THE TRANSITION FROM EARLY CHILDHOOD EDUCATION TO ELEMENTARY SCHOOL: THE BEGINNING OF STUDY ACTIVITIES

ABSTRACT

This study, theoretical and conceptual in nature, is anchored in the perspective of Historical-Cultural Psychology and aims to understand the role of playing social roles and productive activities in the formation of psychic capacities necessary for the study activity, guiding activity of school age. It is through this activity that children appropriate the most elaborate forms of knowledge of reality created by mankind, expressed in the sciences, philosophy and the arts, enabling them to develop an important neoformation, theoretical thinking. As a result, it is evident that in roleplaying children reproduce the existing social relations between men and, within this activity; the self-mastery of conduct and imagination is developed. The productive activities are performed aiming at a certain result and, in this process; important psychic capacities are developed, such as analysis and planning. All these capabilities are indispensable to theoretical thinking.

Keywords:
role-play; study activity; historical-cultural psychology

RESUMO

O presente estudo, de natureza teórico-conceitual, ancora-se na perspectiva da Psicologia Histórico-Cultural e tem por objetivo compreender o papel da brincadeira de papéis sociais e das atividades produtivas na formação de capacidades psíquicas necessárias à atividade de estudo, atividade guia da idade escolar. É por meio dessa atividade que as crianças se apropriam das formas mais elaboradas de conhecimento da realidade criadas pelo gênero humano, expressas nas ciências, na filosofia e nas artes, possibilitando-as desenvolver uma importante neoformação, o pensamento teórico. Como resultados, evidencia-se que na brincadeira de papéis as crianças reproduzem as relações sociais existentes entre os homens e, no interior dessa atividade, é desenvolvido o autodomínio da conduta e a imaginação. Já as atividades produtivas são realizadas visando a um determinado resultado e, nesse processo, são desenvolvidas importantes capacidades psíquicas, como a análise e planejamento. Todas essas capacidades são imprescindíveis ao pensamento teórico.

Palavras-chave:
brincadeira de papéis; atividade de estudo; psicologia histórico-cultural

RESUMEN

El presente estudio, de naturaleza teórico-conceptual, se ancla en la perspectiva de la Psicología Histórico-Cultural y tiene por objetivo comprender el papel de juegos de papeles sociales y de las actividades productivas en la formación de capacidades psíquicas necesarias a la actividad de estudio, actividad guía de la edad escolar. Es por intermedio de esa actividad que los niños se apropian de las formas más elaboradas de conocimiento de la realidad creadas por el género humano, expresas en las ciencias, en la filosofía y en las artes, posibilitándolas desarrollar una importante neo-formación, el pensamiento teórico. Como resultados, se evidencia que en los juegos de papeles los niños reproducen las relaciones sociales existentes entre los hombres y, en el interior de esa actividad, se desarrolla el autodominio de la conducta y de la imaginación. Ya las actividades productivas son realizadas visando a un determinado resultado y, en ese proceso, se desarrollan importantes capacidades psíquicas, como el análisis y planificación. Todas esas capacidades son imprescindibles al pensamiento teórico.

Palabras clave:
juego de papeles; actividad de estudio; psicología histórico-cultural

INTRODUCTION

Historically, conceptions of childhood, children’s rights and early childhood education have undergone significant changes, due to the economic, political, social and cultural changes that have occurred in each society and in each historical period. According to Guimarães and Garms (2012), the history of legal provisions regarding the rights of children and their education portray a historical path marked by antagonistic relations between assistance and education.

Currently, the recognition of the child as a social and historical subject, holder of social rights, makes early childhood education a social requirement, occupying a significant and relevant space in the Brazilian education scene. In addition, it is imperative to understand that the period for Early Childhood Education is of paramount importance in child psychic development.

In this sense, the present article, of a theoretical-conceptual nature, was based on the assumptions of Historical-Cultural Psychology represented by classic authors such as Davydov (2008), Elkonin (1969, 1987, 2009), Leontiev (2016), Mukhina (1996 ) and Vygotsky (1996, 2018) and contemporary authors such as Pasqualini (2013, 2014), Pasqualini and Abrantes (2016), Pasqualini and Eidt (2016) and Brigatto and Pasqualini (2019). As the well as aimed to understand the place of social roles in the gestation of new activities and in promoting children’s psychological development, aiming at the transition to the next period of development, that is, the study activity.

It is through this activity that children appropriate the most elaborate forms of knowledge of reality created by humankind, expressed in science and the arts, enabling them to move beyond the limits of everyday life. According to Clarindo (2015, p. 84), “... the process of internalizing culturally elaborated experiences is a decisive phase for the formation of one of humanity’s richest modes of action, characterized by theoretically thinking”.

The transition from playful activity to study activity causes the requirements for children to change radically. However, many times, the new rules of conduct required in elementary education contradict the child’s motivations and needs, hindering the process of appropriating school content and, consequently, the development of students’ theoretical thinking.

Although when reaching school age all children want to study, they are not always equally prepared for study. In isolated cases, the school attracts the child solely because of its external aspects: the building, the class desks, the pictures on the walls, the number of children, etc. These children have the same attitude towards the study as in relation to the game¹: they can refuse to do the work in which the whole class is busy, saying that they want to do something else, the housework they do without care, combining with the game: In the study notebooks, they draw what they want. (Elkonin, 1969, p. 524).

The finding of these difficulties justifies the need for theoretical and conceptual studies that seek to clarify the transition process from playing social roles to the study activity, elucidating the psychic abilities that can be developed in this process and that are linked to theoretical thinking.

THE PERIODIZATION OF PSYCHIC DEVELOPMENT IN THE LIGHT OF HISTORICAL-CULTURAL PSYCHOLOGY

Historical-cultural psychology addresses the problem of periodic psychic development, adopting as one of its postulates that periods of human development are conditioned by the subject’s form of social organization, at each historical moment. Thus, in different societies and cultures, development will take different paths and will therefore be composed of potentially different periods. In view of this, this theory denies the possibility of establishing universal natural phases or stages, valid for all individuals, in any and any place and time. Another important postulate of historical-cultural theory is that it is not the child’s chronological age that determines the period of psychic development: age represents a relative and historically conditioned parameter (Pasqualini & Eidt, 2016).

The starting point adopted in this work to explain the theoretical model of based on the development period elects the studies carried out by Elkonin (2017). According to the author, in agreement with the studies of Blonski (1934) and Vygotsky (1996), childhood is different at each stage of development and at each historical stage of humanity. It is considered that this course of child development is a process of qualitative transformations, accompanied by crises and leaps. Elkonin (2017) agreed to call periods and stages of childhood life processes separated by crises, some more marked (times) and others less marked (stages).

In the late 1930s, an important achievement of Soviet psychology was the introduction of the concept of activity in research on genesis and mental development. This concept allowed the consolidation of development periodization. As stated by Elkonin (2017, p. 153), “... the solution of the problem about driving forces of psychic development was directly linked to the question of the principles of division of stages in the psychic development of children.”

This concept is central to understanding development periodization. Leontiev (2016) characterizes the dominant² activity as that which governs the most decisive psychological changes in a given period of development and, at the same time, manages the premises for the formation of new types of activities. In the same direction, Pasqualini and Abrantes (2016, p. 10) state that:

... it is human activity that mobilizes and causes the development of psychic capacities and functions and, therefore, of consciousness itself. Being in activity implies establishing goals for one’s own actions and being able to link them with a view to meeting needs, which requires organization and mastery of one’s behavior. For this, the entire psychic inter-functional system is mobilized, involving from the most basic processes such as sensation, perception, attention and memory to more complex processes such as language, thought and imagination, alongside emotions and feelings.

Pasqualini and Abrantes (2016) teach that such psychic processes develop and become complex as they are required by the activity, a fact that produces qualitative leaps in consciousness. For Elkonin (2017), psychic development can only be understood when it is clarified with which aspect of reality the child interacts in one or another activity, that is, in the direction of which aspects of reality he or she is oriented to.

At preschool age, playing social roles becomes a guide activity and, at school age, study activity achieves the condition of activity that will guide the child’s development.

THE STUDY ACTIVITY

The school age period is guided by the study activity. Leontiev (2016) explains that the child’s entry into elementary school marks the beginning of a new period of development and, with this, changes his/her relationship with society: from now on, he/she starts to perform a serious activity. Márkova and Abramova (1986) explain that:

The activity [of study] is fundamental in the younger school age (from seven to ten years old). The particularity is that its result is the transformation of the student himself, while the content of the [study] activity consists of mastering the generalized modes of action in the sphere of scientific concepts. (Márkova & Abramova, 1986, p. 105, emphasis added).

Therefore, the study activity is one through which the child, guided by the teacher, appropriates theoretical knowledge (science, art, philosophy). There is a marked difference between playing social roles and the study activity: while in the first the product and the result of the activity are not important, in the second an activity oriented by the result emerges. It is important to “know what the adult knows” (Pasqualini, 2013, p. 92).

Pasqualini and Abrantes (2016), relying on Davydov (2008), explain that at the beginning of the study activity, the appropriation of knowledge is not yet a conscious need for the child: such a need is formed in the process of appropriating the knowledge, as he/she carries out study actions with the teacher. If the result of these actions becomes significant enough to surprise the child, reasons for the study activity are formed. Thus, it is possible to conclude that the need for appropriation of systematized knowledge is not a prerequisite for learning school content, but the schooling process itself must produce it.

As theoretical knowledge is appropriated, a new formation appears, that is, theoretical thinking. It is worth mentioning that theoretical thinking does not mean abstract thinking. Rather, it refers to a type of thinking capable of understanding objects and phenomena through the analysis of their origin and development (Medeiros, 2014). Among the characteristics of theoretical thinking are:

... the theoretical knowledge deals with an integrated system of phenomena, and not with the individual phenomenon, isolated. It emerges through the development of methods to solve the contradictions that arose in the context of a problem situation, developing an understanding of the origins, relationships and dynamics of the phenomenon; this knowledge is communicated through models. Through the theoretical epistemological procedure, the object is observed as it transforms. These relationships are revealed in the recreation of the object in its relationship with other objects ... theoretical knowledge cannot be acquired only in its verbal or literary form, even though it does appear initially, at the scientific level in verbal and literary forms. (Hedegaard, 1996, p. 345 cited by Medeiros, 2014, p. 46).

The study activity has its own structure, which requires a specific form of teaching organization, aiming at the effective appropriation of scientific knowledge by students. Davydov and Márkova (1987) teach that it is precisely this appropriation of human experience, aimed at scientific knowledge, that constitutes the essential condition for the emergence of psychic neoformations, especially theoretical thinking. However, Vygotsky (2018) states that the emergence of new forms is always prepared by the preceding stage of development, in this case, the play of social roles.

Therefore, it is necessary to understand the essence of this guiding activity, highlighting its prominent place in the gestation of the study activity.

THE SOCIAL ROLE PLAY

Mukhina (1996) explains that play is the main activity of preschool age, not because the child spends most of the time having fun, but because the game gives rise to qualitative changes in the child’s psyche.

According to Elkonin (2009), role playing is a specifically human activity and has a historical character. Its genesis is closely linked to the development of society because of the change of place that the child occupies in society. The author explains that in the early stages of humanity’s development, in primitive communities, the child’s bond with society was direct and immediate and children lived a common life with adults, actively participating in the work process. In societies with more advanced forms of production (such as agriculture and livestock), tools were found to be small for children to use them within the production process. In these two situations, it was found that the role-play was rarely found in its evolved form.

There is no need to practice it. Children enter the life of society under the direction of adults or on their own: the exercises in the management of adult work tools, in the case of acquiring the character of games, will be sports or competition games, but not protagonists. The reconstitution of adults’ activity in special playful conditions lacks any sense due to the identity of the tools used by children and the elderly, as well as the gradual approximation of the conditions of their employment to concrete work situations. In addition, although children do not participate in it, they lead the same kind of life as adults, in somewhat milder, but very real conditions. (Elkonin, 2009, p. 75)

With the gradual complexity of the productive forces, the social division of labor deepened. This process resized the situation that children live in society, and they gradually stopped participating in work activities, moving away from the interior of the production process.

With the advent of capitalist society, this process has deepened further. Given the current complexity of social relations of production, the child is unable (and generally not allowed) to perform much of the productive activities of adults, but feels the need to act like an adult. The play of social roles arises, therefore, as a solution to a contradiction, namely: the child wants to act like the adult, that is, to do what the adult does, but realizes that he/she has neither physical nor psychic conditions to do so. The child then acts in the imaginary situation (Leontiev, 2016).

It is worth mentioning that play is characterized by its non-productive character, that is, in play, the child does not aim at a result or a product:

It doesn’t matter that the action of cooking in play doesn’t produce something that can effectively be feeding him or that the action of driving doesn’t objectively transport the child to another place: the action itself is important, the act of cooking or driving and its social content, not its result. (Pasqualini & Eidt, 2016, p. 130).

Elkonin (2009) advocates that the fundamental content of playing social roles is man’s activity and the social relationships established among adults:

… The object of the child’s activity in the game is the adult, what the adult does, for what purpose he does and the relationships he establishes, at the same time, with other people. Hence, one can hypothetically infer the main motivations of the game: to act like an adult, it means, the child is not an adult, but acts like an adult. (Elkonin, 2009, p. 204).

In this sense, the author explains that what constitutes the game in its evolved form is not the object, nor its use, but the relationships that people establish through actions with objects. In other words, “it is not about the man-object relationship, but the man-man relationship” (Elkonin, 2009, p.34).

Elkonin (1987) explains that the main meaning of role-playing for child psychic development is that, in this activity and through it, the child models the relationships between people. It is important to emphasize, as the author states, that the game appears in the child’s life with the help of adults, and not spontaneously.

The development of games, both with respect to its argument and its content, does not occur passively. The transition from one level of the game to another takes place thanks to the direction of the adults, who without changing the independent activity and of a creative character help the child to discover certain faces of reality that are reflected later in the game ... (Elkonin, 1969, p.513, emphasis added, our translation).

What constitutes the fundamental unit of play is precisely the role and actions resulting from it. Duarte (2006) explains that social roles constitute a synthesis of attitudes, procedures, values ​​and rules of behavior that mediate between the individual and other people in specific social situations. It is worth mentioning that social roles may or may not be identified with a professional activity. As an example, we have the role of teacher, who identifies with a professional activity. This no longer occurs with the role of father.

Elkonin (2009) explains that the child’s attitude towards the role he assumes changes throughout the development of the game. Thus, at the first level, the central content is made up mainly of actions with certain objects. What matters is to reproduce the actions of a teacher, mother, and doctor. In this first stage, the sequence of actions performed by the child is not in line with the actions experienced in reality. In addition, in most cases, children do not name the roles they play.

In the second level of game development, the roles are called by the children and the actions are consistent with this role. The sequence of actions is already in line with real life actions. At the third level, the roles have already announced before the game starts. In case of infraction following the actions by any participant in the game, there are demonstrations of protest and discontent on the part of the others.

At the fourth level, the fundamental content of the game is the execution of actions related to the attitude adopted towards other people whose roles are interpreted by other children. Elkonin (2009, p. 298) states that “these actions clearly stand out from the background of all actions related to role representation”. Even at this level, the roles are clearly defined, the actions are developed in a strictly reconstructive order of the real logic, and the infraction of the logic of the actions and rules is repelled.

Elkonin (2009) points out that the levels of game development highlighted are, simultaneously, stages of development; as the age increases, the level of development of the game increases. However, the author warns that children of the same age group can meet at different levels and / or between two levels concurrently. Thus, for Historical-Cultural Psychology, play is not a way for children to get away from reality. On the contrary, it is through play that he/she can approach and appropriate the reality in which he/she is inserted.

THE PLAY OF SOCIAL ROLES AND THE GESTATION OF THE STUDY ACTIVITY

Every role-playing contains some latent rule, a fact that shows that it is during play that the child’s conduct is substantially restructured, becoming arbitrated; therefore, Elkonin (2009, p. 420) is categorical in stating that “the game is a school of arbitrary conduct”. It is important to note that the author understands the arbitrated conduct as one that presents itself in conformity with a model and that is verified by confrontation with that model, as he explains: “the arbitrated conduct is not only characterized by the presence of a model, but also by the proof imitation of the model ”(Elkonin, 2009, p. 420).

Likewise, Leontiev (2016, p. 133) states that, “when a child takes a role in a game, he/she conducts himself/herself according to the rules of action underlying this social function”. Despite the apparent freedom of the child during the game, the implicit rules resulting from the social role that the child plays guide children’s behavior. The child submits to the requirements of the established role, its functions and established rules. Thus, Pasqualini (2014) explains that, with this, the child learns to contain his immediate impulses, developing the ability to master them during the time of play. Still, when the child puts himself in the position of the “other” during role-playing, this contributes to cognitive and emotional decentralization and self-awareness:

In addition, it is not just that loose intellectual operations are formed or developed in the game, but that the child’s position radically changes in the face of the surrounding world and the mechanism for the possible change of positions and coordination of the criterion of a person is formed with the other possible criteria. This change offers precisely the possibility and opens the way for thinking to move to a higher level and constitute new intellectual operations. (Elkonin, 2009, p. 413).

By putting himself/herself in the other’s shoes, the child takes on a role with rules and behaviors that are different from his/her. The child’s individual behavior cannot be guided by its own and external impulses; when experiencing a different social position, the child must be guided by the imperatives contained in the role of that new position.

The internalized norms through the play of social roles will contribute to the self-control of conduct, so necessary for later school life. Pasqualini (2014) presents that, for Leontiev, the promotion of the development of self-mastery of conduct is one of the essential aspects of the child’s psychological preparation for learning at school, since the study activity will require the child to have a conscious and intentional relationship with school content.

It is also in this period that the cognitive processes of perception, thought and imagination gain an emotional component, and this integration between emotion and cognition will assist in the organization and in the domain of its internal processes (Pasqualini, 2014). Regarding role-play, when dramatization and plot require collective actions of cooperation and empathy with partners, Zaporozhets and collaborators (cited by Pasqualini, 2014, p. 100) affirm, “such activities necessarily involve the anticipation of mental results distant from the actions themselves, which in general depend on the emotional reactions of the partners and their subsequent actions”. This action is called “emotional correction of conduct”, which, according to Bodrova and Leong (2003), leads to a greater understanding, on the part of the child, in relation to the situation, to others and to themselves same.

Mental functions, such as attention, memory and imagination, start their transformation process during the preschool age and acquire their voluntary forms during the school age (Bodrova & Leong, 2003). Furthermore, according to Bodrova and Leong (2003), the ability to use words in their instrumental forms develops during the first school years and they can be largely attributed to the subject’s social situation during this period. The acquisition of specific cultural competence at school age, such as reading, brings about great changes in the use of words and other cultural tools by children. However, the authors caution that some preparatory processes must take place during the preschool years, in order to allow this major change to take its place [happen]. One of these processes is the use of words and gestures by children, in a symbolic way (Bodrova & Leong, 2003). For these authors, Vygotsky notes that younger preschoolers are not yet able to separate an object from its denomination [from the word that denominates it]. “It takes several years of complexity of social role play for children to be able to think words and other symbols, regardless of the objects they [words] represent” (Bodrova & Leong, 2003, p.159).

Bodrova and Leong (2003) explain that when children start to use words to manipulate physical objects, their thoughts become free from the limitation of immediate perception; consequently, perception loses its dominant position in the minds of children. As Brigatto and Pasqualini (2019) explain, the child’s action is determined by ideas, and no longer by objects. The ability to store and retrieve images from the past, now greatly improved by the use of language, makes it possible to use past experiences in a range of situations [from communication to problem solving], thereby establishing memory at the center of cognitive functioning preschoolers (Bodrova & Leong, 2003).

In this sense, Brigatto and Pasqualini (2019) indicate that it is possible to understand play as a transition between absolute dependence on the immediate situation that characterizes the first years of life and the possibility of thinking free from real situations, which constitutes a late achievement of development human.

To become a successful student, as stated by Bodrova and Leong (2003), the child does not need to acquire specific knowledge; instead, the child must develop generalized social knowledge and cognitive skills that will allow him/her to become a critical student, self-regulating and able to establish adequate social relationships with the other actors in the teaching and learning process, which takes his place at school.

It is important to clarify that playing social roles is the guiding activity of preschool age; however, the productive activities of that period also have relevance in the child’s psychic development process:

Play is not the only activity that influences the child’s psychological development. The child models, builds, cuts; all these activities aim to create a product, whether it be a drawing, a collage, etc. Each of these activities has its own particularities, requires certain forms of action and exerts its specific influence on the child’s development. (Mukhina, 1996, p. 167).

With this in mind, we will now discuss how productive activities, considered ancillary activities of preschool age, contribute to the gestation of the study activity.

PRODUCTIVE ACTIVITIES AND GESTATION OF STUDY ACTIVITY

Mukhina (1996) and Elkonin (2009) highlight drawing, collage and modeling as the main ancillary activities of preschool age. The first children’s drawings are characterized by doodles or scribbling; during this stage, the child is not yet able to announce, in advance, the content of his graphics. In addition, he/she is more interested in the process of drawing than in the result. However, throughout the teaching process, she is able to anticipate what she intends to draw.

Throughout the teaching process, conditions are created that encourage children to improve their graphic images, adding new elements to the drawing, so that it corresponds, more and more, to the real object. Thus, the graphic activity acts specifically in the development of the preschool child when he “moves from the design of diffuse graphic images ... to the representation of real and concrete objects” (Mukhina, 1996, p. 173).

However, Mukhina (1996, p. 172) warns that, “in children’s drawing, the tendency to develop graphic images clashes with the tendency to make these images graphic clichés”³. Thus, the evolution of design depends, ultimately, on teaching methods. The teacher needs to take into account that teaching based on model copies falls into the formation of clichés and teaching that aims to improve a design that reproduces the properties of the object avoids the cliché.

Mukhina (1996) states that the building process is also oriented towards obtaining a real product, that is, a result (differently from what happened when playing social roles). Through construction, the child progressively understands that he/she does not just unite one piece with the other in any order to build, but realize that there is a construction order. Thus, the construction activity teaches children that there is an “internal logic proper to the object, which requires its own forms of analysis and planning” (Mukhina, 1996, p. 174). In this sense, collage and modeling have a psychological value similar to drawing and construction. Mukhina (1996, p. 177) states that they allow the child to imagine in advance what he should do, helping him to acquire “capacity for a planned activity”.

From the above, it is possible to understand that the performance of productive activities requires planning. Thus, for the child to achieve a certain result, it is necessary that his/her conduct must be guided by a determined action plan. The ability to plan their own actions is one of the main achievements of the child at preschool age, but this capacity needs to be trained in the child, that is, it needs to be the object of teaching (Pasqualini & Abrantes, 2016).

Elkonin (2009, p. 516) teaches that each of the types of productive activity engenders a specific type of capacity in preschoolers:

The design leads to the accuracy and differentiation of perception. The perception of color and shape of objects becomes more accurate. Modeling improves the perception of the volume of things. With the construction, it is possible to realize the relations existing between the different parts of the objects. All of these types of activities are practical methods for separating and systematizing the qualities of objects. On this basis appear general representations of shape, size, volume, color, quantity, enabling a more general and abstract form of knowledge.

Elkonin (2009) also states that, during the performance of productive activities, the child assumes, for the first time, the task of learning something. In addition, this accessory activity helps in the process of becoming aware of your strengths and abilities.

FINAL CONSIDERATIONS

The present study, of a theoretical-conceptual nature, aimed to understand the importance of playing social roles and productive activities in the formation of psychic capacities necessary for the study activity, the activity that guides school age. We are guided by an important principle of Historical-Cultural Psychology, that is, the emergence of neoformations for a given period is always prepared in the preceding stage of development. This means to affirm that the formation of theoretical thought, new formation of the school age, needs to be “gestated” within the preschool age, both through the main activity and the productive activities.

We hope to have managed to demonstrate that play is a non-productive activity, that is, the child plays without the expectation of obtaining an objective result. What motivates children to play is the possibility of representing the social relationships that exist between men and, within this activity, they voluntarily submit to the rules of roles they assume. In doing so, they develop the self-mastery of the conduct, the imagination, as well as the emotional correction of the conduct. Two other important achievements of preschool age are the increase in the use of the memory voluntarily and the beginning of the ability to operate in the symbolic universe. The productive activities, on the other hand, are carried out based on an action plan aimed at obtaining a certain result and, in this process, important psychic abilities are developed, such as analysis and planning, the increase of perception and the ability to operate with more general and knowledge of reality.

All of these capacities are essential to the development of theoretical thinking; therefore, it is necessary to ensure conditions for the study activity to begin to develop in early childhood education, considering the particularities of the child at preschool age (that is, his interests, reasons and needs)

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• 1
  It has understood that the word game is not a description of the activity of playing social roles, however we will keep the original idea and translation when it comes to the authors’ quotes.
• 2
  It is understood that the term dominant activity, used in the translations of Leontiev’s writings (2016) may not express the meaning of this concept, that is, the activity that will guide psychic development in this way, the term guide activity was preferred as a synonym that expresses our understanding of activity.
• 3
  Mukhina (1996) explains that children’s drawing shows a tendency to fix successful graphic images, which can lead to stagnation. The author classifies this stagnation as graphic clichés.

• This paper was translated from Portuguese by Ana Maria Pereira Dionísio.

Publication Dates

• Publication in this collection
  18 May 2020
• Date of issue
  2020

History

• Received
  11 Oct 2018
• Accepted
  02 May 2019