Hipóteses e interpretação experimental: a conjetura de poincaré e a descoberta da hiperfosforescência por Becquerel e Thompson

Martins, Roberto de Andrade

doi:10.1590/S1516-73132004000300013

Resumos

Este trabalho descreve as pesquisas realizadas por Henri Becquerel e por Silvanus Thompson, em 1897, que são normalmente descritas como representando a descoberta da radioatividade. No entanto, o estudo histórico detalhado desse episódio mostra que os pesquisadores em questão tinham uma interpretação sobre os fenômenos que estudaram muito diferente da atual. Sua interpretação, segundo a qual haviam descoberto a "hiperfosforescência", baseava-se nos pressupostos que guiaram seus experimentos - como a conjetura de Henri Poincaré, de que havia uma relação entre a emissão de raios X em um tubo de Crookes e a luminescência do vidro. Este estudo de caso mostra como a observação científica é guiada por idéias pré-existentes, e quão difícil é interpretar os fenômenos observados. Este exemplo histórico pode ser utilizado no ensino, para apresentar uma visão mais adequada do que a ordinária, a respeito do próprio processo de pesquisa experimental.

Becquerel, Henri; Thompson, Silvanus; Poincaré, Henri; radioatividade; História da Física; método experimental; Ensino de Ciências

This work describes the research developed by Henri Becquerel and Silvanus Thompson, in 1897, that are usually described as the discovery of radioactivity. However, the detailed historical scrutiny of this episode shows that those researchers had an interpretation of the phenomena they studied that was widely different from the one accepted nowadays. Their interpretation that they had discovered a phenomenon called "hyperphosphorescence" was grounded upon the presuppositions which guided their experiments - such as Henri Poincaré's conjecture that there was a relation between the emission of X rays by a Crookes tube, and the luminescence of its glass. This case study shows how scientific observation is guided by preexisting ideas, and how difficult it is to interpret the observed phenomena. This historical example can be used in teaching, to present a view on the process of experimental research, that is more adequate that the ordinary one.

Becquerel, Henri; Thompson, Silvanus; Poincaré, Henri; radioactivity; History of Physics; experimental method; Science Teaching

ARTIGOS

Hipóteses e interpretação experimental: a conjetura de poincaré e a descoberta da hiperfosforescência por Becquerel e Thompson

Hypothesis and experimental interpretation: Poincaré's conjecture and the discovery of hyperphosphorescence by Becquerel and Thompson

Roberto de Andrade Martins

Professor Assistente Doutor, Grupo de História e Teoria da Ciência, DRCC-IFGW-Unicamp, Caixa Postal 6059, CEP 13081-970, Campinas, SP, Brasil. (e-mail: rmartins@ifi.unicamp.br) O autor agradece à Fapesp e ao CNPq o apoio recebido para a realização desta pesquisa

RESUMO

Este trabalho descreve as pesquisas realizadas por Henri Becquerel e por Silvanus Thompson, em 1897, que são normalmente descritas como representando a descoberta da radioatividade. No entanto, o estudo histórico detalhado desse episódio mostra que os pesquisadores em questão tinham uma interpretação sobre os fenômenos que estudaram muito diferente da atual. Sua interpretação, segundo a qual haviam descoberto a "hiperfosforescência", baseava-se nos pressupostos que guiaram seus experimentos como a conjetura de Henri Poincaré, de que havia uma relação entre a emissão de raios X em um tubo de Crookes e a luminescência do vidro. Este estudo de caso mostra como a observação científica é guiada por idéias pré-existentes, e quão difícil é interpretar os fenômenos observados. Este exemplo histórico pode ser utilizado no ensino, para apresentar uma visão mais adequada do que a ordinária, a respeito do próprio processo de pesquisa experimental.

Unitermos: Becquerel, Henri; Thompson, Silvanus; Poincaré, Henri; radioatividade; História da Física; método experimental; Ensino de Ciências.

ABSTRACT

This work describes the research developed by Henri Becquerel and Silvanus Thompson, in 1897, that are usually described as the discovery of radioactivity. However, the detailed historical scrutiny of this episode shows that those researchers had an interpretation of the phenomena they studied that was widely different from the one accepted nowadays. Their interpretation that they had discovered a phenomenon called "hyperphosphorescence" was grounded upon the presuppositions which guided their experiments such as Henri Poincaré's conjecture that there was a relation between the emission of X rays by a Crookes tube, and the luminescence of its glass. This case study shows how scientific observation is guided by preexisting ideas, and how difficult it is to interpret the observed phenomena. This historical example can be used in teaching, to present a view on the process of experimental research, that is more adequate that the ordinary one.

Keywords: Becquerel, Henri; Thompson, Silvanus; Poincaré, Henri; radioactivity; History of Physics; experimental method; Science Teaching.

Texto completo disponível apenas em PDF.

Full text available only in PDF format.

[ANÔNIMO]. On the relations between kathode rays, Röntgen rays, and Becquerel rays. Report of the 66th Meeting of the British Association for the Advancement of Science [66]: 712, 1896.
BADASH, L. Radioactivity before the Curies. American Journal of Physics, New York, v. 33, p. 128-35, 1965.
BECQUEREL, A. E. La lumičre, ses causes et ses effets Paris: Firmin Didot frčres, fils et cie., 1867-1968. 2 v.
______. Recherches sur divers effets lumineux qui résultent de l'action de la lumičre sur les corps. Composition de la lumičre émise. Annales de Chimie et de Physique, Paris, v. 3, n. 57, p. 40-124, 1859.
______. Mémoire sur l'analyse de la lumière émise par les composés d'uranium phosphorescents. Annales de Chimie et de Physique, Paris, v. 4, n. 27, p. 539-579, 1872.
BECQUEREL, H. Spectres d'émission infra-rouges des vapeurs métalliques. Comptes Rendus Hebdomadaires des Séances de l'Académie des Sciences, Paris, v. 99, p. 374-376, 1884a.
______. Détermination des longueurs d'onde des raies et bandes principales du spectre solaire infra-rouge. Comptes Rendus Hebdomadaires des Séances de l'Académie des Sciences, Paris, v. 99, p. 417-450, 1884b.
______. Relations entre l'absorption de la lumière et l'émission de la phosphorescence dans les composés d'uranium. Comptes Rendus Hebdomadaires des Séances de l'Académie des Sciences, Paris, v. 101, p. 1252-1256, 1885.
______. Sur les différentes manifestations de la phosphorescence des minéraux sous l'influence de la lumière ou de la chaleur. Comptes Rendus Hebdomadaires des Séances de l'Académie des Sciences, Paris, v. 112, p. 557-563, 1891.
______. La chaire de physique du Muséum. Revue Scientifique, Paris, v. 49, p. 673-678, 1892.
______. Sur les radiations émises par phosphorescence. Comptes Rendus Hebdomadaires des Séances de l'Académie des Sciences, Paris, v. 122, p. 420-421, 1896a.
______. Sur les radiations invisibles émises par les corps phosphorescents. Comptes Rendus Hebdomadaires des Séances de l'Académie des Sciences, Paris, v. 122, p. 501-503, 1896b.
______. Recherches sur une propriété nouvelle de la matičre activité radiante spontanée ou radioactivité de la matičre. Mémoires de l'Académie des Sciences de l'Institut de France, Paris, v. 46, p. 1-360, 1903.
BENOIST, L. & HURMUZESCU, D. Nouvelles propriétés des rayons X. Comptes Rendus Hebdomadaires des Séances de l'Académie des Sciences, Paris, v. 122, p. 235-236, 1896.
BOARSE, H. A. & MOTZ, L. (Ed.). The world of the atom New York: Basic Books, 1966. 2 v.
CURIE, M. S. Les rayons de Becquerel et le polonium. Révue Générale des Sciences, v. 10, p. 41-50, 1899.
D'ARSONVAL, A. Observation au sujet de la photographie ŕ travers les corps opaques. Comptes Rendus Hebdomadaires des Séances de l'Académie des Sciences, Paris, v. 122, p. 500-501, 1896.
GLASSER, O. Wilhelm Conrad Röntgen and the early history of the Röntgen rays London: John Bale, Sons & Danielsson, 1933.
GOUGH, J. B. Becquerel, Alexandre-Edmond. In: GILLISPIE, C. C. (Ed.). Dictionary of scientific biography New York: Charles Scribner's Sons, 1981. v. 1, p. 555-556.
GUILLAUME, C. É. Les rayons X et la photographie a travers les corps opaques 2. ed. Paris: Gauthier-Villars, 1897.
HARVEY, E. N. A history of luminescence from the earliest times until 1900 Philadelphia: American Philosophical Society, 1957.
HENRY, C. Augmentation du rendement photographique des rayons Roentgen par le sulfure de zinc phosphorescent. Comptes Rendus Hebdomadaires des Séances de l'Académie des Sciences, Paris, v. 122, p. 312-314, 1896.
JAUNCEY, G. E. M. The birth and early infancy of X-rays. American Journal of Physics, New York, v. 13, p. 362-379, 1945.
______. The early years of radioactivity. American Journal of Physics, New York, v. 14, p. 226-241, 1946.
KELVIN, L. On the generation of longitudinal waves in ether. Proceedings of the Royal Society of London, London, v. 59, p. 270-272, 1896.
KNIGHT, D. M. Becquerel, Antoine-César. In: GILLISPIE, C. C. (Ed.). Dictionary of scientific biography New York: Charles Scribner's Sons, 1981. v. 1, p. 557-558.
LARMOR, J. (Ed.). Memoir and scientific correspondence of the late Sir George Gabriel Stokes Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1907. 2 v.
LEA, M. C. Röntgen rays not present in sunlight. American Journal of Science, New Haven, v. 4, n. 1, p. 363-364, 1896.
MARTINS, R. de A. Como Becquerel năo descobriu a radioatividade. Caderno Catarinense de Ensino de Física, Florianópolis, v. 7, p. 27-45, 1990.
______. Investigando o invisível: as pesquisas sobre raios X logo após a sua descoberta por Röntgen. Revista da Sociedade Brasileira de História da Ciência, São Paulo, v. 17, p. 81-102, 1997a.
MARTINS, R. de A. Becquerel and the choice of uranium compounds. Archive for History of Exact Sciences, Berlin, v. 51, n. 1, p. 67-81, 1997b.
______. A descoberta dos raios X: o primeiro comunicado de Röntgen. Revista Brasileira de Ensino de Física, São Paulo, v. 20, n. 4, p. 373-391, 1998a.
______. Jevons e o papel da analogia na arte da descoberta experimental: o caso da descoberta dos raios X e sua investigaçăo pré-teórica. Episteme, Porto Alegre, v. 3, n. 6, p. 222-249, 1998b.
______. Los errores experimentales de Henri Becquerel. In: GARCÍA, P.; MENNA, S. H.; RODRÍGUEZ, V. (Ed.). Epistemología e historia de la ciencia. Selección de trabajos de las X Jornadas. Facultad de Filosofia y Humanidades Córdoba: Universidad Nacional de Córdoba, 2000. v. 6. p. 267-274.
______. As primeiras investigações de Marie Curie sobre elementos radioativos. Revista da Sociedade Brasileira de História da Ciência, São Paulo, v. 1, n. 1, p. 29-41, 2003.
MARTINS, R. de A. & SILVA, C. C. Newton and colour: the complex interplay of theory and experiment Science & Education, Dordrecht, v. 10, n. 3, p. 287-305, 2001.
MOREAU, G. De la photographie des objets métalliques ŕ travers des corps opaques, au moyen d'une aigrette d'une bobine d'induction, sans tube de Crookes. Comptes Rendus Hebdomadaires des Séances de l'Académie des Sciences, Paris, v. 122, p. 238-239, 1896.
NIEWENGLOWSKI, G. H. Sur la proprieté qu'ont les radiations émises par les corps phosphorescents, de traverser certains corps opaques ŕ la lumičre solaire, et sur les expériences de M. G. Le Bon, sur la lumičre noire. Comptes Rendus Hebdomadaires des Séances de l'Académie des Sciences, Paris, v. 122, p. 385-6, 1896.
PERRIN, J. Origine des rayons de Röntgen. Comptes Rendus Hebdomadaires des Séances de l'Académie des Sciences, Paris, v. 122, p. 716-7, 1896.
POINCARÉ, H. Les rayons cathodiques et les rayons Roentgen. Revue Générale des Sciences, v. 7, p. 52-9, 1896.
______. Les rayons cathodiques et les rayons Roentgen. Revue Scientifique, Paris, v. 4, n. 7, p. 72-81, 1897.
PUMFREY, S. History of science in the National Science Curriculum: a critical review of resources and aims. British Journal for the History of Science, London, v. 24, p. 61-78, 1991.
RAVEAU, C. Les faits nouvellement acquis sur les rayons de Roentgen. Revue Générale des Sciences, v. 7, p. 249-253, 1896.
ROMER, A. (Ed.). The discovery of radioactivity and transmutation New York: Dover, 1964.
______. Becquerel, [Antoine-] Henri. In: GILLIESPIE, C. C. (Ed.). Dictionary of Scientific Biography New York: Charles Scribner's Sons, 1981, v. 2, p. 558-561. 16 v.
RÖNTGEN, W. C. Über eine neue Art von Strahlen. Sitzunsberichte der physikalisch-medicinischen Gesellschaft nach Würzburg, p. 132-141, 1895.
SAGNAC, G. Les expériences de M. H. Becquerel sur les radiations invisibles émises par les corps phosphorescents et par les sels d'uranium. Journal de Physique Théorique et Appliquée, Paris, v. 3, n. 5, p. 193-202, 1896.
SILVA, C. C. & MARTINS, R. de A. A teoria das cores de Newton: um exemplo do uso da história da cięncia em sala de aula. Cięncia & Educaçăo, Bauru, v. 9, n. 1, p. 53-65, 2003.
STEWART, O. M. A résumé of the experiments dealing with the properties of Becquerel rays. Physical Review, New York, v. 6, p. 239-251, 1898.
THOMPSON, J. S. & THOMPSON, H. G. Silvanus Phillips Thompson, his life and letters London: T. Fisher Unwin, 1920.
THOMPSON, S. P. The Röntgen rays. Nature, London, v. 53, p. 437, 1896a.
______. On hyperphosphorescence. Report of the 66th Meeting of the British Association for the Advancement of Science [66]: 713, 1896b.
______. On hyperphosphorescence. The London, Edinburgh and Dublin Philosophical Magazine and Journal of Science, London, v. 5, n. 42, p. 103-107, 1896c.
THOMSON, J. J. Longitudinal electric waves, and Röntgen's X rays. Proceedings of the Cambridge Philosophical Society, London, v. 9, p. 49-61, 1896.
TOWNE, D. H. Teaching Newton's colour theory firsthand. American Journal of Physics, New York, v. 61, p. 113-116, 1993.
TROOST, L. J. Sur l'emploi de la blende hexagonale artificielle pour remplacer les ampoules de Crookes. Comptes Rendus Hebdomadaires des Séances de l'Académie des Sciences, Paris, v. 122, p. 564-566, 1896.
VIOLLE, J. L'oeuvre scientifique de M. Edmond Becquerel. Revue Scientifique, Paris, v. 49, p. 353-360, 1892.
WILSON, D. B. (Ed.). The correspondence between Sir George Gabriel Stokes and Sir William Thomson, Baron Kelvin of Largs Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1990. 2 v.

Datas de Publicação

Publicação nesta coleção
11 Ago 2009
Data do Fascículo
Dez 2004

This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial 4.0 International License.

[1] [ANÔNIMO]. On the relations between kathode rays, Röntgen rays, and Becquerel rays. Report of the 66th Meeting of the British Association for the Advancement of Science [66]: 712, 1896.

[2] BADASH, L. Radioactivity before the Curies. American Journal of Physics, New York, v. 33, p. 128-35, 1965.

[3] BECQUEREL, A. E. La lumičre, ses causes et ses effets Paris: Firmin Didot frčres, fils et cie., 1867-1968. 2 v.

[4] ______. Recherches sur divers effets lumineux qui résultent de l'action de la lumičre sur les corps. Composition de la lumičre émise. Annales de Chimie et de Physique, Paris, v. 3, n. 57, p. 40-124, 1859.

[5] ______. Mémoire sur l'analyse de la lumière émise par les composés d'uranium phosphorescents. Annales de Chimie et de Physique, Paris, v. 4, n. 27, p. 539-579, 1872.

[6] BECQUEREL, H. Spectres d'émission infra-rouges des vapeurs métalliques. Comptes Rendus Hebdomadaires des Séances de l'Académie des Sciences, Paris, v. 99, p. 374-376, 1884a.

[7] ______. Détermination des longueurs d'onde des raies et bandes principales du spectre solaire infra-rouge. Comptes Rendus Hebdomadaires des Séances de l'Académie des Sciences, Paris, v. 99, p. 417-450, 1884b.

[8] ______. Relations entre l'absorption de la lumière et l'émission de la phosphorescence dans les composés d'uranium. Comptes Rendus Hebdomadaires des Séances de l'Académie des Sciences, Paris, v. 101, p. 1252-1256, 1885.

[9] ______. Sur les différentes manifestations de la phosphorescence des minéraux sous l'influence de la lumière ou de la chaleur. Comptes Rendus Hebdomadaires des Séances de l'Académie des Sciences, Paris, v. 112, p. 557-563, 1891.

[10] ______. La chaire de physique du Muséum. Revue Scientifique, Paris, v. 49, p. 673-678, 1892.

[11] ______. Sur les radiations émises par phosphorescence. Comptes Rendus Hebdomadaires des Séances de l'Académie des Sciences, Paris, v. 122, p. 420-421, 1896a.

[12] ______. Sur les radiations invisibles émises par les corps phosphorescents. Comptes Rendus Hebdomadaires des Séances de l'Académie des Sciences, Paris, v. 122, p. 501-503, 1896b.

[13] ______. Recherches sur une propriété nouvelle de la matičre activité radiante spontanée ou radioactivité de la matičre. Mémoires de l'Académie des Sciences de l'Institut de France, Paris, v. 46, p. 1-360, 1903.

[14] BENOIST, L. & HURMUZESCU, D. Nouvelles propriétés des rayons X. Comptes Rendus Hebdomadaires des Séances de l'Académie des Sciences, Paris, v. 122, p. 235-236, 1896.

[15] BOARSE, H. A. & MOTZ, L. (Ed.). The world of the atom New York: Basic Books, 1966. 2 v.

[16] CURIE, M. S. Les rayons de Becquerel et le polonium. Révue Générale des Sciences, v. 10, p. 41-50, 1899.

[17] D'ARSONVAL, A. Observation au sujet de la photographie ŕ travers les corps opaques. Comptes Rendus Hebdomadaires des Séances de l'Académie des Sciences, Paris, v. 122, p. 500-501, 1896.

[18] GLASSER, O. Wilhelm Conrad Röntgen and the early history of the Röntgen rays London: John Bale, Sons & Danielsson, 1933.

[19] GOUGH, J. B. Becquerel, Alexandre-Edmond. In: GILLISPIE, C. C. (Ed.). Dictionary of scientific biography New York: Charles Scribner's Sons, 1981. v. 1, p. 555-556.

[20] GUILLAUME, C. É. Les rayons X et la photographie a travers les corps opaques 2. ed. Paris: Gauthier-Villars, 1897.

[21] HARVEY, E. N. A history of luminescence from the earliest times until 1900 Philadelphia: American Philosophical Society, 1957.

[22] HENRY, C. Augmentation du rendement photographique des rayons Roentgen par le sulfure de zinc phosphorescent. Comptes Rendus Hebdomadaires des Séances de l'Académie des Sciences, Paris, v. 122, p. 312-314, 1896.

[23] JAUNCEY, G. E. M. The birth and early infancy of X-rays. American Journal of Physics, New York, v. 13, p. 362-379, 1945.

[24] ______. The early years of radioactivity. American Journal of Physics, New York, v. 14, p. 226-241, 1946.

[25] KELVIN, L. On the generation of longitudinal waves in ether. Proceedings of the Royal Society of London, London, v. 59, p. 270-272, 1896.

[26] KNIGHT, D. M. Becquerel, Antoine-César. In: GILLISPIE, C. C. (Ed.). Dictionary of scientific biography New York: Charles Scribner's Sons, 1981. v. 1, p. 557-558.

[27] LARMOR, J. (Ed.). Memoir and scientific correspondence of the late Sir George Gabriel Stokes Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1907. 2 v.

[28] LEA, M. C. Röntgen rays not present in sunlight. American Journal of Science, New Haven, v. 4, n. 1, p. 363-364, 1896.

[29] MARTINS, R. de A. Como Becquerel năo descobriu a radioatividade. Caderno Catarinense de Ensino de Física, Florianópolis, v. 7, p. 27-45, 1990.

[30] ______. Investigando o invisível: as pesquisas sobre raios X logo após a sua descoberta por Röntgen. Revista da Sociedade Brasileira de História da Ciência, São Paulo, v. 17, p. 81-102, 1997a.

[31] MARTINS, R. de A. Becquerel and the choice of uranium compounds. Archive for History of Exact Sciences, Berlin, v. 51, n. 1, p. 67-81, 1997b.

[32] ______. A descoberta dos raios X: o primeiro comunicado de Röntgen. Revista Brasileira de Ensino de Física, São Paulo, v. 20, n. 4, p. 373-391, 1998a.

[33] ______. Jevons e o papel da analogia na arte da descoberta experimental: o caso da descoberta dos raios X e sua investigaçăo pré-teórica. Episteme, Porto Alegre, v. 3, n. 6, p. 222-249, 1998b.

[34] ______. Los errores experimentales de Henri Becquerel. In: GARCÍA, P.; MENNA, S. H.; RODRÍGUEZ, V. (Ed.). Epistemología e historia de la ciencia. Selección de trabajos de las X Jornadas. Facultad de Filosofia y Humanidades Córdoba: Universidad Nacional de Córdoba, 2000. v. 6. p. 267-274.

[35] ______. As primeiras investigações de Marie Curie sobre elementos radioativos. Revista da Sociedade Brasileira de História da Ciência, São Paulo, v. 1, n. 1, p. 29-41, 2003.

[36] MARTINS, R. de A. & SILVA, C. C. Newton and colour: the complex interplay of theory and experiment Science & Education, Dordrecht, v. 10, n. 3, p. 287-305, 2001.

[37] MOREAU, G. De la photographie des objets métalliques ŕ travers des corps opaques, au moyen d'une aigrette d'une bobine d'induction, sans tube de Crookes. Comptes Rendus Hebdomadaires des Séances de l'Académie des Sciences, Paris, v. 122, p. 238-239, 1896.

[38] NIEWENGLOWSKI, G. H. Sur la proprieté qu'ont les radiations émises par les corps phosphorescents, de traverser certains corps opaques ŕ la lumičre solaire, et sur les expériences de M. G. Le Bon, sur la lumičre noire. Comptes Rendus Hebdomadaires des Séances de l'Académie des Sciences, Paris, v. 122, p. 385-6, 1896.

[39] PERRIN, J. Origine des rayons de Röntgen. Comptes Rendus Hebdomadaires des Séances de l'Académie des Sciences, Paris, v. 122, p. 716-7, 1896.

[40] POINCARÉ, H. Les rayons cathodiques et les rayons Roentgen. Revue Générale des Sciences, v. 7, p. 52-9, 1896.

[41] ______. Les rayons cathodiques et les rayons Roentgen. Revue Scientifique, Paris, v. 4, n. 7, p. 72-81, 1897.

[42] PUMFREY, S. History of science in the National Science Curriculum: a critical review of resources and aims. British Journal for the History of Science, London, v. 24, p. 61-78, 1991.

[43] RAVEAU, C. Les faits nouvellement acquis sur les rayons de Roentgen. Revue Générale des Sciences, v. 7, p. 249-253, 1896.

[44] ROMER, A. (Ed.). The discovery of radioactivity and transmutation New York: Dover, 1964.

[45] ______. Becquerel, [Antoine-] Henri. In: GILLIESPIE, C. C. (Ed.). Dictionary of Scientific Biography New York: Charles Scribner's Sons, 1981, v. 2, p. 558-561. 16 v.

[46] RÖNTGEN, W. C. Über eine neue Art von Strahlen. Sitzunsberichte der physikalisch-medicinischen Gesellschaft nach Würzburg, p. 132-141, 1895.

[47] SAGNAC, G. Les expériences de M. H. Becquerel sur les radiations invisibles émises par les corps phosphorescents et par les sels d'uranium. Journal de Physique Théorique et Appliquée, Paris, v. 3, n. 5, p. 193-202, 1896.

[48] SILVA, C. C. & MARTINS, R. de A. A teoria das cores de Newton: um exemplo do uso da história da cięncia em sala de aula. Cięncia & Educaçăo, Bauru, v. 9, n. 1, p. 53-65, 2003.

[49] STEWART, O. M. A résumé of the experiments dealing with the properties of Becquerel rays. Physical Review, New York, v. 6, p. 239-251, 1898.

[50] THOMPSON, J. S. & THOMPSON, H. G. Silvanus Phillips Thompson, his life and letters London: T. Fisher Unwin, 1920.

[51] THOMPSON, S. P. The Röntgen rays. Nature, London, v. 53, p. 437, 1896a.

[52] ______. On hyperphosphorescence. Report of the 66th Meeting of the British Association for the Advancement of Science [66]: 713, 1896b.

[53] ______. On hyperphosphorescence. The London, Edinburgh and Dublin Philosophical Magazine and Journal of Science, London, v. 5, n. 42, p. 103-107, 1896c.

[54] THOMSON, J. J. Longitudinal electric waves, and Röntgen's X rays. Proceedings of the Cambridge Philosophical Society, London, v. 9, p. 49-61, 1896.

[55] TOWNE, D. H. Teaching Newton's colour theory firsthand. American Journal of Physics, New York, v. 61, p. 113-116, 1993.

[56] TROOST, L. J. Sur l'emploi de la blende hexagonale artificielle pour remplacer les ampoules de Crookes. Comptes Rendus Hebdomadaires des Séances de l'Académie des Sciences, Paris, v. 122, p. 564-566, 1896.

[57] VIOLLE, J. L'oeuvre scientifique de M. Edmond Becquerel. Revue Scientifique, Paris, v. 49, p. 353-360, 1892.

[58] WILSON, D. B. (Ed.). The correspondence between Sir George Gabriel Stokes and Sir William Thomson, Baron Kelvin of Largs Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1990. 2 v.