However, even this study had shown spatial correlation between MSADS and fCO2, isotropic models were found for all properties studied, which can be verified in studies conducted by Teixeira et al. (2013)Teixeira, D.B.; Bicalho, E.S.; Panosso, A.R.; Cerri, C.E.P.; Pereira, G.T.; La Scala, N. 2013. Spatial variability of soil CO2 emission in a sugarcane area characterized by secondary information. Scientia Agricola 70: 195-203. and Bicalho et al. (2014)Bicalho, E.S.; Panosso, A.R.; Teixeira, D.D.B.; Miranda, J.G.V.; Pereira, G.T.; La Scala, N. 2014. Spatial variability structure of soil CO2 emission and soil attributes in a sugarcane area. Agriculture, Ecosystems and Environment 189: 206-215.. However, these results differ from studies conducted by Bahia et al. (2014)Bahia, A.S.R.S.; Marques Júnior, J.; Panosso, A.R.; Camargo, L.A.; Siqueira, D.S.; La Scala, N. 2014. Iron oxides as proxies for characterizing anisotropy in soil CO2 emission in sugarcane areas under green harvest. Agriculture, Ecosystems & Environment 192: 152-162..

Figure 2
− Cross semivariogram of soil CO2 emissions (fCO2) versus magnetic susceptibility of air dried soil (MSADS) (A) and variability maps of fCO2 (B) and MSADS (C) at a depth of 0.0-0.2 m.

The fCO2 and MSADS spatial dependence could be associated with soil porosity and bulk density, which are dependent on sand and clay contents. Higher values for total porosity and lower bulk density promote enhanced capacity for gas to diffuse throughout the soil and, consequently, increase fCO2. The literature has shown that MSADS is an excellent pedological indicator of clay content in tropical soils for areas with iron content of soil between 4 and 18 % (Siqueira et al., 2010Siqueira, D.S.; Marques Júnior, J.; Matias, S.S.R.; Barrón, V.; Torrent, J.; Baffa, O.; Oliveira, L.C. 2010. Correlation of properties of Brazilian Haplustalfs with magnetic susceptibility measurements. Soil Use and Management 26: 425-431., 2014Siqueira, D.S.; Marques Júnior, J.; Pereira, G.T.; Barbosa, R.S.; Teixeira, D.B.; Peluco, R.G. 2014. Sampling density and proportion for the characterization of the variability of Oxisol attributes on different materials. Geoderma 232-234: 172-182.; Matias et al., 2014Matias, S.S.R.; Marques Júnior, J.; Siqueira, D.S.; Pereira, G.T. 2014. Outlining precision boundaries among areas with different variability standards using magnetic susceptibility and geomorphic surfaces. Engenharia Agrícola 34: 695-706.). Clay content is related to microporosity (Aringhieri, 2004Aringhieri, R. 2004. Nanoporosity characteristics of some natural clay minerals and soils. Clay and Clays Minerals 52: 700-704.) and consequently to total porosity. According to Cambardella et al. (1994)Cambardella, C.A.; Moorman, T.B.; Novak, J.M.; Parkin, T.B.; Karlen, D.L.; Turco, R.F.; Konopka, A.E. 1994. Field-scale variability of soil properties in central Iowa soils. Soil Science Society of America Journal 58: 1501-1511., the higher spatial dependence in soil attributes is correlated with interactions between parental material, climate and topography. However, moderate spatial dependence is correlated with extrinsic factors like agricultural field management.

Thus, compartments with higher MSSAND and MSCLAY will show greater pore spaces, which might favor an easier gas exit, resulting in higher fCO2 rates. Teixeira et al. (2013)Teixeira, D.B.; Bicalho, E.S.; Panosso, A.R.; Cerri, C.E.P.; Pereira, G.T.; La Scala, N. 2013. Spatial variability of soil CO2 emission in a sugarcane area characterized by secondary information. Scientia Agricola 70: 195-203., who studied spatial estimates of fCO2 through soil density, found lower range values (18.95 to 21.37 m) and degrees of spatial dependence (0.07 to 0.17) for cross semivariograms of fCO2 × soil density. This suggests that MSADS may have greater potential for the production of spatial estimates of fCO2 relative to soil bulk density, as well as being a technique which is faster, easy to handle and low-cost for the examination of larger field areas.

Spatial distribution maps (Figure 2B and C) confirm the result of the cross semivariogram, showing that there is a trend of increasing fCO2 (direction of the arrow), whereas MSADS increases in the reverse direction.

The results of the interaction of spatial variability between MSADS and fCO2 indicated that MSADS can be an interesting alternative for research programs that study the cause and effect relationship between mineralogy and fCO2, such as Panosso et al. (2011)Panosso, A.R.; Marques Júnior, J.; Milori, D.M.B.P.; Ferraudo, A.S.; Barbieri, D.M.; Pereira, G.T.; La Scala, N. 2011. Soil CO2 emission and its relation to soil properties in sugarcane areas under slash-and-burn and green harvest. Soil and Tillage Research 111: 190-196.. Additionally, studies on the characterization of the spatial variability of fCO2 can also be drawn from these results in order to help establish the proportion in samples of MSADS to fCO2, as developed for MSADS and clay content by Siqueira et al. (2014)Siqueira, D.S.; Marques Júnior, J.; Pereira, G.T.; Barbosa, R.S.; Teixeira, D.B.; Peluco, R.G. 2014. Sampling density and proportion for the characterization of the variability of Oxisol attributes on different materials. Geoderma 232-234: 172-182.. This information may assist further studies and clarify the relationship between landscape use and global climate changes by providing information to support decisions about mitigation and adaptation strategies (Bayer et al., 2006Bayer, C.; Martin-Neto, L.; Mielniczuk, J.; Pavinato, A.; Dieckow, J. 2006. Carbon sequestration in two Brazilian Cerrado soils under no-till. Soil and Tillage Research 86: 237-245.; De Figueiredo and La Scala, 2011De Figueiredo, E.B.; La Scala, N. 2011. Greenhouse gas balance due to the conversion of sugarcane areas from burned to green harvest in Brazil. Agriculture Ecosystems and Environment 141: 77-85.).

Conclusions

Air Dried Soil Magnetic Suceptibility (MSADS) had spatial dependence on fCO2 up to a distance of 34 meters indicating that this information may be used to define fCO2 spatial variability, especially for research projects that study the cause and effect of the relationship between mineralogy and fCO2.

References

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Edited by

Edited by: Carlos Eduardo Pellegrino Cerri

Publication Dates

  • Publication in this collection
    Nov-Dec 2015

History

  • Received
    09 Dec 2014
  • Accepted
    31 July 2015
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