Words database for senior high school reading: E-READING III

ABSTRACT

Purpose:

to elaborate a database of high, medium and low frequency words for reading in High School.

Methods:

the words were extracted from the Portuguese Language didactic content, of São Paulo State Educational material. Only the nouns were selected. The frequency of each word occurrence was computed. To classify them by frequency of occurrence, it was employed the distribution tertiles, mean frequency and tertiles cutoff point. In order to verify the classification obtained,134 students were evaluated: G1 (1^stgrade, n=44); G2 (2^nd grade, n= 44) e G3 (3^rd grade, n= 46). The words were presented, for reading out loud, in two sessions: 1^st) high and medium-frequency and 2^nd) low-frequency. Descriptive analysis.

Results:

the words truly correspond to the classification presented, and, each word presents its level of difficulty. The professional can choose the words that best fulfill their goals in order to develop procedures for evaluation and intervention in reading.

Conclusion:

E-READING III constitutes a useful resource for professionals, because, it displays a database with a wide range of words to be applied in high school students. It is expected that E-READING III may enable evaluation and intervention procedures for these students concerning reading.

Keywords:
Education, Primary and Secondary; Evaluation; Learning; Reading

RESUMO

Objetivo:

elaborar um banco de palavras de alta, média e baixa frequência para leitura no Ensino Médio.

Métodos:

as palavras foram retiradas do material didático de língua Portuguesa, da rede de ensino do Estado de São Paulo. Selecionaram-se apenas os substantivos. Foi registrada a frequência de ocorrência das palavras. Para a classificação das frequências utilizou-se os tercis da distribuição, frequência média e ponto de corte dos tercis. Para verificar a classificação obtida foram avaliados 134 alunos: G1 (1ªsérie, n=44); G2 (2ª série, n= 44) e G3 (3ªsérie, n= 46). As palavras foram apresentadas, para leitura, em voz alta, em duas sessões: 1ª) alta e média frequência e 2ª) baixa frequência. Análise descritiva.

Resultados:

as palavras correspondem à classificação apresentada, porém, cada palavra apresenta seu nível de dificuldade e o profissional poderá eleger aquelas que melhor respondem aos seus objetivos, para que assim, possa elaborar instrumentos de avaliação e intervenção em leitura.

Conclusão:

o E-LEITURA III é um recurso útil para os profissionais, pois é disponibilizado um banco com ampla gama de palavras que poderá ser utilizado com escolares do Ensino Médio. Dessa forma, espera-se que o E-LEITURA III possa ser utilizado para elaborar procedimentos de avaliação e intervenção com leitura nesses escolares.

Descritores:
Ensino Fundamental e Médio; Avaliação; Aprendizagem; Leitura

Introduction

Reading and writing are essential skills in modern society, considered important for the cultural and personal development of people, providing their inclusion in most social environments. Furthermore, it is one of the most important inputs to knowledge, since reading is required for learning the proposed content, that is, it is necessary to read in order to learn^1-7.

Reading enables the individual to perform rewarding works in society, using everyday life resources, to acknowledge science and technology, history and culture of humanity, becoming a responsible and active citizen³. Lack of knowledge of the written form, in literate societies, coexists with exclusion, poverty and limits for practicing citizenship^8).

Learning how to read involves processes, which are initially conscious and intentional, which become progressively unconscious and automated. However, the fact that these skills have been automated does not mean that reading is a simple task^3,9.

Reading involves the decoding process (basic skill) and comprehension (high-level skill)^9,10. Decoding is the ability related to graphic symbols recognition, which are represented by means of letters and words. It involves perceptual skills (comprehension and interpretation of graphic symbols from visual stimuli), identification of letters and lexicon (linguistic knowledge of words, from which readers build their meanings).

Comprehension is the process by which the words, sentences or texts are interpreted. It involves the syntactic processes (knowledge of grammatical structures, enabling the comprehension of how words are related) and semantic (integration of current information - words, phrases or texts - with prior knowledge)^9-11.

The phonological processing and writing knowledge skills proved to be correlated to performance regarding encoding and decoding, involved in writing and reading of isolated items¹². In Portuguese, as there is not only the unequivocal correspondence between letters and phonemes, that is, graphemes can correspond to more than one phoneme, and phonemes to more than one grapheme (not more than two), the conversion of letters into a grapheme sequence constitutes a prerequisite for the grapheme-phoneme correspondence process and for learning how to read^8,13-16.

One of the models employed to explain word recognition in an alphabetic writing system is the Double Route model¹⁷, widely described in the literature^9,18-25. The proficient readers are able to read real words using two routes, involved in the model cited above: two lexical processes (lexical-phonemic which may be accompanied by the semantic processing, or by the grapheme-phoneme conversion process) and a phonological process^24,25.

The lexical route enables reading all known words, both regular and irregular, but not the pseudowords and unfamiliar words. The phonological route (sub-lexical), in turn, enables reading all regular words, known or not, and the pseudowords, but not the irregular words^9,23-25.

Irregular words when read through the phonological route, can have their pronunciation regularized because there is a conflict between the correct pronunciation produced by the lexical route and regularized pronunciation produced by the phonological route. This leads to a longer reaction time for reading the word, especially regarding low frequency occurrence^17,23-26.

Knowledge of words is promoted by constant reading, which enables increased comprehension for each word. Thus, it is like a cycle, in which constant reading favors comprehension, encouraging the individual to keep on practicing³.

Reading out loud isolated real words is recognized in several alphabetic languages as an effective method of assessing cognitive reading, considered as effective to evaluate the components of the dual route model^9,27. This type of reading has been widely studied, due to its importance at the beginning of the learning process^28,29.

Reading out loud real words provides the following information: 1) alteration in the number of letters (length); 2) variation in levels of familiarity with the words (frequency); 3) involvement of the semantic processing in reading and 4) involvement of the grapheme-phoneme conversion process for recovering pronunciation^23,24.

International researchers^30-32 provide database of words, classified according to frequency and extent, which professionals can use ones, which best meet their goals. In Spain, the Spanish Royal Academy provides an online list of words, according to their frequency.

Despite its importance, to date, there are no records of words lists and pseudowords, which can be used for reading assessment for Brazilian High School students, neither words database for professionals to select, in order to create their own lists. The lists available are displayed in reading and writing assessment procedures^18,24,25,33, just for the first cycle of Basic Education students.

According to the above cited, this study aimed: 1) to prepare a database of high, medium and low frequency words, termed the E-LEITURA III ('E-READING III', in English), to be used as language stimulus in assessment and intervention procedures for High School students reading and 2) to describe the performance of High School students in reading E-READING III with the Basic Education students performance in words database, specifically developed for this population.

Methods

The Research Ethics Committee of the Faculty of Philosophy and Sciences UNESP - Marilia, under Opinion N. 1125746, approved this study. It is an applied research aiming to develop a word database for Senior High School students reading, termed the E-LEITURA III ('E - READING III', in English). The undertaking of this material is part of a doctoral thesis, currently in its final stage, termed "Translation and cultural adaptation of the evaluation of the processes of reading (PROLEC-SE R) for students of Basic Education cycle II and of Senior High School Education", of the Postgraduate Program in Education, of the Faculty of Philosophy and Sciences, of the Universidade Estadual Paulista "Júlio de Mesquita Filho" - FFC/UNESP/Marília (SP), Brazil.

Words database elaboration for high school students

In this step, a database of words from the teaching material used by the state school system of Marilia (SP) was applied from the 1^st to 3^rd grade of Senior High School - São Paulo (state) Board of Education. Student´s notebook: Portuguese, High School. Secretary of Education. São Paulo: SEE, 2013. This material was applied during the four bimesters of 2013.

The presented material is designed to support the Senior High School curriculum, proposed by the São Paulo State Education Board. The student´s notebook, whose content has been developed by Education experts, based on the Official Curriculum of the State of São Paulo, is part of the actions foreseen by the program denominated as "São Paulo Faz Escola".

Each school bimester, a kit of books is distributed according to the school grade, with notebooks of the respective disciplines. The material chosen for this work was the Portuguese book - Language and Area Codes and their Technologies, consisting of 12 books (four per school grade). All the words of the texts from the teaching materials were typed in a single column of Excel spreadsheet. After typing, only the nouns were selected for being a frequent class in any text, as they have important syntactic functions in the sentence.

All the homophones words and those which might be understood as ambiguous, depending on the context, and which could be classified differently, were removed. For example, the Portuguese word "africanas" (africans) which can be placed in the class of nouns, as in the Portuguese sentence "As africanas vestem-se diferentemente das japonesas" (Africans wear different clothes from Japanese) and can also be placed in the class of adjectives "As abelhas africanas são perigosas" (African bees are dangerous).

The noun words which can take on the role of adjectives, although as metaphor, were kept, as in the example of the Portuguese word "fera" (in English, equivalent to 'beast, angry'), which can be placed in the class of nouns, as in the Portuguese sentence "A fera está solta na selva" (The beast is free in the jungle), and in the class of adjectives as a metaphor as in the Portuguese phrase "Sua mãe está uma fera com você" (in English, equivalent to 'Your mother is very angry with you').

Nouns can be recognized by some criteria: 1) represent names of objects; 2) are always nucleus of the noun phrase; 3) generally allow the use of article; 4) syntactically, may perform several functions: subject, verb complement, passive agent, nominal complement, predicative, and 5) alter according to gender, number and degree³⁴.

The written words taken from other languages, such as 'games' and 'show', for example, were removed, as well as abbreviations ('cd' for 'compact disk'), adverbs, adverbial locutions, prepositional locutions, adjectives, months of the year, numerals and augmentative and diminutive words. Slangs and juxtaposed word when accompanied by hyphen (as in the Portuguese word 'couve-flor' (cauliflower, in English) or without hyphen, but written separately (as in the Portuguese word 'pé de moleque' - peanut brittle in English). Juxtaposed words were kept, when united (as in the Portuguese word 'girassol', sunflower in English), and words composed by agglutination, were remained.

The homonymous words homograph type (words written the same way, decrypted different, e.g. the Portuguese word 'gosto' (taste) that can be a verb and a noun and homonymous words, perfect type (the words are written the same way and equally pronounced, such as: 'cedo' (noun, in English early/soon) and 'cedo' (verb, in English to cede/give away), were excluded. Homonymous words, homophone type (spelled differently but pronounced similarly, like in the Portuguese words "mau (bad) - mal (evil/illness)'; sessão (session) - seção (section)" were maintained.

The words in the augmentative or diminutive, synthetic degree, when suffixes are used, were excluded when they took the regular form, as in the example of boné - bonezinho (cap - little cap), or carro - carrão (car - big car). The irregular diminutives and augmentatives, which are constructed with other suffixes, were kept, as in the examples of palacete (mansion) and ribeirão (creek).

As in Brazilian Portuguese, masculine constitutes the dominant gender, when the words were presented in feminine and the masculine, feminine words were excluded, however, added to the masculine gender word. If the same word was also presented in plural and singular, words written in plural form were recorded in singular and excluded from the word bank. The same occurred for feminine words only; they were altered to masculine. Words in feminine were kept, if there was alteration of meaning, that is, if there were different words to represent the gender, such as cow - ox, prince - princess, for example. Words only in the plural form, whether masculine or feminine, were transformed into masculine singular form. If the word, when altered from plural to singular form assumed homonymous homograph or homonymous perfect form, or even presented any kind of ambiguity, it was therefore excluded from the database.

After this selection process, all the words and the number of times they appeared in the selected material were counted, in order to raise the occurrence frequency for Senior High School. The spreadsheets were organized according to the school grade and sent to a statistician to analyze which words were considered as high, medium and low frequency in each school grade and which were common to all grades. From this classification, it was created a single database of words (E - Reading III) for Senior High School students, from 1^st to 3^rd grade.

It is worth mentioning that the goal was to investigate the orthographic lexicon. To that end, it was necessary to identify how many times each word appeared in the material used by the students. The phonological lexicon was not considered, thus, hearing of a word influences the speed of auditory recognition and not the visual recognition, as explained by Pinheiro²⁹.

In order to classify the words as high, medium and low frequency, the decision was to work with the tertiles of distribution, and with the mean frequency and cutoff of tertiles, due to the frequencies that are close to the center. When choosing to work only with high and low frequency, for example, a frequency of 48% would be classified as low, and 52% as high, although they are very close, not fulfilling the proposed objective.

The values based on the tertiles cutoff point for the number of times each word may appear to be considered as high, medium and low frequency, are:

• High-frequency: 22 - 146 times

• Medium frequency: 7 - 21 times

• Low-frequency: 1 - 6 times

From this cutoff point, the number of words for each type of frequency for Senior High School is presented below:

• High-frequency: 79 words

• Medium frequency: 277 words

• Low-frequency: 1316 words

Participants

A total of 134 students were evaluated, from the 1^st to 3^rd grade of Senior High School, from two state public schools from a town in the nonmetropolitan region of São Paulo:

• G1: 44 students from the 1^st grade o Senior High School

• G2: 44 students from the 2^nd grade o Senior High School

• G3: 46 students from the 3^rd grade o Senior High School

As the statistics for this study are descriptive, with percentages of correct readings of each word, and analytical, because it is possible to compare this percentage relative to the words with low-frequency and with those of medium and high frequency, the minimum number of 40 students per school year was specified for ascertaining whether the words of high, medium and low frequency genuinely correspond to this classification.

The following inclusion criteria were adopted: 1) signature of the Free Informed Consent by parents or guardians; 2) signature the Consent Term. Exclusion criteria were: 1) students who refused to participate, although parents or guardians had signed the consent form; 2) students with interdisciplinary diagnosis of learning disorder, dyslexia and attention deficit hyperactivity disorder; 3) learning complaints; 4) alteration of language or speech; 5) impaired eyesight and hearing; 6) diagnoses of genetic or neurological syndromes; 7) flunk history ; 8) intellectual impairment.

This information was recorded in the school form and provided by the students' teachers. Some students were excluded after collection, due to language alterations detection, during the tests.

Procedures

• Signing of the Terms of Informed Consent by those responsible for the students.

• Signing of the Terms of Assent by the students assessed.

• Presentation of the list of words in the E-READING III database for reading out loud.

The lists of words of high, medium and low frequency, from the E-READING III database, were presented to the students, on sulphite paper, A4 size, using the Times New Roman font, size 14, in lowercase letters. Each page presented an average of 72 words, and was read out loud, one at a time, by the student.

Data collection

This procedure was undertaken individually in two sessions, on separate days: 1^st) reading of words of high and medium frequency, lasting an average of 20 minutes, and 2^nd) reading of low-frequency words, lasting an average of 30 minutes.

Before reading each list, the student was informed if the words were classified into high, medium or low frequency; in particular for low frequency, the student was informed that she might come across words that she had never or rarely read, and, therefore, should not stop reading to know if she had read correctly or not.

Analysis of the Results

The statistical analysis was performed using the STATA/SE program (version 12.1), based on the number of correct answers for each word evaluated. The confidence interval calculation was undertaken (CI 95%), indicating the accuracy of the results.

For descriptive purposes, the correct answers averages of High School students for E-READING III and Basic Education II for E-LEITURA II (in English, 'E-READING II'⁷⁾⁾ were presented.

Results

After reading evaluation of high, medium and low frequency words, when observing the students' behavior, it was observed that some words contemplated the exclusion criteria and other generated jokes or discomfort to the students. Therefore, the following words were excluded from the database:

• High-Frequency: face - /f/ /a/ /s/ /e/ (the students pronounced the Portuguese word 'face' as they would the English word 'face' - /f/ /e/ /ɪ/ /s/ /i/, coming from 'Facebook').

• Medium Frequency: orgia (orgy) (generated discomfort or inappropriate comments from students), sede (clubhouse/central office/thirst) (homonymous words homograph type).

• Low-Frequency: Matola (name of a town); coletânea (meaning 'compilation album", this word had been typed incorrectly - 'coletânia'); afetivação (effective, the word was typed incorrectly, the correctly form is "efetivação"); coma (eat), rego (creek), bala (candy) - the verb 'bala", third person singular of the verb 'balar' (bleat) - and torre (tower) (in Portuguese is both noun and verb; satã, satanás (satan) and virgindade (virginity) (generated discomfort or inappropriate comments from students).

After exclusion of those words, lists of high, medium and low frequency were comprised by:

• High frequency: 78 words (APPENDIX A)

• Medium frequency: 275 words (APPENDIX B)

• Low Frequency: 1306 words (APPENDIX C)

Table 1 shows the high-frequency words success percentage and some examples for the Senior High School. One of the words with fewer correct answers regarding the high-frequency list was "literatura" (literature) with 97.7% (CI 95% 95-100). With 95% confidence, the interval for the word "literatura" comprehends the true average populational percentage of correct answers for High School.

Table 1:
Percentage presentation of correct readings of the high frequency words of the E-READING III - Senior High School database

For the average frequency list of E-READING III, the word with fewer correct answers was "sobrancelha" (eyebrow) with 83.1% (CI 95% 76.4 - 89.8), followed by the word "cêntimo" (centime) with 85.5% (CI 95% 79.2 - 91.8). The words "visão" (vision) and "leitura" (reading) are examples, which reached 100% accuracy (Table 2).

Table 2:
Percentage presentation of correct readings of the medium frequency words of the E-READING III - Senior High School database

The low frequency correct words percentage for Senior High School regarding E-Reading III and some examples, are shown in Table 3. The word in the low frequency list which presented fewer correct answers, was "invólucro" (involucre) with 68.8% (IC 95% 60 to 77.6) followed by "ápice" (summit) with 69.7% (CI 95% 61 to 78.5) and "xexéu" (foul odor of sweat) with 71.6% (CI 95% 63 to 80.2)

Table 3:
Percentage presentation of correct readings of the low frequency words of the E-READING III - Senior High School database

From the results, it is observed that words of high, medium and low frequency of E-READING III actually correspond to this classification, although each word presents its own level of difficulty, as shown in the appendices. The words are presented in alphabetical order, with their respective means, standard deviation and confidence interval (CI 95%). Among these, the researcher/professional can choose the word, which best fits with her criteria and objective.

Comparison between Basic Education II and Senior High School

To perform the comparison of between Basic Education II and Senior High School, data concerning the work of Oliveira and Capellini⁷ were applied. By observing the students' correct words answers average, either for high, medium and low frequency, it was observed that the correct answers percentage decreases according to the word occurrence frequency; with higher percentage of correct high frequency and lower percentage of low frequency. In addition, there is no evidence that the structure of the initial syllable constitutes an impediment to reading the words, but the occurrence frequency, the extension and the prosodic aspect (tone) of the word, as can be seen in Table 4.

Table 4:
Examples of comparison of high, medium and low frequency words for Basic Education II and Senior High students, according to the minimum percentage of correct answers.

• * Basic Education II data were taken from the work of Oliveira and Capellini7.

Still, by observing Table 4, it was observed that the minimum percentage of correct answers increases from Basic Education II to Senior High School, thus, with increasing education, improvements in identifying and decoding words are noticed, as well as further development of orthographic lexicon.

Discussion

During the preparation of E-READING III, the following criteria were considered: 1) classification of words for high, medium and low frequency, 2) exclusion of ambiguous words and 3) checking for words classification sensitivity. Performance of these three items was possible based on the partnership among the professionals from the area of speech therapy, education (arts) and exact sciences (statistics).

Reading the words of E-READING III was conducted in order to verify their ratings sensitivity (high, medium or low frequency), besides enabling words identification, which caused discomfort or contemplated the exclusion criteria, without feasible application in educational and clinical practice.

When comparing the words correct answers, there is a higher percentage of correct answers for high frequency, and lower for low frequency. High-frequency words, for requiring less activation, tend to be recognized more quickly and accurately than low frequency words. This effect constitutes an indicative of the lexical process involvement when reading out loud, since the effect of variation concerning the frequency of word occurrence is seen as an influence of the lexical-phonemic route, which may be recognized at visual lexicon entry, or at lexical pronunciation retrieval, output phonemic lexicon^24,25.

According to Capellini et al.¹⁸, the stimulus extension (the more letters, the more conversions should be done, and higher probability of error) and the complexity of graphemes (more complex syllables are harder to read than simple graphemes) represent influential variables for lexical and phonological routes evaluation. In relation to words extent, it was observed in this study, that it is one of the influential factors for reading isolated words, by Senior High School students, but the syllabic complexity, in particular the initial syllable, does not seem to be a problem for reading them. As shown in other works^18,35, which evaluate students from Basic Education I, in which students make more mistakes reading words beginning with syllables formed by complex structures (CCV, CCVC, for example) than by simple structures, such as CV (consonant - vowel).

It is believed that the frequency of word occurrence effect and the absence of interference evidence regarding the syllabic complexity found in this study are due to orthographic lexicon development achieved by these students. Reaching this development, there is decreased time for processing and increased recognition accuracy of words, from the early years to final³⁶, as noticed when comparing the performance of Basic Education II and Senior High School students, since, with increased education; identifying and decoding words are improved.

In this work, there is indicative that the frequency of occurrence, extent and prosodic aspect (tone) of the words constitute the most influential factors for real words recognition by Senior High School students.

The idea for creating such database is to provide researchers and clinicians a database of words for Senior High School students. Every word, regardless the list it belongs to, presents its level of difficulty and the researcher/professional may choose the one which best meet their objectives and criteria (eg syllabic complexity, word length, frequency, regularity and irregularity). Thus, they can develop tools to enable the assessment and intervention of reading skills for High School students; instruments so necessary for speech therapy and education.

However, it is necessary to point out this study's limitations as, due to having been undertaken in a city in the nonmetropolitan region of the State of São Paulo. Due to presented regionalism, either in our state and in others, and cities in Brazil, words that were considered as low frequency in this study, may not necessarily be considered as low frequency in other regions of Brazil. The same goes for the high and medium frequency words. It is also necessary to take into account that the government of the State of São Paulo, not being used in other states, provides the teaching material used to prepare the database. More research is necessary in all regions of Brazil.

The E-READING III is therefore an useful resource for professionals, and is available free of charge for the first time to Brazilians, a database with a wide range of words which can be used for researching, educational and clinical purposes for Senior High School students. Thus, it is expected that E-READING III may be a stimulus for language evaluation and reading intervention including High school students.

Conclusion

The E-READING III features a wide range of words, classified by frequency, for Senior High School students, thus providing to researchers, educators and clinicians a words database, in which the professional can select the word according to her objective, in order to develop assessment tools and reading intervention.

When comparing Senior High School students, reading E-READING III with Basic Education II students in similar words database (E-READING II), greater precision is observed, regarding words reading for Senior High School students.

Acknowledgments

To Professor Dr. Jair Lício Ferreira Santos for the statistical work. To Professor Maria Derci da Silva Nóbrega for her contribution in the development of the word database, definition of the criteria's and the orthographic and the grammatical revision. To Irene Marques de Oliveira for help in setting up the database. To Alina Cappelazzo and Alexandra Beatriz Portes de Cerqueira César for their help in the data collection. To the National Council for Scientific and Technological Development (CNPq).

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• Source of financing: Conselho Nacional de Desenvolvimento Científico e Tecnológico - CNPq (National Council for Scientific and Technological Development - CNPq), process N.140363/2013-0.

Publication Dates

• Publication in this collection
  Nov-Dec 2016

History

• Received
  05 Aug 2016
• Accepted
  26 Oct 2016