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Recomendações para o tratamento da síndrome de Sjögren Estudo conduzido na Comissão de Síndrome de Sjögren da Sociedade Brasileira de Reumatologia.

RESUMO

As recomendações propostas pela Comissão de Síndrome de Sjögren da Sociedade Brasileira de Reumatologia para tratamento da síndrome de Sjögren foram baseadas em uma revisão sistemática da literatura nas bases de dados Medline (PubMed) e Cochrane até outubro de 2014 e opinião de especialistas na ausência de artigos sobre o assunto. Foram incluídos 131 artigos classificados de acordo com Oxford & Grade. Essas recomendações foram elaboradas com o objetivo de orientar o manejo adequado e facilitar o acesso aos tratamentos para aqueles pacientes com adequada indicação de recebê-los, considerando o contexto socioeconômico brasileiro e os medicamentos disponíveis no país.

Palavras-chave
Síndrome de Sjögren; Tratamento; Recomendações; Diretrizes; Revisão sistemática

ABSTRACT

The recommendations proposed by the Sjögren's Syndrome Committee of the Brazilian Society of Rheumatology for the treatment of Sjögren's syndrome were based on a systematic review of literature in Medline (PubMed) and the Cochrane databases until October 2014 and on expert opinion in the absence of studies on the subject. 131 articles classified according to Oxford & Grade were included. These recommendations were developed in order to guide the management and facilitate the access to treatment for those patients with an appropriate indication, considering the Brazilian socioeconomic context and pharmacological agents available in this country.

Keywords:
Sjögren's syndrome; Treatment; Recommendations; Guidelines; Systematic review

Introdução

A síndrome de Sjögren (SS) é uma doença reumática autoimune relativamente comum, mais frequente em mulheres na quinta década de vida.1Garcia-Carrasco M, Ramos-Casals M, Rosas J, Pallares L, Calvo-Alen J, Cervera R, et al. Primary Sjogren's syndrome: clinical and immunologic disease patterns in a cohort of 400 patients. Medicine. 2002;81:270-80.A prevalência da SS primária é de 0,17% em estudo populacional brasileiro.2Valim V, Zandonade E, Pereira AM, de Brito Filho OH, Serrano EV, Musso C, et al. Primary Sjogren's syndrome prevalence in a major metropolitan area in Brazil. Revista Brasileira de Reumatologia. 2013;53:24-34. Pode ocorrer em associação com outras doenças autoimunes, como o lúpus eritematoso sistêmico (LES) e a artrite reumatoide (AR) em frequência variável e chega até 22,2% em pacientes com AR.3Haga HJ, Naderi Y, Moreno AM, Peen E. A study of the prevalence of sicca symptoms and secondary Sjogren's syndrome in patients with rheumatoid arthritis, and its association to disease activity and treatment profile. International Journal of Rheumatic Diseases. 2012;15:284-8.,4Kosrirukvongs P, Ngowyutagon P, Pusuwan P, Koolvisoot A, Nilganuwong S. Prevalence of dry eye syndrome and Sjogren's syndrome in patients with rheumatoid arthritis. Journal of the Medical Association of Thailand=Chotmaihet thangphaet. 2012;95:S61-S9.

A SS é uma doença crônica, de evolução lenta e progressiva, caracterizada por infiltrado linfocitário que afeta o epitélio das glândulas exócrinas, principalmente salivar e lacrimal, e leva a uma diminuição da produção de lágrima e saliva. É uma doença sistêmica com alto risco de transformação para linfoma, que afeta principalmente as articulações, os pulmões, o sistema nervoso central (SNC), o sistema nervoso periférico (SNP) e os rins em cerca de 50% dos pacientes.5Baldini C, Tavoni A, Merlini G, Sebastiani M, Bombardieri S. Primary Sjogren's syndrome: clinical and serological feature of a single centre. Reumatismo. 2005;57:256-61.

Estudos mais recentes têm mostrado que há subgrupos de pacientes com manifestações clínicas, padrões histológicos (presença de centros germinativos), perfil de citocinas e prognósticos diferentes.6Szodoray P, Alex P, Jonsson MV, Knowlton N, Dozmorov I, Nakken B, et al. Distinct profiles of Sjogren's syndrome patients with ectopic salivary gland germinal centers revealed by serum cytokines and BAFF. Clinical Immunology. 2005;117:168-76.,7Reksten TR, Jonsson MV, Szyszko EA, Brun JG, Jonsson R, Brokstad KA. Cytokine and autoantibody profiling related to histopathological features in primary Sjogren's syndrome. Rheumatology. 2009;48:1102-6. Em um futuro próximo, a melhor caracterização genética8Reksten TR, Johnsen SJ, Jonsson MV, Omdal R, Brun JG, Theander E, et al. Genetic associations to germinal centre formation in primary Sjogren's syndrome. Annals of the rheumatic diseases. 2014;73:1253-8.

Jonsson MV, Theander E, Jonsson R. Predictors for the development of non-Hodgkin lymphoma in primary Sjogren's syndrome. Presse Medicale. 2012;41 9 Pt 2:e511–6
-1010 Theander E, Vasaitis L, Baecklund E, Nordmark G, Warfvinge G, Liedholm R, et al. Lymphoid organisation in labial salivary gland biopsies is a possible predictor for the development of malignant lymphoma in primary Sjogren's syndrome. Annals of the Rheumatic Diseases. 2011;70:1363-8. e fenotípica poderá determinar padrões de tratamentos diferenciados. Porém, atualmente, já podemos definir estratégias de tratamento baseadas em sintomas (tratamento sintomático), no tipo e na gravidade das manifestações sistêmicas. Essas diretrizes recomendam usar o Eular Sjögren's Syndrome Disease Activity (Essdai), instrumento validado internacionalmente1111 Seror R, Bootsma H, Saraux A, Bowman SJ, Theander E, Brun JG, et al. Defining disease activity states and clinically meaningful improvement in primary Sjogren's syndrome with Eular Sjogren's Syndrome Disease Activity Index (Essdai) and patient-reported indexes (Esspri). Annals of the Rheumatic Diseases. 2014. e no Brasil,1212 Serrano EV, Valim V, Miyamoto ST, Giovelli RA, Paganotti MA, Cade NV. Transcultural adaptation of the Eular Sjogren's Syndrome Disease Activity Index (Essdai) into Brazilian Portuguese. Revista Brasileira de Reumatologia. 2013;53:483-93. como critério de atividade de doença e de resposta ao tratamento.

Essas recomendações foram elaboradas com o objetivo de orientar o manejo adequado e facilitar o acesso aos tratamentos para aqueles pacientes com adequada indicação de recebê-los, considerando o contexto socioeconômico brasileiro e os medicamentos disponíveis no país. Devido à extensão desta revisão, tópicos específicos como manejo na gestação e tratamento do linfoma associado à SS não foram abordados. As recomendações basearam-se em estudos em síndrome de Sjögren primária. Considerando a escassez de estudos em pacientes com associação com outras doenças autoimunes, essas recomendações podem ser extrapoladas para síndrome de Sjögren secundária.

Material e métodos

Foram revisados artigos nas bases de dados Medline (PubMed) e Cochrane até dezembro de 2013. A atualização manual foi feita em outubro de 2014. A estratégia de busca baseou-se em perguntas estruturadas na forma de P.I.C.O. (das iniciais “Patient”, “Intervention”, “Control” e “Outcome”). Esses descritores foram usados para cruzamentos de acordo com o tema proposto em cada tópico das perguntas P.I.C.O. Para todos os P.I.C.O.s foi usado o filtro “random” e limitou-se a busca a estudos controlados. Foram incluídos, manualmente, artigos publicados de janeiro a outubro de 2014 e algumas séries de casos para o tratamento das manifestações extraglandulares. Após a análise de títulos e de resumos, foram selecionados 131 artigos relativos às perguntas que originaram as evidências que fundamentaram essas diretrizes (fig. 1). Os artigos foram classificados, de acordo com Oxford e Grade, em graus de recomendação e força de evidência, como se segue:
  • A: Estudos experimentais ou observacionais de melhor consistência.

  • B: Estudos experimentais ou observacionais de menor consistência.

  • C: Relatos de casos (estudos não controlados).

  • D: Opinião desprovida de avaliação crítica, baseada em consensos, estudos fisiológicos ou modelos animais.

Figura 1
Diagrama de seleção da evidência para tratamento da síndrome de Sjögren.

Algumas recomendações foram baseadas exclusivamente na opinião dos especialistas da Comissão Científica de Síndrome de Sjögren da Sociedade Brasileira de Reumatologia (SBR), na ausência de artigos sobre o assunto. Essas recomendações também foram graduadas como nível D e não estão seguidas por citação.

Os P.I.C.O.s foram construídos por equipe multidisciplinar, constituída por nove reumatologistas, membros da Comissão Científica de Síndrome de Sjögren da SBR, e oito profissionais de diferentes áreas (cirurgiões-dentistas, oftalmologistas, patologistas e fisioterapeuta), todos integrantes do Grupo Ampliado de Estudos em Síndrome de Sjögren (Gaess-Brasil). As recomendações foram formuladas, principalmente, baseadas nas evidências e revisadas por todos os participantes em duas reuniões e inúmeras rodadas de comunicação via Internet, de abril de 2013 até outubro de 2014.

Recomendações

Com base nos 14 P.I.C.O.s usados nesse levantamento, organizamos didaticamente 16 perguntas e enquadramos 44 recomendações, distribuídas em três grandes tópicos e resumidas nas figuras 2-5:
  • Parte 1. Recomendações gerais e de educação do paciente.

  • Parte 2. Tratamento sintomático da secura.

  • Parte 3. Tratamento sistêmico das manifestações glandulares e sistêmicas.

Figura 2
Fluxograma para o tratamento sintomático da secura na SS.
Figura 3
Fluxograma para o tratamento das manifestações musculoesqueléticas. Aine, anti‐inflamatórios não esteroidais; GC, glicocorticoides.
Figura 4
Fluxograma para o tratamento das manifestações sistêmicas neurológicas. PN, polineuropatia periférica; SNC, sistema nervoso central; EM, esclerose múltipla; GC, glicocorticoides; MTP, metilprednisolona; CFM, ciclofosfamida.
Figura 5
Fluxograma para o tratamento das manifestações sistêmicas renais, pulmonares e vasculites. GN, glomerulonefrites; NTI, nefrite túbulo‐intersticial; GC, glicocorticoides; MTP, metilprednisolona; CFM, ciclofosfamida.

Parte 1. Recomendações gerais e de educação ao paciente

Q1. Quais são as recomendações gerais baseadas na opinião do especialista?
  • 1

    O manejo da SS deve ser feito por equipe multiprofissional, incluindo pelo menos o reumatologista, o cirurgião dentista e o oftalmologista. O reumatologista é o especialista de referência para o manejo da SS (D).

  • 2

    Pacientes com diagnóstico precoce e maior reserva glandular apresentam melhor resposta ao tratamento (D).

  • 3

    Recomenda-se estratificar as estratégias de tratamento das manifestações sistêmicas de acordo com a gravidade da doença, com base não somente na impressão clínica do médico especialista, mas também com o Essdai. Tratamento sistêmico deve ser instituído, se Essdai moderado (Essdai ≥ 5). Considera-se resposta ao tratamento se redução ≥ 3 pontos (D).

  • 4

    Portadores de SS devem evitar o uso de bebidas cafeinadas, álcool e tabaco (D).

  • 5

    É recomendável dar orientações gerais de higiene e medidas para prevenir a desidratação e irritação das mucosas (tabela 1) (D).

    Q2. Os exercícios físicos são eficazes no tratamento de pacientes com SS?

  • Tabela 1
    Educação ao paciente: medidas de higiene e hidratação das mucosas

  • 6

    Mulheres com SS apresentam uma menor capacidade física1313 Strombeck B, Ekdahl C, Manthorpe R, Jacobsson LT. Physical capacity in women with primary Sjogren's syndrome: a controlled study. Arthritis and Rheumatism. 2003;49:681-8. e exercícios aeróbicos, em intensidade moderada a alta, acarretam a melhoria da capacidade aeróbica, da fadiga, da percepção do esforço e da depressão1414 Strombeck BE, Theander E, Jacobsson LT. Effects of exercise on aerobic capacity and fatigue in women with primary Sjogren's syndrome. Rheumatology. 2007;46:868-71. (B).

    Q3. Qual a efetividade e a segurança de vacinas na SS?

  • 7

    Recomenda-se seguir as orientações gerais de vacinação em pacientes com doenças autoimunes1515 van Assen S, Agmon-Levin N, Elkayam O, Cervera R, Doran MF, Dougados M, et al. EULAR recommendations for vaccination in adult patients with autoimmune inflammatory rheumatic diseases. Annals of the Rheumatic Diseases. 2011;70:414-22. (C), avaliar o estado vacinal na avaliação inicial, administrar vacinas nos períodos estáveis da doença e evitar aquelas de vírus vivo atenuado. Está indicado imunizar contra influenza1616 Pasoto SG, Ribeiro AC, Viana VS, Leon EP, Bueno C, Neto ML, et al. Short and long-term effects of pandemic unadjuvanted influenza A(H1N1)pdm09 vaccine on clinical manifestations and autoantibody profile in primary Sjogren's syndrome. Vaccine. 2013;31:1793-8.,1717 Milanovic M, Stojanovich L, Djokovic A, Kontic M, Gvozdenovic E. Influenza vaccination in autoimmune rheumatic disease patients. The Tohoku Journal of Experimental Medicine. 2013;229:29-34. (A), pneumococo1818 Karsh J, Pavlidis N, Schiffman G, Moutsopoulos HM. Immunization of patients with Sjogren's syndrome with pneumococcal polysaccharide vaccine: a randomized trial. Arthritis and Rheumatism. 1980;23:1294-8. (A) e outras vacinas de acordo com calendário vacinal (D).

    Q4. Pacientes com SS devem receber suplementação com vitamina D?

  • 8

    Hipovitaminose D deve ser investigada e, se necessário, deve-se instituir suplementação1616 Pasoto SG, Ribeiro AC, Viana VS, Leon EP, Bueno C, Neto ML, et al. Short and long-term effects of pandemic unadjuvanted influenza A(H1N1)pdm09 vaccine on clinical manifestations and autoantibody profile in primary Sjogren's syndrome. Vaccine. 2013;31:1793-8.

    17 Milanovic M, Stojanovich L, Djokovic A, Kontic M, Gvozdenovic E. Influenza vaccination in autoimmune rheumatic disease patients. The Tohoku Journal of Experimental Medicine. 2013;229:29-34.

    18 Karsh J, Pavlidis N, Schiffman G, Moutsopoulos HM. Immunization of patients with Sjogren's syndrome with pneumococcal polysaccharide vaccine: a randomized trial. Arthritis and Rheumatism. 1980;23:1294-8.

    19 Muller K, Oxholm P, Sorensen OH, Thymann M, Hoier-Madsen M, Bendtzen K. Abnormal vitamin D3 metabolism in patients with primary Sjogren's syndrome. Annals of the Rheumatic Diseases. 1990;49:682-4.

    20 Erten S, Sahin A, Altunoglu A, Gemcioglu E, Koca C. Comparison of plasma vitamin D levels in patients with Sjogren's syndrome and healthy subjects. International Journal of Rheumatic Diseases. 2014;18:70-5.

    21 Baldini C, Delle Sedie A, Luciano N, Pepe P, Ferro F, Talarico R, et al. Vitamin D in “early” primary Sjogren's syndrome: does it play a role in influencing disease phenotypes?. Rheumatology International. 2014;34:1159-64.

    22 Liao CY, Wang CC, Chen IH, Shiang JC, Liu MY, Tsai MK. Hypokalemic paralysis as a presenting manifestation of primary Sjogren's syndrome accompanied by vitamin D deficiency. Internal Medicine. 2013;52:2351-53.
    -2323 Agmon-Levin N, Kivity S, Tzioufas AG, Lopez Hoyos M, Rozman B, Efes I, et al. Low levels of vitamin-D are associated with neuropathy and lymphoma among patients with Sjogren's syndrome. Journal of Autoimmunity. 2012;39:234-9.(C).

Parte 2. Tratamento sintomático da secura

Q5. Qual o tratamento tópico da boca seca?
  • 9

    Os substitutos de saliva melhoram o conforto2424 Aliko A, Alushi A, Tafaj A, Isufi R. Evaluation of the clinical efficacy of Biotene Oral Balance in patients with secondary Sjogren's syndrome: a pilot study. Rheumatology International. 2012;32:2877-81.

    25 Alpöz E, Guneri P, Onder G, Cankaya H, Kabasakal Y, Kose T. The efficacy of Xialine in patients with Sjogren's syndrome: a single-blind, cross-over study. Clinical Oral Investigations. 2008;12:165-72.

    26 Frost PM, Shirlaw PJ, Challacombe SJ, Fernandes-Naglik L, Walter JD, Ide M. Impact of wearing an intra-oral lubricating device on oral health in dry mouth patients. Oral Diseases. 2006;12:57-62.

    27 Alves MB, Motta AC, Messina WC, Migliari DA. Saliva substitute in xerostomic patients with primary Sjogren's syndrome: a single-blind trial. Quintessence International. 2004;35:392-6.

    28 Johansson G, Andersson G, Edwardsson S, Bjorn AL, Manthorpe R, Attstrom R. Effects of mouthrinses with linseed extract Salinum without/with chlorhexidine on oral conditions in patients with Sjogren's syndrome. A double-blind crossover investigation. Gerodontology. 2001;18:87-94.

    29 Rhodus NL, Bereuter J. Clinical evaluation of a commercially available oral moisturizer in relieving signs and symptoms of xerostomia in postirradiation head and neck cancer patients and patients with Sjogren's syndrome. The Journal of Otolaryngology. 2000;29:28-34.

    30 van der Reijden WA, van der Kwaak H, Vissink A, Veerman EC, Amerongen AV. Treatment of xerostomia with polymer-based saliva substitutes in patients with Sjogren's syndrome. Arthritis and Rheumatism. 1996;39:57-63.
    -3131 Visch LL, Gravenmade EJ, Schaub RM, Van Putten WL, Vissink A. A double-blind crossover trial of CMC- and mucin-containing saliva substitutes. International Journal of Oral and Maxillofacial Surgery. 1986;15:395-400. (C) e devem idealmente conter flúor, bactericidas e soluções tamponadas que auxiliem a combater o biofilme, a formação de cáries e a candidíase3232 Furness S, Worthington HV, Bryan G, Birchenough S, McMillan R. Interventions for the management of dry mouth: topical therapies. The Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews. 2011:CD340089. (D).

  • 10

    Estimuladores mecânicos e/ou químicos gustatórios, como balas duras e gomas de mascar sem açúcar3232 Furness S, Worthington HV, Bryan G, Birchenough S, McMillan R. Interventions for the management of dry mouth: topical therapies. The Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews. 2011:CD340089. (D), podem ser úteis. Soluções ou colutórios contendo ácido mélico, flúor e xilitol têm eficácia semelhante ao estimulante tradicional com ácido cítrico, mas têm a vantagem de manter um PH menos ácido3333 da Silva Marques DN, da Mata AD, Patto JM, Barcelos FA, de Almeida Rato Amaral JP, de Oliveira MC, et al. Effects of gustatory stimulants of salivary secretion on salivary pH and flow in patients with Sjogren's syndrome: a randomized controlled trial. Journal of Oral Pathology & Medicine: Official Publication of the International Association of Oral Pathologists and the American Academy of Oral Pathology. 2011;40:785-92. (B).

    Q6. Qual o tratamento tópico do olho seco?

  • 11

    O uso frequente de colírios lubrificantes contendo glucanas ou carboximetilcelulose melhora o conforto e os testes funcionais3434 Aragona P, Rania L, Roszkowska AM, Spinella R, Postorino E, Puzzolo D, et al. Effects of amino acids enriched tears substitutes on the cornea of patients with dysfunctional tear syndrome. Acta Ophthalmologica. 2013;91:e437-44.

    35 Brignole F, Pisella PJ, Dupas B, Baeyens V, Baudouin C. Efficacy and safety of 0.18% sodium hyaluronate in patients with moderate dry eye syndrome and superficial keratitis. Graefe's Archive for Clinical and Experimental Ophthalmology = Albrecht von Graefes Archiv fur Klinische und Experimentelle Ophthalmologie. 2005;243:531-8.

    36 McDonald CC, Kaye SB, Figueiredo FC, Macintosh G, Lockett C. A randomised, crossover, multicentre study to compare the performance of 0.1% (w/v) sodium hyaluronate with 1.4% (w/v) polyvinyl alcohol in the alleviation of symptoms associated with dry eye syndrome. Eye. 2002;16:601-7.

    37 Aragona P, Di Stefano G, Ferreri F, Spinella R, Stilo A. Sodium hyaluronate eye drops of different osmolarity for the treatment of dry eye in Sjogren's syndrome patients. The British Journal of Ophthalmology. 2002;86:879-84.

    38 Aragona P, Papa V, Micali A, Santocono M, Milazzo G. Long term treatment with sodium hyaluronate-containing artificial tears reduces ocular surface damage in patients with dry eye. The British Journal of Ophthalmology. 2002;86:181-4.

    39 Condon PI, McEwen CG, Wright M, Mackintosh G, Prescott RJ, McDonald C. Double blind, randomised, placebo controlled, crossover, multicentre study to determine the efficacy of a 0.1% (w/v) sodium hyaluronate solution (Fermavisc) in the treatment of dry eye syndrome. The British Journal of Ophthalmology. 1999;83:1121-4.
    -4040 Toda I, Shinozaki N, Tsubota K. Hydroxypropyl methylcellulose for the treatment of severe dry eye associated with Sjogren's syndrome. Cornea. 1996;15:120-8. (A). Devem ser hipotônicos, ter maior osmololidade coloidal e ser livre de conservantes3737 Aragona P, Di Stefano G, Ferreri F, Spinella R, Stilo A. Sodium hyaluronate eye drops of different osmolarity for the treatment of dry eye in Sjogren's syndrome patients. The British Journal of Ophthalmology. 2002;86:879-84.,4141 Valim V, Trevisani VF, de Sousa JM, Vilela VS, Belfort R Jr. Current Approach to Dry Eye Disease. Clinical Reviews in Allergy & Immunology. 2014(A). Formulações em gel são de duração mais prolongada e produzem maior alívio, mas podem causar borramento temporário da visão.

  • 12

    Ciclosporina tópica 0,05% 2 x ao dia, por 6-12 meses, é eficaz na melhoria sintomática e funcional do olho seco4242 Schultz C. Safety and efficacy of cyclosporine in the treatment of chronic dry eye. Ophthalmology and Eye Diseases. 2014;6:37-42.

    43 Alves M, Fonseca EC, Alves MF, Malki LT, Arruda GV, Reinach PS, et al. Dry eye disease treatment: a systematic review of published trials and a critical appraisal of therapeutic strategies. The Ocular Surface. 2013;11:181-92.

    44 Zhou XQ, Wei RL. Topical cyclosporine A in the treatment of dry eye: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Cornea. 2014;33:760-7.

    45 Sall K, Stevenson OD, Mundorf TK, Reis BL. Two multicenter, randomized studies of the efficacy and safety of cyclosporine ophthalmic emulsion in moderate to severe dry eye disease. CsA Phase 3 Study Group. Ophthalmology. 2000;107:631-9.

    46 Sall KN, Cohen SM, Christensen MT, Stein JM. An evaluation of the efficacy of a cyclosporine-based dry eye therapy when used with marketed artificial tears as supportive therapy in dry eye. Eye & Contact Lens. 2006;32:21-6.

    47 Deveci H, Kobak S. The efficacy of topical 0.05% cyclosporine A in patients with dry eye disease associated with Sjogren's syndrome. International Ophthalmology. 2014;34:1043-8.

    48 Demiryay E, Yaylali V, Cetin EN, Yildirim C. Effects of topical cyclosporine a plus artificial tears versus artificial tears treatment on conjunctival goblet cell density in dysfunctional tear syndrome. Eye & Contact Lens. 2011;37:312-5.

    49 Su MY, Perry HD, Barsam A, Perry AR, Donnenfeld ED, Wittpenn JR, et al. The effect of decreasing the dosage of cyclosporine A 0.05% on dry eye disease after 1 year of twice-daily therapy. Cornea. 2011;30:1098-104.

    50 Baiza-Duran L, Medrano-Palafox J, Hernandez-Quintela E, Lozano-Alcazar J. Alaniz-de la OJ. A comparative clinical trial of the efficacy of two different aqueous solutions of cyclosporine for the treatment of moderate-to-severe dry eye syndrome. The British Journal of Ophthalmology. 2010;94:1312-5.

    51 Kim EC, Choi JS, Joo CK. A comparison of vitamin a and cyclosporine a 0.05% eye drops for treatment of dry eye syndrome. American Journal of Ophthalmology. 2009;147:e3, 206-13.

    52 Roberts CW, Carniglia PE, Brazzo BG. Comparison of topical cyclosporine, punctal occlusion, and a combination for the treatment of dry eye. Cornea. 2007;26:805-9.

    53 Barber LD, Pflugfelder SC, Tauber J, Foulks GN, Phase III. safety evaluation of cyclosporine 0.1% ophthalmic emulsion administered twice daily to dry eye disease patients for up to 3 years. Ophthalmology. 2005;112:1790-4.

    54 Kunert KS, Tisdale AS, Stern ME, Smith JA, Gipson IK. Analysis of topical cyclosporine treatment of patients with dry eye syndrome: effect on conjunctival lymphocytes. Archives of Ophthalmology. 2000;118:1489-96.

    55 Stevenson D, Tauber J, Reis BL. Efficacy and safety of cyclosporin A ophthalmic emulsion in the treatment of moderate-to-severe dry eye disease: a dose-ranging, randomized trial. The Cyclosporin A Phase 2 Study Group Ophthalmology. 2000;107:967-74.
    -5656 Günduz K, Ozdemir O. Topical cyclosporin treatment of keratoconjunctivitis sicca in secondary Sjogren's syndrome. Acta Ophthalmol (Copenh). 1994;72:438-42. (A). Irritação ocular é frequente, por isso recomenda-se usar a menor concentração efetiva (0,05%)5555 Stevenson D, Tauber J, Reis BL. Efficacy and safety of cyclosporin A ophthalmic emulsion in the treatment of moderate-to-severe dry eye disease: a dose-ranging, randomized trial. The Cyclosporin A Phase 2 Study Group Ophthalmology. 2000;107:967-74. (A).

  • 13

    Os glicocorticoides tópicos podem ser usados nos casos mais sintomáticos5757 Serra MSDLM, Simon Castellvi C, Kabbani O. Nonpreserved topical steroids and lacrimal punctal occlusion for severe keratoconjunctivitis sicca. Archivos de la Sociedad Española de Oftalmologia. 2000;75:751-6.,5858 Aragona P, Spinella R, Rania L, Postorino E, Sommario MS, Roszkowska AM, et al. Safety and efficacy of 0.1% clobetasone butyrate eyedrops in the treatment of dry eye in Sjogren syndrome. European Journal of Ophthalmology. 2013;23:368-76. (A), por um período limitado, pelo risco de catarata subcapsular, glaucoma e infecção3434 Aragona P, Rania L, Roszkowska AM, Spinella R, Postorino E, Puzzolo D, et al. Effects of amino acids enriched tears substitutes on the cornea of patients with dysfunctional tear syndrome. Acta Ophthalmologica. 2013;91:e437-44. (D). Recomenda-se não prescrever rotineiramente anti-inflamatório não esteroide (Aine) tópico por elevado risco de perfuração de córnea5959 Aragona P, Stilo A, Ferreri F, Mobrici M. Effects of the topical treatment with NSAIDs on corneal sensitivity and ocular surface of Sjogren's syndrome patients. Eye. 2005;19:535-9.,6060 Ramos-Casals M, Brito-Zeron P, Siso-Almirall A, Bosch X, Tzioufas AG. Topical and systemic medications for the treatment of primary Sjogren's syndrome. Nature Reviews Rheumatology. 2012;8:399-411.(D).

  • 14

    Oclusão de pontos lacrimais melhora os sintomas e os testes oculares lacrimais. É superior ao colírio lubrificante e está indicada nos casos graves e refratários ao tratamento tópico com colírios6161 Ervin AM, Wojciechowski R, Schein O. Punctal occlusion for dry eye syndrome. The Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews. 2010:CD750067

    62 Farrell J, Patel S, Grierson DG, Sturrock RD. A clinical procedure to predict the value of temporary occlusion therapy in keratoconjunctivitis sicca. Ophthalmic & Physiological Optics: the Journal of the British College of Ophthalmic Opticians. 2003;23:1-8.

    63 Qiu W, Liu Z, Ao M, Li X, Wang W. Punctal plugs versus artificial tears for treating primary Sjogren's syndrome with keratoconjunctivitis sicca: a comparative observation of their effects on visual function. Rheumatology International. 2013;33:2543-8.

    64 Holzchuh R, Villa Albers MB, Osaki TH, Igami TZ, Santo RM, Kara-Jose N, et al. Two-year outcome of partial lacrimal punctal occlusion in the management of dry eye related to Sjogren's syndrome. Current Eye Research. 2011;36:507-12.
    -6565 Mansour K, Leonhardt CJ, Kalk WW, Bootsma H, Bruin KJ, Blanksma LJ, et al. Lacrimal punctum occlusion in the treatment of severe keratoconjunctivitis sicca caused by Sjogren's syndrome: a uniocular evaluation. Cornea. 2007;26:147-50. (A).

    Q7. Qual a efetividade e a segurança dos agonistas muscarínicos e mucolíticos no tratamento sintomático sistêmico da secura?

  • 15

    Agonistas muscarínicos, como a pilocarpina (5 mg, 2-4 ×/dia) e a cevimelina (30 mg, 3×/dia), têm maior benefício no tratamento sintomático da boca seca6666 Vivino FB, Al-Hashimi I, Khan Z, LeVeque FG, Salisbury PL 3rd, Tran-Johnson TK, et al. Pilocarpine tablets for the treatment of dry mouth and dry eye symptoms in patients with Sjogren syndrome: a randomized, placebo-controlled, fixed-dose, multicenter trial. P92-01 Study Group. Archives of Internal Medicine. 1999;159:174-81.

    67 Papas AS, Sherrer YS, Charney M, Golden HE, Medsger TA Jr, Walsh BT, et al. Successful treatment of dry mouth and dry eye symptoms in Sjogren's syndrome patients with oral pilocarpine: a randomized, placebo-controlled, dose-adjustment study. Journal of Clinical Rheumatology: Practical Reports on Rheumatic & Musculoskeletal Diseases. 2004;10:169-77.

    68 Wu CH, Hsieh SC, Lee KL, Li KJ, Lu MC, Yu CL. Pilocarpine hydrochloride for the treatment of xerostomia in patients with Sjogren's syndrome in Taiwan – a double-blind, placebo-controlled trial. Journal of the Formosan Medical Association = Taiwan yi zhi. 2006;105:796-803.
    -6969 Petrone D, Condemi JJ, Fife R, Gluck O, Cohen S, Dalgin P. A double-blind, randomized, placebo-controlled study of cevimeline in Sjogren's syndrome patients with xerostomia and keratoconjunctivitis sicca. Arthritis and Rheumatism. 2002;46:748-54. (A), mas também podem ser úteis no tratamento do olho seco6666 Vivino FB, Al-Hashimi I, Khan Z, LeVeque FG, Salisbury PL 3rd, Tran-Johnson TK, et al. Pilocarpine tablets for the treatment of dry mouth and dry eye symptoms in patients with Sjogren syndrome: a randomized, placebo-controlled, fixed-dose, multicenter trial. P92-01 Study Group. Archives of Internal Medicine. 1999;159:174-81.,6767 Papas AS, Sherrer YS, Charney M, Golden HE, Medsger TA Jr, Walsh BT, et al. Successful treatment of dry mouth and dry eye symptoms in Sjogren's syndrome patients with oral pilocarpine: a randomized, placebo-controlled, dose-adjustment study. Journal of Clinical Rheumatology: Practical Reports on Rheumatic & Musculoskeletal Diseases. 2004;10:169-77.,6969 Petrone D, Condemi JJ, Fife R, Gluck O, Cohen S, Dalgin P. A double-blind, randomized, placebo-controlled study of cevimeline in Sjogren's syndrome patients with xerostomia and keratoconjunctivitis sicca. Arthritis and Rheumatism. 2002;46:748-54.

    70 Tsifetaki N, Kitsos G, Paschides CA, Alamanos Y, Eftaxias V, Voulgari PV, et al. Oral pilocarpine for the treatment of ocular symptoms in patients with Sjogren's syndrome: a randomised 12 week controlled study. Annals of the Rheumatic Diseases. 2003;62:1204-7.

    71 Leung KC, McMillan AS, Wong MC, Leung WK, Mok MY, Lau CS. The efficacy of cevimeline hydrochloride in the treatment of xerostomia in Sjogren's syndrome in southern Chinese patients: a randomised double-blind, placebo-controlled crossover study. Clinical Rheumatology. 2008;27:429-36.

    72 Fife RS, Chase WF, Dore RK, Wiesenhutter CW, Lockhart PB, Tindall E, et al. Cevimeline for the treatment of xerostomia in patients with Sjogren's syndrome: a randomized trial. Archives of Internal Medicine. 2002;162:1293-1300.
    -7373 Ono M, Takamura E, Shinozaki K, Tsumura T, Hamano T, Yagi Y, et al. Therapeutic effect of cevimeline on dry eye in patients with Sjogren's syndrome: a randomized, double-blind clinical study. American Journal of Ophthalmology. 2004;138:6-17. (A) moderado a grave4141 Valim V, Trevisani VF, de Sousa JM, Vilela VS, Belfort R Jr. Current Approach to Dry Eye Disease. Clinical Reviews in Allergy & Immunology. 2014(D).

  • 16

    É recomendável ajustar a dose e o intervalo da pilocarpina de acordo com a tolerância do paciente6666 Vivino FB, Al-Hashimi I, Khan Z, LeVeque FG, Salisbury PL 3rd, Tran-Johnson TK, et al. Pilocarpine tablets for the treatment of dry mouth and dry eye symptoms in patients with Sjogren syndrome: a randomized, placebo-controlled, fixed-dose, multicenter trial. P92-01 Study Group. Archives of Internal Medicine. 1999;159:174-81.,6767 Papas AS, Sherrer YS, Charney M, Golden HE, Medsger TA Jr, Walsh BT, et al. Successful treatment of dry mouth and dry eye symptoms in Sjogren's syndrome patients with oral pilocarpine: a randomized, placebo-controlled, dose-adjustment study. Journal of Clinical Rheumatology: Practical Reports on Rheumatic & Musculoskeletal Diseases. 2004;10:169-77.(A).

  • 17

    Embora não disponível no Brasil, a cevimelina é o agonista muscarínico mais seguro, com menores taxas de efeitos colaterais e de interrupção de tratamento por ter ação mais seletiva sobre receptores M37474 Noaiseh G, Baker JF, Vivino FB. Comparison of the discontinuation rates and side-effect profiles of pilocarpine and cevimeline for xerostomia in primary Sjogren's syndrome. Clinical and Experimental Rheumatology. 2014;32:575-7.,7575 Brimhall J, Jhaveri MA, Yepes JF. Efficacy of cevimeline vs. pilocarpine in the secretion of saliva: a pilot study. Special Care in Dentistry: Official Publication of the American Association of Hospital Dentists, the Academy of Dentistry for the Handicapped, and the American Society for Geriatric Dentistry. 2013;33:123-7. (C).

  • 18

    O efeito colateral mais frequente dos agonistas muscarínicos é a sudorese6969 Petrone D, Condemi JJ, Fife R, Gluck O, Cohen S, Dalgin P. A double-blind, randomized, placebo-controlled study of cevimeline in Sjogren's syndrome patients with xerostomia and keratoconjunctivitis sicca. Arthritis and Rheumatism. 2002;46:748-54.,7272 Fife RS, Chase WF, Dore RK, Wiesenhutter CW, Lockhart PB, Tindall E, et al. Cevimeline for the treatment of xerostomia in patients with Sjogren's syndrome: a randomized trial. Archives of Internal Medicine. 2002;162:1293-1300.,7474 Noaiseh G, Baker JF, Vivino FB. Comparison of the discontinuation rates and side-effect profiles of pilocarpine and cevimeline for xerostomia in primary Sjogren's syndrome. Clinical and Experimental Rheumatology. 2014;32:575-7. (A). Deve-se estar atento às contraindicações para o uso dos agonistas muscarínicos, especialmente a pilocarpina, na asma e nas doenças cardíacas4141 Valim V, Trevisani VF, de Sousa JM, Vilela VS, Belfort R Jr. Current Approach to Dry Eye Disease. Clinical Reviews in Allergy & Immunology. 2014 (D).

  • 19

    O mucolítico N-acetilcisteina, na dose de 200 mg até três vezes ao dia, pode ser uma opção aos agonistas muscarínicos em pacientes com intolerância e também nos pacientes com secura em outros sítios, como pele, vagina e vias aéreas7676 Walters MT, Rubin CE, Keightley SJ, Ward CD, Cawley MI. A double-blind, cross-over, study of oral N-acetylcysteine in Sjogren's syndrome. Scandinavian Journal of Rheumatology Supplement. 1986;61:253-8. (A).

    Q8. Qual a efetividade e a segurança da suplementação com ácidos graxos em pacientes com SS?

  • 20

    Suplementação de ácidos graxos (ômega-3) pode ser usada, pois é uma intervenção de baixo risco e promove melhoria dos sintomas e testes funcionais do olho seco, embora os resultados tenham sido controversos em diferentes estudos7777 Manthorpe R, Hagen Petersen S, Prause JU. Primary Sjogren's syndrome treated with Efamol/Efavit. A double-blind cross-over investigation. Rheumatology International. 1984;4:165-7.

    78 Oxholm P, Manthorpe R, Prause JU, Horrobin D. Patients with primary Sjogren's syndrome treated for two months with evening primrose oil. Scandinavian Journal of Rheumatology. 1986;15:103-8.

    79 Aragona P, Bucolo C, Spinella R, Giuffrida S, Ferreri G. Systemic omega-6 essential fatty acid treatment and pge1 tear content in Sjogren's syndrome patients. Investigative Ophthalmology & Visual Science. 2005;46:4474-9.

    80 Pinheiro MN Jr, dos Santos PM, dos Santos RC, Barros Jde N, Passos LF, Cardoso Neto J. Oral flaxseed oil (Linum usitatissimum) in the treatment for dry-eye Sjogren's syndrome patients. Arquivos Brasileiros de Oftalmologia. 2007;70:649-55.

    81 Singh M, Stark PC, Palmer CA, Gilbard JP, Papas AS. Effect of omega-3 and vitamin E supplementation on dry mouth in patients with Sjogren's syndrome. Special Care in Dentistry: Official Publication of the American Association of Hospital Dentists, the Academy of Dentistry for the Handicapped, and the American Society for Geriatric Dentistry. 2010;30:225-9.
    -8282 Theander E, Horrobin DF, Jacobsson LT, Manthorpe R. Gammalinolenic acid treatment of fatigue associated with primary Sjogren's syndrome. Scandinavian Journal of Rheumatology. 2002;31:72-9.(A).

Parte 3. Tratamento sistêmico das manifestações glandulares e sistêmicas

Q9. Qual a efetividade e a segurança da hidroxicloroquina e dos imunossupressores no tratamento da SS?
  • 21

    Não há evidência de melhoria significativa dos sintomas glandulares com o uso de hidroxicloroquina na SS. No entanto, há melhoria dos parâmetros inflamatórios laboratoriais8383 Tishler M, Yaron I, Shirazi I, Yaron M. Hydroxychloroquine treatment for primary Sjogren's syndrome: its effect on salivary and serum inflammatory markers. Annals of the Rheumatic Diseases. 1999;58:253-6.

    84 Rihl M, Ulbricht K, Schmidt RE, Witte T. Treatment of sicca symptoms with hydroxychloroquine in patients with Sjogren's syndrome. Rheumatology. 2009;48:796-9.

    85 Fox RI, Dixon R, Guarrasi V, Krubel S. Treatment of primary Sjogren's syndrome with hydroxychloroquine: a retrospective, open-label study. Lupus. 1996;5:S31-6.

    86 Cankaya H, Alpoz E, Karabulut G, Guneri P, Boyacioglu H, Kabasakal Y. Effects of hydroxychloroquine on salivary flow rates and oral complaints of Sjogren's patients: a prospective sample study. Oral Surgery, Oral Medicine, Oral Pathology, Oral Radiology, and Endodontics. 2010;110:62-7.

    87 Yavuz S, Asfuroglu E, Bicakcigil M, Toker E. Hydroxychloroquine improves dry eye symptoms of patients with primary Sjogren's syndrome. Rheumatology International. 2011;31:1045-9.

    88 Fox RI, Chan E, Benton L, Fong S, Friedlaender M, Howell FV. Treatment of primary Sjogren's syndrome with hydroxychloroquine. The American Journal of Medicine. 1988;85(4A):62-7.

    89 Kruize AA, Hene RJ, Kallenberg CG, van Bijsterveld OP, van der Heide A, Kater L, et al. Hydroxychloroquine treatment for primary Sjogren's syndrome: a two year double blind crossover trial. Annals of the Rheumatic Diseases. 1993;52:360-4.
    -9090 Gottenberg JE, Ravaud P, Puechal X, Le Guern V, Sibilia J, Goeb V, et al. Effects of hydroxychloroquine on symptomatic improvement in primary Sjogren's syndrome: the JOQUER randomized clinical trial. Jama. 2014;312:249-58.(A).

  • 22

    Não há evidência para o uso de imunossupressores sistêmicos no tratamento dos sintomas de secura. Embora alguns estudos abertos e controlados tenham mostrado melhoria de parâmetros laboratoriais e inflamatórios, houve elevada frequência de eventos adversos, o que não justifica o seu emprego para síndrome seca9191 Fox PC, Datiles M, Atkinson JC, Macynski AA, Scott J, Fletcher D, et al. Prednisone and piroxicam for treatment of primary Sjogren's syndrome. Clinical and Experimental Rheumatology. 1993;11:149-56.

    92 Pijpe J, Kalk WW, Bootsma H, Spijkervet FK, Kallenberg CG, Vissink A. Progression of salivary gland dysfunction in patients with Sjogren's syndrome. Annals of the Rheumatic Diseases. 2007;66:107-12.

    93 Miyawaki S, Nishiyama S, Matoba K. Efficacy of low-dose prednisolone maintenance for saliva production and serological abnormalities in patients with primary Sjogren's syndrome. Internal Medicine. 1999;38:938-43.

    94 Price EJ, Rigby SP, Clancy U, Venables PJ. A double blind placebo controlled trial of azathioprine in the treatment of primary Sjogren's syndrome. The Journal of Rheumatology. 1998;25:896-9.

    95 Drosos AA, Skopouli FN, Galanopoulou VK, Kitridou RC, Moutsopoulos HM. Cyclosporin a therapy in patients with primary Sjogren's syndrome: results at one year. Scandinavian Journal of Rheumatology Supplement. 1986;61:246-9.

    96 Skopouli FN, Jagiello P, Tsifetaki N, Moutsopoulos HM. Methotrexate in primary Sjogren's syndrome. Clinical and Experimental Rheumatology. 1996;14:555-8.

    97 van Woerkom JM, Kruize AA, Geenen R, van Roon EN, Goldschmeding R, Verstappen SM, et al. Safety and efficacy of leflunomide in primary Sjogren's syndrome: a phase II pilot study. Annals of the Rheumatic Diseases. 2007;66:1026-32.
    -9898 Willeke P, Schluter B, Becker H, Schotte H, Domschke W, Gaubitz M. Mycophenolate sodium treatment in patients with primary Sjogren syndrome: a pilot trial. Arthritis Research & Therapy. 2007;9:R115.(B).

  • 23

    A escolha do tratamento imunossupressor da manifestação sistêmica depende do órgão acometido e da gravidade6060 Ramos-Casals M, Brito-Zeron P, Siso-Almirall A, Bosch X, Tzioufas AG. Topical and systemic medications for the treatment of primary Sjogren's syndrome. Nature Reviews Rheumatology. 2012;8:399-411. (D).

    Q10. Qual a efetividade e a segurança das terapias biológicas no tratamento da SS?

  • 24

    Terapia anti-TNF não está indicada no tratamento das manifestações glandulares ou sistêmicas da SS9999 Moutsopoulos NM, Katsifis GE, Angelov N, Leakan RA, Sankar V, Pillemer S, et al. Lack of efficacy of etanercept in Sjogren syndrome correlates with failed suppression of tumour necrosis factor alpha and systemic immune activation. Annals of the Rheumatic Diseases. 2008;67:1437-43.

    100 Mavragani CP, Niewold TB, Moutsopoulos NM, Pillemer SR, Wahl SM, Crow MK. Augmented interferon-alpha pathway activation in patients with Sjogren's syndrome treated with etanercept. Arthritis and Rheumatism. 2007;56:3995-4004.

    101 Sankar V, Brennan MT, Kok MR, Leakan RA, Smith JA, Manny J, et al. Etanercept in Sjogren's syndrome: a twelve-week randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled pilot clinical trial. Arthritis and Rheumatism. 2004;50:2240-5.
    -102102 Mariette X, Ravaud P, Steinfeld S, Baron G, Goetz J, Hachulla E, et al. Inefficacy of infliximab in primary Sjogren's syndrome: results of the randomized, controlled Trial of Remicade in Primary Sjogren's Syndrome (Tripss). Arthritis and Rheumatism. 2004;50:1270-6. (A).

  • 25

    O rituximabe é efetivo na melhoria de muitas manifestações na SS, como acometimento glandular (A), fadiga (A), atividade de doença (C), parâmetros imunológicos (A), infiltração glandular linfocitária, manifestações sistêmicas e qualidade de vida (C).103103 Dass S, Bowman SJ, Vital EM, Ikeda K, Pease CT, Hamburger J, et al. Reduction of fatigue in Sjogren's syndrome with rituximab: results of a randomised, double-blind, placebo-controlled pilot study. Annals of the Rheumatic Diseases. 2008;67:1541-4.

    104 Meijer JM, Meiners PM, Vissink A, Spijkervet FK, Abdulahad W, Kamminga N, et al. Effectiveness of rituximab treatment in primary Sjogren's syndrome: a randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled trial. Arthritis and Rheumatism. 2010;62:960-8.
    -105105 Devauchelle-Pensec V, Mariette X, Jousse-Joulin S, Berthelot JM, Perdriger A, Puechal X, et al. Treatment of primary Sjogren's syndrome with rituximab: a randomized trial. Annals of Internal Medicine. 2014;160:233-42.

  • 26

    O rituximabe não está indicado para o tratamento isolado dos sintomas de secura. É uma opção de tratamento para as manifestações sistêmicas que falharam ao tratamento convencional103103 Dass S, Bowman SJ, Vital EM, Ikeda K, Pease CT, Hamburger J, et al. Reduction of fatigue in Sjogren's syndrome with rituximab: results of a randomised, double-blind, placebo-controlled pilot study. Annals of the Rheumatic Diseases. 2008;67:1541-4.

    104 Meijer JM, Meiners PM, Vissink A, Spijkervet FK, Abdulahad W, Kamminga N, et al. Effectiveness of rituximab treatment in primary Sjogren's syndrome: a randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled trial. Arthritis and Rheumatism. 2010;62:960-8.

    105 Devauchelle-Pensec V, Mariette X, Jousse-Joulin S, Berthelot JM, Perdriger A, Puechal X, et al. Treatment of primary Sjogren's syndrome with rituximab: a randomized trial. Annals of Internal Medicine. 2014;160:233-42.
    -106106 Gottenberg JE, Cinquetti G, Larroche C, Combe B, Hachulla E, Meyer O, et al. Efficacy of rituximab in systemic manifestations of primary Sjogren's syndrome: results in 78 patients of the AutoImmune and Rituximab registry. Annals of the Rheumatic Diseases. 2013;72:1026-31. (C). A critério clínico, em casos selecionados, pode ser considerado para manifestação glandular grave e específica, como a parotidite refratária6262 Farrell J, Patel S, Grierson DG, Sturrock RD. A clinical procedure to predict the value of temporary occlusion therapy in keratoconjunctivitis sicca. Ophthalmic & Physiological Optics: the Journal of the British College of Ophthalmic Opticians. 2003;23:1-8.(D).

  • 27

    O abatacepte106106 Gottenberg JE, Cinquetti G, Larroche C, Combe B, Hachulla E, Meyer O, et al. Efficacy of rituximab in systemic manifestations of primary Sjogren's syndrome: results in 78 patients of the AutoImmune and Rituximab registry. Annals of the Rheumatic Diseases. 2013;72:1026-31.

    107 Adler S, Korner M, Forger F, Huscher D, Caversaccio MD, Villiger PM. Evaluation of histologic, serologic, and clinical changes in response to abatacept treatment of primary Sjogren's syndrome: a pilot study. Arthritis Care & Research. 2013;65:1862-8.

    108 Meiners PM, Vissink A, Kroese FG, Spijkervet FK, Smitt-Kamminga NS, Abdulahad WH, et al. Abatacept treatment reduces disease activity in early primary Sjogren's syndrome (open-label proof of concept ASAP study). Annals of the Rheumatic Diseases. 2014;73:1393-6.
    -109109 Tsuboi H, Matsumoto I, Hagiwara S, Hirota T, Takahashi H, Ebe H, et al. Efficacy and safety of abatacept for patients with Sjogren's syndrome associated with rheumatoid arthritis: Rheumatoid Arthritis with Orencia Trial toward Sjogren's syndrome Endocrinopathy (ROSE) trial-an open-label, one-year, prospective study-Interim analysis of 32 patients for 24 weeks. Modern Rheumatology/The Japan Rheumatism Association. 2014:1-7. (C) e o belimumabe110110 Mariette X, Seror R, Quartuccio L, Baron G, Salvin S, Fabris M, et al. Efficacy and safety of belimumab in primary Sjogren's syndrome: results of the Beliss open-label phase II study. Annals of the Rheumatic Diseases. 2013. (C) são drogas promissoras para melhorar a atividade de doença, o perfil imunológico e a qualidade de vida. Podem ser considerados no tratamento da SS em casos refratários e com elevada atividade sistêmica da doença.

    Q11. Qual o tratamento das manifestações articulares, miosite e fadiga na SS?

  • 28

    O tratamento inicial das artrites decorrentes da SS pode ser hidroxicloroquina associada ou não a baixas doses de glicocorticoide ou Aine para alívio sintomático8383 Tishler M, Yaron I, Shirazi I, Yaron M. Hydroxychloroquine treatment for primary Sjogren's syndrome: its effect on salivary and serum inflammatory markers. Annals of the Rheumatic Diseases. 1999;58:253-6. (C). Em caso de falha no tratamento com hidroxicloroquina, pode-se substituir ou associar com metotrexato6060 Ramos-Casals M, Brito-Zeron P, Siso-Almirall A, Bosch X, Tzioufas AG. Topical and systemic medications for the treatment of primary Sjogren's syndrome. Nature Reviews Rheumatology. 2012;8:399-411.,9696 Skopouli FN, Jagiello P, Tsifetaki N, Moutsopoulos HM. Methotrexate in primary Sjogren's syndrome. Clinical and Experimental Rheumatology. 1996;14:555-8. (D). Nos raros casos refratários em dose otimizada de metotrexato, recomenda-se o rituximabe106106 Gottenberg JE, Cinquetti G, Larroche C, Combe B, Hachulla E, Meyer O, et al. Efficacy of rituximab in systemic manifestations of primary Sjogren's syndrome: results in 78 patients of the AutoImmune and Rituximab registry. Annals of the Rheumatic Diseases. 2013;72:1026-31. (C).

  • 29

    Miosite caracterizada por fraqueza, elevação de creatinoquinase (CK) e alteração eletroneuromiográfica deve ser tratada inicialmente com prednisona. Nos raros casos refratários, recomenda-se metotrexato (D).

  • 30

    A presença de artralgia de padrão não inflamatório e dores difusas sem miosite deve ser conduzida como uma síndrome de amplificação dolorosa, com analgesia e exercícios, e observar-se potencial risco de pioria da secura por efeito adverso a medicamentos (D).

  • 31

    O tratamento da fadiga inclui prescrição de exercícios aeróbicos, de moderada a alta intensidade1414 Strombeck BE, Theander E, Jacobsson LT. Effects of exercise on aerobic capacity and fatigue in women with primary Sjogren's syndrome. Rheumatology. 2007;46:868-71. (B), e manejo adequado da doença de base. Diferentes classes de medicamento foram testadas e não se mostraram eficazes ou seguras com inaceitáveis taxas de eventos adversos, tais como: dihidroepiandrosterona (DHEA)111111 Hartkamp A, Geenen R, Godaert GL, Bootsma H, Kruize AA, Bijlsma JW, et al. Effect of dehydroepiandrosterone administration on fatigue, well-being, and functioning in women with primary Sjogren's syndrome: a randomised controlled trial. Annals of the Rheumatic Diseases. 2008;67:91-7.(A), ácidos graxos8282 Theander E, Horrobin DF, Jacobsson LT, Manthorpe R. Gammalinolenic acid treatment of fatigue associated with primary Sjogren's syndrome. Scandinavian Journal of Rheumatology. 2002;31:72-9. (A), hidroxicloroquina8989 Kruize AA, Hene RJ, Kallenberg CG, van Bijsterveld OP, van der Heide A, Kater L, et al. Hydroxychloroquine treatment for primary Sjogren's syndrome: a two year double blind crossover trial. Annals of the Rheumatic Diseases. 1993;52:360-4.,9090 Gottenberg JE, Ravaud P, Puechal X, Le Guern V, Sibilia J, Goeb V, et al. Effects of hydroxychloroquine on symptomatic improvement in primary Sjogren's syndrome: the JOQUER randomized clinical trial. Jama. 2014;312:249-58. (A), azatioprina9494 Price EJ, Rigby SP, Clancy U, Venables PJ. A double blind placebo controlled trial of azathioprine in the treatment of primary Sjogren's syndrome. The Journal of Rheumatology. 1998;25:896-9. (A), leflunomide9797 van Woerkom JM, Kruize AA, Geenen R, van Roon EN, Goldschmeding R, Verstappen SM, et al. Safety and efficacy of leflunomide in primary Sjogren's syndrome: a phase II pilot study. Annals of the Rheumatic Diseases. 2007;66:1026-32. (A), micofenolato9898 Willeke P, Schluter B, Becker H, Schotte H, Domschke W, Gaubitz M. Mycophenolate sodium treatment in patients with primary Sjogren syndrome: a pilot trial. Arthritis Research & Therapy. 2007;9:R115. (B) e anti-TNF (A).102102 Mariette X, Ravaud P, Steinfeld S, Baron G, Goetz J, Hachulla E, et al. Inefficacy of infliximab in primary Sjogren's syndrome: results of the randomized, controlled Trial of Remicade in Primary Sjogren's Syndrome (Tripss). Arthritis and Rheumatism. 2004;50:1270-6. A critério clínico, o rituximabe103103 Dass S, Bowman SJ, Vital EM, Ikeda K, Pease CT, Hamburger J, et al. Reduction of fatigue in Sjogren's syndrome with rituximab: results of a randomised, double-blind, placebo-controlled pilot study. Annals of the Rheumatic Diseases. 2008;67:1541-4.

    104 Meijer JM, Meiners PM, Vissink A, Spijkervet FK, Abdulahad W, Kamminga N, et al. Effectiveness of rituximab treatment in primary Sjogren's syndrome: a randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled trial. Arthritis and Rheumatism. 2010;62:960-8.
    -105105 Devauchelle-Pensec V, Mariette X, Jousse-Joulin S, Berthelot JM, Perdriger A, Puechal X, et al. Treatment of primary Sjogren's syndrome with rituximab: a randomized trial. Annals of Internal Medicine. 2014;160:233-42.,112112 Carubbi F, Cipriani P, Marrelli A, Benedetto P, Ruscitti P, Berardicurti O, et al. Efficacy and safety of rituximab treatment in early primary Sjogren's syndrome: a prospective, multi-center, follow-up study. Arthritis Research & Therapy. 2013;15:R172. (A) pode ser uma opção terapêutica que leva em consideração a evidência de inflamação e o impacto na capacidade funcional e na qualidade de vida.

    Q12. Qual o tratamento das manifestações neurológicas em sistema nervoso periférico na SS?

  • 32

    Recomenda-se, para o tratamento do envolvimento do SNP, a combinação de glicocorticoide em altas doses (com posterior redução gradual) e imunossupressores (azatioprina, ciclofosfamida, micofenolato)6060 Ramos-Casals M, Brito-Zeron P, Siso-Almirall A, Bosch X, Tzioufas AG. Topical and systemic medications for the treatment of primary Sjogren's syndrome. Nature Reviews Rheumatology. 2012;8:399-411.,113113 Delalande S, de Seze J, Fauchais AL, Hachulla E, Stojkovic T, Ferriby D, et al. Neurologic manifestations in primary Sjogren's syndrome: a study of 82 patients. Medicine. 2004;83:280-91.,114114 Danieli MG, Pettinari L, Morariu R, Monteforte F, Logullo F. Intravenous immunoglobulin and mycophenolate mofetil for long-standing sensory neuronopathy in Sjogren's syndrome. Case Reports in Immunology. 2012, 201863. (C).

  • 33

    Pacientes com mononeurite múltipla devem iniciar esquema com pulsoterapia de metilprednisolona e ciclofosfamida113113 Delalande S, de Seze J, Fauchais AL, Hachulla E, Stojkovic T, Ferriby D, et al. Neurologic manifestations in primary Sjogren's syndrome: a study of 82 patients. Medicine. 2004;83:280-91. (C).

  • 34

    Pacientes com polineuropatia atáxica e ganglioneuronopatia sensitiva têm pior resposta a todos os tratamentos113113 Delalande S, de Seze J, Fauchais AL, Hachulla E, Stojkovic T, Ferriby D, et al. Neurologic manifestations in primary Sjogren's syndrome: a study of 82 patients. Medicine. 2004;83:280-91. (C). Por isso, para esses pacientes, recomenda-se associar a imunoglobulina ao esquema terapêutico com glicocorticoides e imunossupressores, na tentativa de se obter melhor resposta clínica115115 Rist S, Sellam J, Hachulla E, Sordet C, Puechal X, Hatron PY, et al. Experience of intravenous immunoglobulin therapy in neuropathy associated with primary Sjogren's syndrome: a national multicentric retrospective study. Arthritis Care & Research. 2011;63:1339-44.(C).

  • 35

    Quando não houver melhoria clínica ao tratamento inicial, recomenda-se rituximabe116116 Mekinian A, Ravaud P, Hatron PY, Larroche C, Leone J, Gombert B, et al. Efficacy of rituximab in primary Sjogren's syndrome with peripheral nervous system involvement: results from the AIR registry. Annals of the Rheumatic Diseases. 2012;71:84-7.(C). Pacientes com vasculite ou crioglobulinemia apresentam melhor resposta ao rituximabe116116 Mekinian A, Ravaud P, Hatron PY, Larroche C, Leone J, Gombert B, et al. Efficacy of rituximab in primary Sjogren's syndrome with peripheral nervous system involvement: results from the AIR registry. Annals of the Rheumatic Diseases. 2012;71:84-7.(C).

  • 36

    A imunoglobulina é uma opção terapêutica para todos os tipos de acometimento do SNP na falha dos esquemas anteriores115115 Rist S, Sellam J, Hachulla E, Sordet C, Puechal X, Hatron PY, et al. Experience of intravenous immunoglobulin therapy in neuropathy associated with primary Sjogren's syndrome: a national multicentric retrospective study. Arthritis Care & Research. 2011;63:1339-44.,117117 Mori K, Iijima M, Koike H, Hattori N, Tanaka F, Watanabe H, et al. The wide spectrum of clinical manifestations in Sjogren's syndrome-associated neuropathy. Brain: a Journal of Neurology. 2005;128:518-34, 2.,118118 Morozumi S, Kawagashira Y, Iijima M, Koike H, Hattori N, Katsuno M, et al. Intravenous immunoglobulin treatment for painful sensory neuropathy associated with Sjogren's syndrome. Journal of the Neurological Sciences. 2009;279:57-61. (C).

  • 37

    A plasmaférese deve ser reservada a casos mais graves e refratários a todas as medidas anteriores, pois não existem estudos que justifiquem seu uso rotineiro119119 Chen WH, Yeh JH, Chiu HC. Plasmapheresis in the treatment of ataxic sensory neuropathy associated with Sjogren's syndrome. European Neurology. 2001;45:270-4.(C).

    Q13. Qual o tratamento das manifestações neurológicas em sistema nervoso central na SS?

  • 38

    Recomenda-se para o tratamento do envolvimento do SNC a combinação de glicocorticoide em altas doses e ciclofosfamida113113 Delalande S, de Seze J, Fauchais AL, Hachulla E, Stojkovic T, Ferriby D, et al. Neurologic manifestations in primary Sjogren's syndrome: a study of 82 patients. Medicine. 2004;83:280-91.,120120 Tobon GJ, Pers JO, Devauchelle-Pensec V, Youinou P. Neurological disorders in primary Sjogren's syndrome. Autoimmune Diseases. 2012;2012:676459.

    121 Lafitte C, Amoura Z, Cacoub P, Pradat-Diehl P, Picq C, Salachas F, et al. Neurological complications of primary Sjogren's syndrome. Journal of Neurology. 2001;248:577-84.

    122 Rossi R, Valeria Saddi M. Subacute aseptic meningitis as neurological manifestation of primary Sjogren's syndrome. Clinical Neurology and Neurosurgery. 2006;108:688-91.

    123 Santosa A, Lim AY, Vasoo S, Lau TC, Teng GG. Neurosjogren: early therapy is associated with successful outcomes. Journal of Clinical Rheumatology: Practical Reports on Rheumatic & Musculoskeletal Diseases. 2012;18:389-92.
    -124124 de Seze J, Delalande S, Fauchais AL, Hachulla E, Stojkovic T, Ferriby D, et al. Myelopathies secondary to Sjogren's syndrome: treatment with monthly intravenous cyclophosphamide associated with corticosteroids. The Journal of Rheumatology. 2006;33:709-11. (C). Quando não houver melhoria clínica, recomenda-se rituximabe6060 Ramos-Casals M, Brito-Zeron P, Siso-Almirall A, Bosch X, Tzioufas AG. Topical and systemic medications for the treatment of primary Sjogren's syndrome. Nature Reviews Rheumatology. 2012;8:399-411.,125125 Mekinian A, Ravaud P, Larroche C, Hachulla E, Gombert B, Blanchard-Delaunay C, et al. Rituximab in central nervous system manifestations of patients with primary Sjogren's syndrome: results from the AIR registry. Clinical and Experimental Rheumatology. 2012;30:208-12. (C).

  • 39

    Meningite subaguda febril asséptica pode ser tratada inicialmente apenas com glicocorticoide a depender das condições clínicas122122 Rossi R, Valeria Saddi M. Subacute aseptic meningitis as neurological manifestation of primary Sjogren's syndrome. Clinical Neurology and Neurosurgery. 2006;108:688-91. (C).

    Q14. Qual é o tratamento das manifestações respiratórias (parenquimatosas e de vias aéreas inferiores) na SS?

  • 40

    Na presença de manifestações pulmonares intersticiais sintomáticas, recomenda-se o tratamento com glicocorticoide somado a um agente imunossupressor (azatioprina ou ciclofosfamida)126126 Deheinzelin D, Capelozzi VL, Kairalla RA, Barbas Filho JV, Saldiva PH, de Carvalho CR. Interstitial lung disease in primary Sjogren's syndrome. Clinical-pathological evaluation and response to treatment. American Journal of Respiratory and Critical Care Medicine. 1996;154:794-9.

    127 Parambil JG, Myers JL, Lindell RM, Matteson EL, Ryu JH. Interstitial lung disease in primary Sjogren's syndrome. Chest. 2006;130:1489-95.

    128 Zhang L, Mo H, Zhu M, Wang L. Effect of cyclophosphamide on cytokines in patients with primary Sjogren's syndrome-associated interstitial lung disease in South China. Rheumatology International. 2013;33:1403-7.
    -129129 Shi JH, Liu HR, Xu WB, Feng RE, Zhang ZH, Tian XL, et al. Pulmonary manifestations of Sjogren's syndrome. Respiration. International Review of Thoracic Diseases. 2009;78:377-86. (C). Micofenolato mofetil é uma opção nos casos refratários ou com contraindicações para outros imunossupressores130130 Fischer A, Brown KK, Du Bois RM, Frankel SK, Cosgrove GP, Fernandez-Perez ER, et al. Mycophenolate mofetil improves lung function in connective tissue disease-associated interstitial lung disease. The Journal of Rheumatology. 2013;40:640-6. (C). Rituximabe pode ser considerado nos casos refratários de pneumonia intersticial e deve-se evitar supertratar alterações fibróticas relacionadas à sequela106106 Gottenberg JE, Cinquetti G, Larroche C, Combe B, Hachulla E, Meyer O, et al. Efficacy of rituximab in systemic manifestations of primary Sjogren's syndrome: results in 78 patients of the AutoImmune and Rituximab registry. Annals of the Rheumatic Diseases. 2013;72:1026-31. (C).

  • 41

    As manifestações do trato respiratório (decorrentes de bronquiolite) podem ser leves e justificar apenas corticoterapia inalada e/ou sistêmica131131 Borie R, Schneider S, Debray MP, Adle-Biasssette H, Danel C, Bergeron A, et al. Severe chronic bronchiolitis as the presenting feature of primary Sjogren's syndrome. Respiratory Medicine. 2011;105:130-6. (C). O uso de imunossupressores deve ser indicado a critério do especialista6060 Ramos-Casals M, Brito-Zeron P, Siso-Almirall A, Bosch X, Tzioufas AG. Topical and systemic medications for the treatment of primary Sjogren's syndrome. Nature Reviews Rheumatology. 2012;8:399-411. (D).

    Q15. Qual o tratamento das manifestações renais glomerulares e túbulo-intersticiais na SS?

  • 42

    Nas manifestações renais secundárias às nefrites túbulo-intersticiais, recomenda-se a correção da hipocalemia e a reposição com bicarbonato de sódio. A critério clínico, considerar glicocorticoide em altas doses associado ou não a outro imunossupressor132132 Goules AV, Tatouli IP, Moutsopoulos HM, Tzioufas AG. Clinically significant renal involvement in primary Sjogren's syndrome: clinical presentation and outcome. Arthritis and Rheumatism. 2013;65:2945-53.

    133 Kaufman I, Schwartz D, Caspi D, Paran D. Sjogren's syndrome – not just Sicca: renal involvement in Sjogren's syndrome. Scandinavian Journal of Rheumatology. 2008;37:213-8.

    134 Ren H, Wang WM, Chen XN, Zhang W, Pan XX, Wang XL, et al. Renal involvement and followup of 130 patients with primary Sjogren's syndrome. The Journal of Rheumatology. 2008;35:278-84.

    135 Yamamoto S, Okada Y, Mori H, Hirata S, Saito K, Inokuchi N, et al. Successful treatment of osteomalacia caused by renal tubular acidosis associated with Sjogren's syndrome. Modern Rheumatology/The Japan Rheumatism Association. 2013;23:401-5.

    136 Yilmaz H, Kaya M, Ozbek MK, Safa Yildirim UUI. Hypokalemic periodic paralysis in Sjogren's syndrome secondary to distal renal tubular acidosis. Rheumatology International. 2013;33:1879-82.
    -137137 Maripuri S, Grande JP, Osborn TG, Fervenza FC, Matteson EL, Donadio JV, et al. Renal involvement in primary Sjogren's syndrome: a clinicopathologic study. Clinical Journal of the American Society of Nephrology: CJASN. 2009;4:1423-31. (C).

  • 43

    Nas GNs, recomenda-se pulsoterapia com metilprednisolona associado à ciclofosfamida132132 Goules AV, Tatouli IP, Moutsopoulos HM, Tzioufas AG. Clinically significant renal involvement in primary Sjogren's syndrome: clinical presentation and outcome. Arthritis and Rheumatism. 2013;65:2945-53.,133133 Kaufman I, Schwartz D, Caspi D, Paran D. Sjogren's syndrome – not just Sicca: renal involvement in Sjogren's syndrome. Scandinavian Journal of Rheumatology. 2008;37:213-8. (C). Azatioprina e ciclosporina podem ser opções nos casos leves a moderados132132 Goules AV, Tatouli IP, Moutsopoulos HM, Tzioufas AG. Clinically significant renal involvement in primary Sjogren's syndrome: clinical presentation and outcome. Arthritis and Rheumatism. 2013;65:2945-53. (C). Rituximabe deve ser considerado nos casos refratários106106 Gottenberg JE, Cinquetti G, Larroche C, Combe B, Hachulla E, Meyer O, et al. Efficacy of rituximab in systemic manifestations of primary Sjogren's syndrome: results in 78 patients of the AutoImmune and Rituximab registry. Annals of the Rheumatic Diseases. 2013;72:1026-31.,132132 Goules AV, Tatouli IP, Moutsopoulos HM, Tzioufas AG. Clinically significant renal involvement in primary Sjogren's syndrome: clinical presentation and outcome. Arthritis and Rheumatism. 2013;65:2945-53.,137137 Maripuri S, Grande JP, Osborn TG, Fervenza FC, Matteson EL, Donadio JV, et al. Renal involvement in primary Sjogren's syndrome: a clinicopathologic study. Clinical Journal of the American Society of Nephrology: CJASN. 2009;4:1423-31.(C).

    Q16. Qual a efetividade e segurança do tratamento farmacológico no tratamento das vasculites na SS?

  • 44

    O tratamento recomendado para as vasculites, independentemente do órgão comprometido, é a imunossupressão com metilprednisolona em pulso de altas doses por três dias, associado a imunossupressores (azatioprina, micofenolato mofetil ou ciclofosfamida). A ciclofosfamida tem sido o imunossupressor mais frequentemente empregado138138 Hasiloglu ZI, Albayram S, Tasmali K, Erer B, Selcuk H, Islak C. A case of primary Sjogren's syndrome presenting primarily with central nervous system vasculitic involvement. Rheumatology International. 2012;32:805-7.

    139 Tsai TC, Chen CY, Lin WT, Lee WJ, Chen HC. Sjogren's syndrome complicated with IgA nephropathy and leukocytoclastic vasculitis. Renal Failure. 2008;30:755-8.

    140 Cardoso R, Goncalo M, Tellechea O, Maia R, Borges C, Silva JA, et al. Livedoid vasculopathy and hypercoagulability in a patient with primary Sjogren's syndrome. International Journal of Dermatology. 2007;46:431-4.
    -141141 Golan TD, Keren D, Elias N, Naschitz JE, Toubi E, Misselevich I, et al. Severe reversible cardiomyopathy associated with systemic vasculitis in primary Sjogren's syndrome. Lupus. 1997;6:505-8. (C). O tratamento da vasculite cutânea pode ser inicialmente com glicocorticoide oral (0,5-1 mg/kg/dia) ou pulsoterapia com metilpredinisolona (a depender da gravidade do quadro) e imunossupressor. Casos refratários ao esquema inicial podem ser tratados com rituximabe142142 Gottenberg JE, Guillevin L, Lambotte O, Combe B, Allanore Y, Cantagrel A, et al. Tolerance and short term efficacy of rituximab in 43 patients with systemic autoimmune diseases. Annals of the Rheumatic Diseases. 2005;64:913-20.,143143 Ramos-Casals M, Garcia-Hernandez FJ, de Ramon E, Callejas JL, Martinez-Berriotxoa A, Pallares L, et al. Off-label use of rituximab in 196 patients with severe, refractory systemic autoimmune diseases. Clinical and Experimental Rheumatology. 2010;28:468-76. (C).

  • Financiamento
    Sociedade Brasileira de Reumatologia.
  • Estudo conduzido na Comissão de Síndrome de Sjögren da Sociedade Brasileira de Reumatologia.

Agradecimentos

Wanderley Marques Bernardo (Projeto Diretrizes - Associação Médica Brasileira), pela assessoria técnica na revisão sistemática e formatação final do texto. Walber Pinto Vieira (presidente da SBR no biênio 2012-2014) e César Emile Baaklini, (presidente da SBR no biênio 2014-2016), pelo apoio ao desenvolvimento dessas diretrizes.

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Datas de Publicação

  • Publicação nesta coleção
    Sep-Oct 2015

Histórico

  • Recebido
    29 Mar 2015
  • Recebido
    23 Jul 2015
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