Acessibilidade / Reportar erro

Lactoferrin, chitosan and Melaleuca alternifolia-natural products that show promise in candidiasis treatment

Abstract

The evolution of microorganisms resistant to many medicines has become a major challenge for the scientific community around the world. Motivated by the gravity of such a situation, the World Health Organization released a report in 2014 with the aim of providing updated information on this critical scenario. Among the most worrying microorganisms, species from the genus Candida have exhibited a high rate of resistance to antifungal drugs. Therefore, the objective of this review is to show that the use of natural products (extracts or isolated biomolecules), along with conventional antifungal therapy, can be a very promising strategy to overcome microbial multiresistance. Some promising alternatives are essential oils of Melaleuca alternifolia (mainly composed of terpinen-4-ol, a type of monoterpene), lactoferrin (a peptide isolated from milk) and chitosan (a copolymer from chitin). Such products have great potential to increase antifungal therapy efficacy, mitigate side effects and provide a wide range of action in antifungal therapy.

Keywords:
Candida; Lactoferrin; Melaleuca alternifolia; Chitosan; Natural products

Introduction

Fungal infections are responsible for many deaths around the world, in addition to contributing to significant expenses in public health.11 Matthaiou DK, Christodoulopoulou T, Dimopoulos G. How to treat fungal infections in ICU patients. BMC Infect Dis. 2015;15:205. Among the possible etiologic agents, Candida spp. are noted due to their relevance and prevalence. According to McCarty and Pappas (2015), 15-20 microorganisms from the genus Candida are described as certain to cause infection.22 McCarty TP, Pappas PG. Invasive candidiasis. Infect Dis Clin North Am. 2015;30:103-124. However, four species cause 96% of the infections: Candida albicans is the main etiologic agent, responsible for 42.5% of infections, followed by Candida tropicalis (27.3%), Candida parapsilosis (21.9%) and Candida glabrata (4.4%).33 Liu S, Hou Y, Chen X, Gao Y, Li H, Sun S. Combination of fluconazole with non-antifungal agents: a promising approach to cope with resistant Candida albicans infections and insight into new antifungal agent discovery. Int J Antimicrob Agents. 2014;43:395-402.

Infections originating from C. albicans have been observed since the time of Hippocrates, who described Candida diseases in debilitated patients in 337 B.C.44 McCool L. The Discovery and Naming of Candida albicans; 2016. Available at: http://antimicrobe.org/h04c.files/history/DiscoveryNaming of CandidaAlbicans.pdf Accessed 17.08.16.
http://antimicrobe.org/h04c.files/histor...
Now, Candida spp. are responsible for the majority of blood infections in intensive therapy units around the world, impacting hospitalization times and costs.55 Quindós G. Epidemiology of candidaemia and invasive candidiasis. A changing face. Rev Iberoam Micol. 2014;31:42-48. In 2005, for example, the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) showed that for each diagnosis of Candida spp. infection, the period of hospitalization is lengthened from 3 to 13 days. Financially speaking, this additional period leads to expenses from $6000 to $29,000. Furthermore, each year, these values are estimated to reach approximately $8 billion.66 Arnold HM, Micek ST, Shorr AF, et al. Hospital resource utilization and costs of inappropriate treatment of candidemia. Pharmacotherapy. 2010;30:361-368.,77 Morgan J, Meltzer MI, Plikaytis BD, et al. Excess mortality, hospital stay, and cost due to candidemia: a case-control study using data from population-based candidemia surveillance. Infect Control Hosp Epidemiol. 2005;26:540-547.

Advances in medicine have enabled people who are immune suppressed (such as those who have received organ transplants or are HIV positive) to live longer lives.88 Jacobs DM, Beyda ND, Asuphon O, Alam MJ, Garey KW. Host factors and clinical outcomes of Candida colonization in critically ill patients. Mycopathologia. 2015;179:87-93. The greatest vulnerability of such individuals is to metabolically flexible microorganisms of the genus Candida, which have increased the rate of morbidity and mortality to 35% in this group of people.99 Fridkin SK. Candidemia is costly-plain and simple. Clin Infect Dis. 2005;41:1240-1241. In addition, parallel to the increasing number of cases of fungal infection caused by Candida spp., the resistance of Candida spp. to antimicrobial drugs has progressively increased. The latter fact has sparked the attention of the World Health Organization (WHO) due to its relevance and led to the release of the report Antimicrobial Resistance: Global Report Surveillance.1010 WHO. Antimicrobial Resistance: Global Report Surveillance; 2014. Available at: http://apps.who.int/iris/bitstream/10665/112642/1/9789241564748_eng.pdf?ua=1 Accessed 17.08.16.
http://apps.who.int/iris/bitstream/10665...

The development of resistance in Candida spp., from therapy with amphotericin B, against drugs from the azole group, echinocandin and fluconazole was among the key information provided in this report, along with reports of cases of multiresistance from different regions of the world such as Asia and the Middle East and some areas of South America.1010 WHO. Antimicrobial Resistance: Global Report Surveillance; 2014. Available at: http://apps.who.int/iris/bitstream/10665/112642/1/9789241564748_eng.pdf?ua=1 Accessed 17.08.16.
http://apps.who.int/iris/bitstream/10665...
These data are alarming because such resistance has developed against antifungal drugs widely used to combat fungal diseases worldwide. Amphotericin B, for example, is a classical antifungal drug, and in many countries, it is the only medicine available for the treatment of fungal infections.

The azoles have been administered in formulations that combine different groups of chemotherapeutic drugs, attempting to overcome the increase in microbial resistance. This fact impacts both the cost and the success of treatments against that type of infection. Finally, the development of resistance to fluconazole-the most commonly used antifungal-drastically varies according to the Candida spp. and from country to country. For example, the intensity of the multiresistance in Candida spp. to fluconazole is higher in Denmark (33%) and lower in the Korean Republic (0.9%).1010 WHO. Antimicrobial Resistance: Global Report Surveillance; 2014. Available at: http://apps.who.int/iris/bitstream/10665/112642/1/9789241564748_eng.pdf?ua=1 Accessed 17.08.16.
http://apps.who.int/iris/bitstream/10665...
Therefore, the aim of this paper is to discuss the most promising substances available for candidiasis treatment. In addition, this work reinforces the importance of using natural products along with those medicines traditionally employed in the treatment of such infections.

Natural products

Natural products have been widely used in society since 3500 B.C.1111 Scott RPW. Essential oils. In: Encyclopedia of Analytical Science. 2nd ed. Elsevier; 2005:554–561. Medicinal methods range from folk medicine to validated treatments.1212 Koehn FE, Carter GT. The evolving role of natural products in drug discovery. Nat Rev Drug Discov. 2005;4:206-220. The doctor Paracelsus is considered the founder of plant-based medicine due to his great contributions in the field.1313 Ferreira TS, Moreira CZ, Cária NZ, Victoriano G, Silva WF, Magalhães JC. Phytotherapy: an introduction to its history, use and application. Rev Bras Plant Med. 2014;162:290-298. His findings, along with those of other researchers, led to a consolidation of knowledge in the field of natural products and created other domains such as pharmacognosy. Among the medicinal properties of natural products, one can find anti-inflammatory, antispasmodic, anticancer, antimutagenic, antibacterial, antifungal, antiviral and vermicidal properties.1414 Mogosanu GD, Grumezescu A, Huang K-S, Bejenaru L, Bejenaru C. Prevention of microbial communities: novel approaches based natural products. Curr Pharm Biotechnol. 2015;16:94-111.

Essential oils compose the most utilized group of substances. Isolated from plants, essential oils are compounds largely described in the scientific literature as versatile in the treatment of many infirmities.1515 Negri M, Salci TP, Shinobu-Mesquita CS, Capoci IRG, Svidzinski TIE, Kioshima ES. Early state research on antifungal natural products. Molecules. 2014;19:2925-2956. Their active ingredients are usually various terpenes, which are secondary metabolites excreted by vegetables to expel predators or harmful agents.1616 Martins N, Barros L, Henriques M, Silva S, Ferreira ICFR. Activity of phenolic compounds from plant origin against Candida species. Ind Crops Prod. 2015;74:648-670. One example of a bioactive essential oil is the one obtained from Melaleuca alternifolia leaves; the activity of this oil is attributed to terpinen-4-ol, a monoterpene.1717 Homeyer DC, Sanchez CJ, Mende K, et al. In vitro activity of Melaleuca alternifolia (tea tree) oil on filamentous fungi and toxicity to human cells. Med Mycol. 2015;53:285-294.

The isolation of bioactive molecules is also performed on natural sources other than vegetable cells. Some metabolites produced by microorganisms are also important sources of new bioactive substances.1818 Blunt JW, Copp BR, Keyzers RA, Munro MHG, Prinsep MR. Marine natural products. Nat Prod Rep. 2013;30:237-323. In Table 1, therapeutic agents obtained through bioprospection are presented; these agents are responsible for significant impact on the medicinal treatments that have been offered in recent years.

Table 1
Conventional medicines originally obtained from natural sources.

In addition to the compounds listed in Table 1, lactoferrin (a peptide isolated from milk) and chitosan (a copolymer derived from chitin) also show distinct biological activity, including antioxidant, anti-allergy and antimicrobial actions.1919 Ngo D-H, Vo T-S, Ngo D-N, et al. Biological effects of chitosan and its derivatives. Food Hydrocoll. 2015;51:200-216. The association of such natural products with other antimicrobial drugs has been recently investigated to identify a possible synergistic effect. This can provide alternative treatments against multiresistant microorganisms, thereby reducing the amount of drugs used in treatments, which can impact drug-resistance phenomena.

However, as noted by Harvey et al. (2015), due to the environmental legislation that protects biodiversity, bioprospection, among other pursuits, has suffered a considerable slowdown in the last 20 years.2020 Harvey AL, Edrada-Ebel R, Quinn RJ. The re-emergence of natural products for drug discovery in the genomics era. Nat Rev Drug Discov. 2015;14:111-129. The reduction in the rate of drug discovery and new medicines provided by the pharmaceutical industry reflects such constraints.

Bioprospection is a feasible way to discover new biomolecules. One example of such a discovery is teixobactin, which was isolated from soil samples by Ling et al. (2015).2121 Ling LL, Schneider T, Peoples AJ, et al. A new antibiotic kills pathogens without detectable resistance. Nature. 2015;517:455-459. This molecule proved to be very promising as a new antibiotic class because its administration in mice was able to successfully eliminate infections caused by Staphylococcus aureus super bacteria strains. Therefore, after nearly 30 years without a new drug discovery, this promising molecule-found through bioprospection-may revolutionize the current antibacterial treatments.2121 Ling LL, Schneider T, Peoples AJ, et al. A new antibiotic kills pathogens without detectable resistance. Nature. 2015;517:455-459.

Finding bioactive compounds is not an easy task. Therefore, natural products have been used along with synthetic drugs to overcome, mainly, resistance to antimicrobial drugs or to alleviate the side effects associated with specific therapies.

Candidiasis

Microorganisms from the genus Candida are described as yeasts and include more than 160 species.2222 Blaschke-Hellmessen R. Habitats for Candida in medical and hygienic respects. Mycoses. 1999;42(suppl 1):22-29. In terms of morphology, the genus is characterized as being thick, curd-like (cheesy), and yellowish-white. Candida albicans is found extensively in humans, and these yeasts are easily isolated from the skin and gastrointestinal tract.2323 Huffnagle GB, Noverr MC. The emerging world of the fungal microbiome. Trends Microbiol. 2013;21:334-341. Therefore, this type of microorganism lives commensally, co-inhabiting and existing in equilibrium with human microbiota.2424 Underhill DM, Iliev ID. The mycobiota: interactions between commensal fungi and the host immune system. Nat Rev Immunol. 2014;14:405-416. Nonetheless, under specific conditions, these microorganisms are favored, which usually enables the activation of the virulence factor, making such organisms pathogenic and harmful to the health of the host.2525 Kiyoura Y, Tamai R. Innate immunity to Candida albicans. Jpn Dent Sci Rev. 2015;51:59-64.,2626 Tagliaferri E, Menichetti F. Treatment of invasive candidiasis: between guidelines and daily clinical practice. Expert Rev Anti Infect Ther. 2015. Thus, C. albicans is known as an opportunistic microorganism.2727 Netea MG, Joosten LAB, van der Meer JWM, Kullberg B-J, van de Veerdonk FL. Immune defence against Candida fungal infections. Nat Rev Immunol. 2015;15:630-642.

People with immunodeficiency compose the group with the highest tendency to develop candidiasis. Among the most vulnerable people are elderly people and babies; patients with cancer, AIDS or with transplants; people whose treatment uses catheters (in parenteral nutrition or in hemodialysis); and people submitted to therapies based on antimicrobial drugs of large spectrum/corticoids.2828 Manzoni P, Mostert M, Castagnola E. Update on the management of Candida infections in preterm neonates. Arch Dis Child Fetal Neonatal Ed. 2015;100:F454-F459.

29 Tang H-J, Liu W-L, Lin H-L, Lai C-C. Epidemiology and prognostic factors of candidemia in cancer patients. PLOS ONE. 2014;9:e99103.
-3030 Seelig MS. The role of antibiotics in the pathogenesis of Candida infections. Am J Med. 1966;40:887-917. The type and the intensity of the infection (Table 2) are directly related to the immunological response of the patient.3131 Navarathna DH, Roberts DD, Munasinghe J, Lizak MJ. Imaging Candida infections in the host. Methods Mol Biol. 2016;1356:69-78.

Table 2
Types of infection described for candidiasis and its respective places of occurrence.

When Candida spp. take advantage of a host's immunosensitivity, the major mechanisms of virulence and the invasive capacity of the Candida spp. are mainly related to (i) the ability to form biofilm reinforced by a mechanism of quorum sensing and (ii) phenotypic switching, that is, when yeasts change to the filamentous form, which is a determinant of tissue invasion.3636 Nobile CJ, Johnson AD. Candida albicans biofilms and human disease. Annu Rev Microbiol. 2015;69:71-92.,3737 Bennett RJ. The parasexual lifestyle of Candida albicans. Curr Opin Microbiol. 2015;28:10-17.

Many classes of drugs are available for the treatment of this type of infection, as shown in Table 3. However, considering that fungi, as well as human cells, are eukaryotic, patients may suffer from several side effects that arise from such drugs. Nephrotoxicity (especially in amphotericin administration), nausea/vomiting and stomachache are among the main effects.

Table 3
Different classes of antifungals that are available on the market.

In addition to side effects, another major challenge in the campaign against Candida spp. infections is the refractoriness to those medicines that are traditionally used.3838 Whibley N, Gaffen SL. Beyond Candida albicans: mechanisms of immunity to non-albicans Candida species. Cytokine. 2015;76:42-52. The latter problem arose from the indiscriminate use of antifungal drugs or long antifungal therapies, favoring the natural selection of Candida spp.-resistant strains. Some examples of resistant strains are C. albicans, C. glabatra, C. krusei and C. auris.3939 Rossoni RD, Barbosa JO, Vilela SFG, et al. Competitive interactions between C. albicans, C. glabrata and C. krusei during biofilm formation and development of experimental candidiasis. PLOS ONE. 2015;10:e0131700.Candida lusitaniae has also been reported to develop resistance during therapy with Amphotericin-B.4040 Asner SA, Giulieri S, Diezi M, Marchetti O, Sanglard D. Acquired multidrug antifungal resistance in Candida lusitaniae during therapy. Antimicrob Agents Chemother. 2015;59:7715-7722.

Therefore, different studies have indicated that the association of traditional medicines with alternative treatments (herein, natural products or biomolecules) as a promising option for therapeutic success against Candida spp. infection.4141 Szweda P, Gucwa K, Kurzyk E, et al. Essential oils, silver nanoparticles and propolis as alternative agents against fluconazole resistant Candida albicans, Candida glabrata and Candida krusei clinical isolates. Indian J Microbiol. 2015;55:175-183. Among the alternatives, the most prominent are lactoferrin, chitosan and Malaleuca alternifolia extracts. Promising biomolecules in the treatment of candidiasis

Lactoferrin

Antimicrobial peptides (AMPs) have been described in the scientific literature and correspond to a group of approximately 1200 molecules.4242 Duncan VMS, O'Neil DA. Commercialization of antifungal peptides. Fungal Biol Rev. 2013;26:156-165.,4343 Nakatsuji T, Gallo RL. Antimicrobial peptides: old molecules with new ideas. J Invest Dermatol. 2012;132:887-895. They can be isolated from different sources such as bacteria, insects, plants and vertebrates.4444 Zasloff M. Antimicrobial peptides of multicellular organisms. Nature. 2002;415:389-395. Lactoferrin (LF) is an example of an AMP.

LF was initially identified in cow milk in 1939.4545 Sorensen M, Sorensen SPL. The proteins in whey. Compte rendu des Trav du Lab Carlsberg, Ser Chim. 1940;23:55-99. In human milk, LF was not isolated until 1960.4646 Johanson B. Isolation of an iron-containing red protein from human milk. Acta Chem Scand. 1960;14:510-512.,4747 Masson PL, Heremans JF. Lactoferrin in milk from different species. Comp Biochem Physiol Part B Comp Biochem. 1971;39:119-213. Then, this peptide began being recognized as one of the essential components in the defense system for combatting infections caused by different etiologic agents-bacteria, fungi, parasites and viruses.4848 Pawlik A, Sender G, Korwin-Kossakowska A, Oprzadek J. Immunomodulatory and antimicrobial activity of lactoferrin. Med Weter. 2014;70:209-213. In addition to being in milk, LF is also widely found on dermal mucosa, in neutrophils (where responses to inflammatory stimuli are released) and in external secretions-tears, saliva, vaginal mucus and seminal plasma.4949 Kanwar JR, Roy K, Patel Y, et al. Multifunctional iron bound lactoferrin and nanomedicinal approaches to enhance its bioactive functions. Molecules. 2015;20:9703-9731.,5050 Tauber PF, Zaneveld LJ, Propping D, Schumacher GF. Components of human split ejaculates. I. Spermatozoa, fructose, immunoglobulins, albumin, lactoferrin, transferrin and other plasma proteins. J Reprod Fertil. 1975;43:249-267. In body fluids, the concentration of LF depends on where the LF is found: in the colostrum, the concentration is from 5 to 7 mg L-1, whereas in tears, the concentration is approximately 2 mg L-1.5151 Levay PF, Viljoen M. Lactoferrin: a general review. Haematologica. 1995;80:252-267.,5252 Kijlstra A, Jeurissen SH, Koning KM. Lactoferrin levels in normal human tears. Br J Ophthalmol. 1983;67:199-202. In blood, depending on the inflammatory process, the concentration of LF also varies from 10-3 to 200 µg mL-1.5353 Farnaud S, Evans RW. Lactoferrin-a multifunctional protein with antimicrobial properties. Mol Immunol. 2003;40:395-405. In contrast, according to Cohen et al. (1987), the concentration of LF in vaginal mucus varies as a function of the menstrual cycle: before menstruation, the concentration is 3.8-11.4 µg mg-1, whereas after menstruation, this value increases to 62.9-218 µg mg-1.5454 Cohen MS, Britigan BE, French M, Bean K. Preliminary observations on lactoferrin secretion in human vaginal mucus: variation during the menstrual cycle, evidence of hormonal regulation, and implications for infection with Neisseria gonorrhoeae. Am J Obstet Gynecol. 1987;157:1122-1125. Cohen et al. (1987) also showed that women submitted to continuous contraceptive-based treatment have drastically affected LF concentrations in the vaginal mucus, with concentrations remaining stable during the entire menstrual cycle at approximately 19.8 µg mg-1.5454 Cohen MS, Britigan BE, French M, Bean K. Preliminary observations on lactoferrin secretion in human vaginal mucus: variation during the menstrual cycle, evidence of hormonal regulation, and implications for infection with Neisseria gonorrhoeae. Am J Obstet Gynecol. 1987;157:1122-1125.

Structurally, LF is one glycoprotein bound to an iron nucleus, with a reddish-pink color, made up of 692 amino acids and with a molecular weight of 80 kDa. Fifty-five percent of these amino acids are similar to the ones found in transferrin (the protein responsible for iron transport in plasma). Lactoferrin exists in two different forms: halo-lactoferrin (rich in iron) and apo-lactoferrin (free of iron). It is also described as being able to bind to other metals (aluminum, copper, gallium, manganese and zinc) better than iron.5555 González-Chávez SA, Arévalo-Gallegos S, Rascón-Cruz Q. Lactoferrin: structure, function and applications. Int J Antimicrob Agents. 2009;33:.

Regarding the antimicrobial activity of LF, the following mechanisms are described in the literature: (i) microbial growth is inhibited by iron deprivation because LF takes iron away from the pathogen or the media where the microorganism is present5656 Emery T. Iron deprivation as a biological defence mechanism. Nature. 1980;287:776-777.; (ii) the protein presents different enzymatic activities in its purified sub-fractions, which include ATPase, DNase, RNase, phosphatase and hydrolysis of malto-oligosaccharide5757 Kanyshkova TG, Babina SE, Semenov DV, et al. Multiple enzymic activities of human milk lactoferrin. Eur J Biochem. 2003;270:3353-3361.; (iii) LF increases cell wall permeability, leading to the leakage of cytoplasmatic content and microorganism death because lactoferrin's N-terminus region has a strong positive charge that easily interacts with lipopolysaccharides, which have a negative charge5858 García-Montoya IA, Cendón TS, Arévalo-Gallegos S, Rascón-Cruz Q. Lactoferrin a multiple bioactive protein: an overview. Biochim Biophys Acta. 2012;1820:226-236.; and (iv) in contrast, as suggested by Ulvatne et al. (2001), LF is not able to induce cellular lyses in unscathed bacteria but leads to vesicle formation through a plasmatic membrane depolarization mechanism.5959 Ulvatne H, Haukland HH, Olsvik O, Vorland LH, Lactoferricin B. Lactoferricin B causes depolarization of the cytoplasmic membrane of Escherichia coli ATCC 25922 and fusion of negatively charged liposomes. FEBS Lett. 2001;492:62-65. Considering the facts mentioned previously, lactoferrin has been recently explored in several scientific investigations with different aims, especially in combination with antifungal drugs.6060 Yemets AI, Tanasienko IV, Krasylenko YA, Blume YB. Plant-based biopharming of recombinant human lactoferrin. Cell Biol Int. 2014;38:989-1002. In the latter case, a synergistic effect is the focus with regard to fighting against resistant and nonresistant microorganism strains in the genus Candida.6161 Brouwer CPJM, Rahman M, Welling MM. Discovery and development of a synthetic peptide derived from lactoferrin for clinical use. Peptides. 2011;32:1953-1963.

Lactoferrin: antifungal drugs with a synergistic effect

Candidemia in newborns is a critical problem that has continuously sparked the attention of the scientific community. Venkatesh and Rong (2008) evaluated the combined use of human recombinant lactoferrin (talactoferrin, TLF) with fluconazole and Amphotericin-B against three strains of Candida spp.; two strains were isolated from newborns diagnosed with septicemia caused by C. albicans. The results showed that either the interaction of TLF with fluconazole and/or TLF with Amphotericin-B presented a synergistic effect.6262 Venkatesh MP, Rong L. Human recombinant lactoferrin acts synergistically with antimicrobials commonly used in neonatal practice against coagulase-negative staphylococci and Candida albicans causing neonatal sepsis. J Med Microbiol. 2008;57:1113-1121.

Thereafter, Venkatesh et al. (2009) studied the prevention of biofilm formation (one of the virulence mechanisms observed in Candida) by the association of TLF with antifungal drugs; C. albicans ATCC MYA 4441 was the strain used in this study. A synergistic effect was observed in the mixture containing both TLF and Amphotericin-B and TLF and fluconazole. This study is especially important because Candida biofilm formation is extremely critical in intensive therapy units around the world, leading to high rates of mortality and morbidity from infections of the bloodstream related to catheters. Other studies have focused on the interaction of lactoferrin with fluconazole, showing that LF probably interacts with the microorganism's cell wall, raising its permeability and thereby increasing the rate of drug penetration into the cell.6363 Venkatesh M, Rong L, Raad I, Versalovic J. Novel synergistic antibiofilm combinations for salvage of infected catheters. J Med Microbiol. 2009;58:936-944.

In an in vivo study, Tanida et al. (2001) carried out assays with rodents to investigate the synergistic effect of LF and other elements. However, in that study, the LF that was used was synthesized in the laboratory (known as peptide 2). Another similar synthetic molecule (peptide 2′) was also tested. Mice were inoculated with 5.0 × 108 cells of Candida (considered a lethal dose). Furthermore, the mice that did not receive treatment or were treated with peptide 2′ died after 8 and 7 days, respectively. On the other hand, mice submitted to intravenous administration of peptide 2 (5 and 100 µg day-1) over 5 days lived longer (8.4 ± 2.9 and 22.4 ± 3.6 days, respectively). Additionally, in studies carried out by the same authors, a mouse that received 1.0 × 109 Candida cells (above the lethal dose) had its life extended for 8.2 ± 2.4 days (treated with 10 µg day-1 of peptide 2) compared with the control (lived for a period of 3.2 ± 1.3 days). When peptide 2 was administered (10 µg day-1) along with Amphotericin-B (0.1 µg day-1) and granulocyte macrophage colony-stimulating factor (GM-CSF) (0.1 µg day-1), 60% of the mice lived for more than 22 days, even when receiving Candida doses higher than the lethal amount. When peptide 2 was administered along with GM-CSF, the phagocytic activity was raised 1.5 times due to an immune system stimulus.6464 Tanida T, Rao F, Hamada T, Ueta E, Osaki T. Lactoferrin peptide increases the survival of Candida albicans-inoculated mice by upregulating neutrophil and macrophage functions, especially in combination with amphotericin B and granulocyte-macrophage colony-stimulating factor. Infect Immun. 2001;69:3883-3890.

A few years later, Okamoto et al. (2004) confirmed the results of Tanida et al. (2011). In this case, the same methodology was adopted. However, another group of mice was also inoculated with 1.0 × 108 Aspergillus fumigatus cells. For both microorganisms, the combination of lactoferrin, Amphotericin-B and GM-CSF increased the survival time of the rodents for 35 days.6565 Okamoto T, Tanida T, Wei B, Ueta E, Yamamoto T, Osaki T. Regulation of fungal infection by a combination of amphotericin B and peptide 2, a lactoferrin peptide that activates neutrophils. Clin Diagn Lab Immunol. 2004;11:1111-1119.

Melaleuca alternifolia

Melaleuca alternifolia belongs to the Myrtaceae family.6666 Siddique S, Perveen Z, Nawaz S, Shahzad K, Ali Z. Chemical composition and antimicrobial activities of essential oils of six species from family Myrtaceae. J Essent Oil Bear Plants. 2015;18:950-956. This plant is described as a scrubland species and can be found primarily in South America, western India and Australia. In the latter country, the plant is known as tea tree and has been used in folk medicine learned from aboriginal people. Some biological activities of M. alternifolia include antibacterial, antiviral and antifungal action.6767 Ge Y, Ge M. Distribution of Melaleuca alternifolia essential oil in liposomes with Tween 80 addition and enhancement of in vitro antimicrobial effect. J Exp Nanosci. 2015;1:14.

Tea tree oil (TTO) can be obtained from the hydrodistillation of M. alternifolia leaves, and the chemical composition varies with the extraction method and crop region. Generally, this oil is a complex mixture of monoterpenes and terpenoids (50% oxygenated and 50% hydrocarbons) and approximately 100 other substances.6868 Bustos-Segura C, Külheim C, Foley W. Effects of terpene chemotypes of Melaleuca alternifolia on two specialist leaf beetles and susceptibility to myrtle rust. J Chem Ecol. 2015;41:937-947. Among these substances, terpinen-4-ol is the primary compound (≈30% TTO composition) and is indicated as the active ingredient responsible for the therapeutic properties of TTO. However, studies such the one performed by Miller (1984), where TTO's antimicrobial activity was higher than the activity of the isolated terpinen-4-ol, have shown the synergy among the compounds of the plant.6969 Miller C. Pouring a healing oil over troubled waters. Aust Dr. 1984;7:14-15.

According to Calo et al. (2015), the antimicrobial activity of the M. alternifolia terpenes is associated with hydrophobicity in which the terpenes interact with the pathogen's cellular membrane lipids, changing the membrane's permeability.7070 Calo JR, Crandall PG, O'Bryan CA, Ricke SC. Essential oils as antimicrobials in food systems-a review. Food Control. 2015;54:111-119.,7171 Martínez A, Rojas N, García L, González F, Domínguez M, Catalán A. In vitro activity of terpenes against Candida albicans and ultrastructural alterations. Oral Surg Oral Med Oral Pathol Oral Radiol. 2014;118:553-559. Among the main results of membrane permeability are the (i) modification of proton-motive force, leading to a deficit in the production of cellular energy caused by the decrease in ATP generation and (ii) cellular lyses due to leakage or coagulation of the cytoplasm.7272 Zore GB, Thakre AD, Jadhav S, Karuppayil SM. Terpenoids inhibit Candida albicans growth by affecting membrane integrity and arrest of cell cycle. Phytomedicine. 2011;18:1181-1190.,7373 Khan MSA, Malik A, Ahmad I. Anti-candidal activity of essential oils alone and in combination with amphotericin B or fluconazole against multi-drug resistant isolates of Candida albicans. Med Mycol. 2012;50:33-42.

Melaleuca alternifolia (tea tree oil): studies in the treatment of candidiasis

Melaleuca alternifolia has been considered a promising alternative in the treatment of stomatitis caused by dentures, which is a recurrent problem in the elderly. de Campos Rasteiro et al. (2014) determined both the MIC and minimum biofilm eradication concentration (MBEC) of TTO in in vivo experiments. The results showed a 0.195% MIC and 12.5% MBEC. The latter concentration was used in topical application in animal experiments. Morphologic analysis through scanning electron microscopy (SEM) of mouse tongue tissue showed considerable wound area reduction, whereas colony-forming units were reduced by 5.33 log, which highlights the potential of M. alternifolia.7474 de Campos Rasteiro VM, da Costa ACBP, Araújo CF, et al. Essential oil of Melaleuca alternifolia for the treatment of oral candidiasis induced in an immunosuppressed mouse model. BMC Complement Altern Med. 2014;14:489.

Pachava et al. (2015) found colony-forming units of approximately 30, 43 and 19% of the control when discs impregnated with TTO were submerged in a C. albicans suspension. That result indicates that TTO could be used to coat dentures and reduce the wounds caused by Candida.7575 Pachava KR, Nadendla LK, Alluri LSC, Tahseen H, Sajja NP. Invitro antifungal evaluation of denture soft liner incorporated with tea tree oil: a new therapeutic approach towards denture stomatitis. J Clin Diagn Res. 2015;9:ZC62-ZC64. Sharma and Hegde (2014) also investigated the impregnation of dentures with TTO and fluconazole. TTO's MIC was equal to 30% m/m, while fluconazole's MIC was 5% m/m. At the same concentrations, fluconazole lost its antifungal activity after 7 days, whereas TTO did not.7676 Sharma S, Hegde V. Comparative evaluation of antifungal activity of melaleuca oil and fluconazole when incorporated in tissue conditioner: an in vitro study. J Prosthodont. 2014;23:367-373. Similar results were obtained by Dalwai et al. (2014), where both chlorhexidine gluconate and TTO retained their bioactivity after 14 days of incubation, whereas fluconazole became inactive.7777 Dalwai S, Rodrigues SJ, Baliga S, et al. Comparative evaluation of antifungal action of tea tree oil, chlorhexidine gluconate and fluconazole on heat polymerized acrylic denture base resin-an in vitro study. Gerodontology. 2014. On the other hand, Van Vuuren et al. (2009) evaluated the association of TTO with amphotericin-B (AMP-B) against C. albicans (ATCC 10231), through MIC and fractionary inhibitory concentration index (FICI) calculation.7878 Berenbaum MC. A method for testing for synergy with any number of agents. J Infect Dis. 1978;137:122-130. The following antimicrobial agent ratio resulted in a synergistic interaction (FICI < 1): 6:4 AMP-B:TTO (FICI 0.93) and 1:9 AMP-B:TTO (FICI 0.95).7979 van Vuuren SF, Suliman S, Viljoen AM. The antimicrobial activity of four commercial essential oils in combination with conventional antimicrobials. Lett Appl Microbiol. 2009;48:440-446. Similarly, Rosato et al. (2009) combined TTO and nystatin and used them to challenge C. albicans, C. krusei and C. tropicalis. This resulted in FICIs > 0.5, also indicating a synergistic effect.8080 Rosato A, Vitali C, Piarulli M, Mazzotta M, Argentieri MP, Mallamaci R. In vitro synergic efficacy of the combination of Nystatin with the essential oils of Origanum vulgare and Pelargonium graveolens against some Candida species. Phytomedicine. 2009;16:972-975.

Recently, in a study published by Di Vito et al. (2015), the combination of Amphotericin-B and TTO showed a synergistic effect against different species of Candida. That study focused on the development of a vaginal suppository for vulvovaginal candidiasis treatment. Candida strains were isolated from patients who had vaginitis. A synergistic effect was obtained for concentrations equal to 0.25 µg mL-1 of AMP-B and 0.08 µg mL-1 of TTO. In the same study, TTO was shown not to kill vaginal microbiota at concentrations below 2% v/v (Bifidobacterium animalis remained alive) and only concentrations above 4% v/v were bactericidal.8181 Di Vito M, Mattarelli P, Modesto M, et al. In vitro activity of tea tree oil vaginal suppositories against Candida spp. and probiotic vaginal microbiota. Phytother Res. 2015;29:1628-1633.

Nonetheless, as described by Kon and Rai (2013), a large gap remains in the development of in vivo studies to evaluate the biological activity of M. alternifolia combined or not with antifungal drugs. Therefore, such studies should be encouraged to obtain more consistent results about the commercial use of TTO for the treatment of candidiasis.8282 Kon K, Rai M. Combining plant essential oils and antimycotics in coping with antimycotic-resistant Candida species. In: Razzaghi-Abyaneh M, Rai M, eds. Antifungal Metabolites from Plants. Springer Berlin Heidelberg; 2013:263–281.

Chitosan

Chitin is defined as a natural polymer, and after cellulose, it is the most widespread and abundant polysaccharide found in nature. It has structural and protective functions and is found mainly in arthropods, the carapaces of shrimp, insects, and the cell walls of some fungi.

The cationic copolymer chitosan can be obtained from the deacetylation of chitin. In this process, chitin's acetyl groups (COCH3) are replaced by amine groups (-NH2). This process can be done through three different mechanisms: (i) the alkaline hydrolysis of the chitin at high temperatures, (ii) the employment of the enzyme chitinase, and (iii) through the direct action of microorganisms. Depending on the degree of acetylation, chitosan may have several byproducts of different composition, which will affect the molecule's solubility. For example, while chitin is insoluble in most solvents, chitosan is soluble in organic and inorganic acids. Structurally, chitosan is defined as a copolymer that is composed of d-glucosamine monomers and N-acetyl-d-glucosamine residues bound with glycoside β (1→4).8383 Hamed I, Özogul F, Regenstein JM. Industrial applications of crustacean by-products (chitin, chitosan, and chitooligosaccharides): a review. Trends Food Sci Technol. 2016;48:40-50.

Chitosan is functional, nontoxic, biocompatible, biodegradable, and bioactive, with chelating capacity, selective permeability and polyelectrolytes. All of these characteristics are dependent on chitosan's purity, viscosity, degree of acetylation and molecular weight. Another property of chitosan is its antimicrobial characteristics. The mechanisms of action seem to be through (i) chitosan's interaction with the phospholipids' sialic acid (anionic group) because chitosan is positively charged, leading to cell agglutination and preventing cells from exchanging substances with external media, and (ii) the penetration of chitosan into the cell, where the chitosan blocks DNA and RNA transcription and inhibits cell growth. Generally, chitosan's amine groups are responsible for its antimicrobial activity.8484 Pedro HSS, Francinalva DM, Martina GOP, et al. Antimicrobial potential of chitosan. African J Microbiol Res. 2015;9:147-154.

Chitosan: potential in candidiasis treatment

The combination of chitosan with antifungal drugs has shown promising results. Soliman et al. (2015), for example, inoculated 0.1 mL of C. albicans suspension into 80 mice with induced neutropenia. Twenty-four hours later, 20 animals were treated with saline solution (control group), 20 with chitosan extract (CE), 20 with Amphotericin-B (150 mg kg-1) (AMB), and the last 20 with chitosan and amphotericin simultaneously (150 mg kg-1) (CE + AMB) for 72 h. When compared to the control group, the animals that received CE, AMB and CE + AMB showed a reduction in fungal density of 73%, 87% and 90%, respectively. In addition, oxidative stress markers, such as malondialdehyde (MDA), reduced glutathione (GSH), superoxide dismutase (SOD), catalase (CAT) and nitric oxide (NO), were analyzed from the mouse lung tissue. The results showed that the groups that were treated with CE and CE + AMB showed a significant reduction in the levels of MDA, SOD, CAT and NO compared to the control group. On the other hand, the levels of GSH increased, which clearly indicates that chitosan can mitigate oxidative stress or lung wounds caused by systemic candidiasis.8585 Soliman AM, Fahmy SR, Mohamed WA. Therapeutic efficacy of chitosan against invasive candidiasis in mice. J Basic Appl Zool. 2015;72:163-172.

Alternatively, Senyiğit et al. (2014) evaluated the formulation of chitosan gel for vulvovaginal candidiasis treatment. Such a gel was produced with chitosan of different viscosities (20,000, 200,000 and 800,000 mPa s) and two antifungal drugs: miconazole nitrate and econazole nitrate. In vivo studies showed that chitosan of 200,000 mPa s led to the best results with both antifungal drugs. This conclusion was based on the following gel properties: mucosal adhesion, mechanical properties and adequate drug release.8686 Senyiğit ZA, Karavana SY, Eraç B, Gürsel O, Limoncu MH, Baloğlu E. Evaluation of chitosan based vaginal bioadhesive gel formulations for antifungal drugs. Acta Pharm. 2014;64:139-156.

Chhonker et al. (2015) investigated the potential of chitosan, in combination with Amphotericin-B, as a treatment for fungal keratitis. The active compounds were used to coat 161.9-230.5-nm nanoparticles to extend the drug delivery time. The nanocarriers containing chitosan and amphotericin were found to be more active against C. albicans than the commercial formulation (Fungizone®). In addition, in vivo studies were carried out in rabbits for pharmacokinetic studies, where it was observed that the bioavailability of the medicine was increased 2.04 times, whereas the precorneal residence time was increased 3.36 times. Finally, the best results were achieved with chitosan of average molecular weight.8787 Chhonker YS, Prasad YD, Chandasana H, et al. Amphotericin-B entrapped lecithin/chitosan nanoparticles for prolonged ocular application. Int J Biol Macromol. 2015;72:1451-1458. Such results are relevant because fungal keratitis is an eyes disease that is responsible for blindness of many people around the world, and medicines currently available for its treatment have strong side effects.

Parker et al. (2016) investigated the role of chitosan in association with Amphotericin-B and polyethylene glycol in the local treatment of muscle wounds. Sponges were utilized as a means of delivering the formulation. The results of in vivo tests led to the conclusion that sponges coated with Amphotericin-B released the formulation (at concentrations above 0.25 µg mL-1) for more than 72 h.8888 Parker AC, Rhodes C, Jennings JA, et al. Preliminary evaluation of local drug delivery of amphotericin B and in vivo degradation of chitosan and polyethylene glycol blended sponges. J Biomed Mater Res B Appl Biomater. 2016;104:78-87.

Final remarks

The prospection of biomolecules and natural products is clearly an important strategy for discovering and making available new drugs for the treatment of different diseases, as well as for use in increasing the activity of common drugs through synergism, which can be seen as a promising strategy to overcome the alarming current drug multiresistance scenario. In this context, M. alternifolia, lactoferrin and chitosan have been demonstrated to be viable options in the treatment of fungal infections, mainly against Candida spp., when used in association or not with antimicrobial dugs. This is especially important because Candida has led to a high mortality rate worldwide. Therefore, studies have indicated the feasibility of using synthetic and natural products in combination to improve their activity though synergism and overcome the problem of microbial multiresistance.

References

  • 1
    Matthaiou DK, Christodoulopoulou T, Dimopoulos G. How to treat fungal infections in ICU patients. BMC Infect Dis. 2015;15:205.
  • 2
    McCarty TP, Pappas PG. Invasive candidiasis. Infect Dis Clin North Am 2015;30:103-124.
  • 3
    Liu S, Hou Y, Chen X, Gao Y, Li H, Sun S. Combination of fluconazole with non-antifungal agents: a promising approach to cope with resistant Candida albicans infections and insight into new antifungal agent discovery. Int J Antimicrob Agents. 2014;43:395-402.
  • 4
    McCool L. The Discovery and Naming of Candida albicans; 2016. Available at: http://antimicrobe.org/h04c.files/history/DiscoveryNaming of CandidaAlbicans.pdf Accessed 17.08.16.
    » http://antimicrobe.org/h04c.files/history/DiscoveryNaming of CandidaAlbicans.pdf
  • 5
    Quindós G. Epidemiology of candidaemia and invasive candidiasis. A changing face. Rev Iberoam Micol 2014;31:42-48.
  • 6
    Arnold HM, Micek ST, Shorr AF, et al. Hospital resource utilization and costs of inappropriate treatment of candidemia. Pharmacotherapy. 2010;30:361-368.
  • 7
    Morgan J, Meltzer MI, Plikaytis BD, et al. Excess mortality, hospital stay, and cost due to candidemia: a case-control study using data from population-based candidemia surveillance. Infect Control Hosp Epidemiol 2005;26:540-547.
  • 8
    Jacobs DM, Beyda ND, Asuphon O, Alam MJ, Garey KW. Host factors and clinical outcomes of Candida colonization in critically ill patients. Mycopathologia 2015;179:87-93.
  • 9
    Fridkin SK. Candidemia is costly-plain and simple. Clin Infect Dis. 2005;41:1240-1241.
  • 10
    WHO. Antimicrobial Resistance: Global Report Surveillance; 2014. Available at: http://apps.who.int/iris/bitstream/10665/112642/1/9789241564748_eng.pdf?ua=1 Accessed 17.08.16.
    » http://apps.who.int/iris/bitstream/10665/112642/1/9789241564748_eng.pdf?ua=1
  • 11
    Scott RPW. Essential oils. In: Encyclopedia of Analytical Science 2nd ed. Elsevier; 2005:554–561.
  • 12
    Koehn FE, Carter GT. The evolving role of natural products in drug discovery. Nat Rev Drug Discov 2005;4:206-220.
  • 13
    Ferreira TS, Moreira CZ, Cária NZ, Victoriano G, Silva WF, Magalhães JC. Phytotherapy: an introduction to its history, use and application. Rev Bras Plant Med. 2014;162:290-298.
  • 14
    Mogosanu GD, Grumezescu A, Huang K-S, Bejenaru L, Bejenaru C. Prevention of microbial communities: novel approaches based natural products. Curr Pharm Biotechnol. 2015;16:94-111.
  • 15
    Negri M, Salci TP, Shinobu-Mesquita CS, Capoci IRG, Svidzinski TIE, Kioshima ES. Early state research on antifungal natural products. Molecules 2014;19:2925-2956.
  • 16
    Martins N, Barros L, Henriques M, Silva S, Ferreira ICFR. Activity of phenolic compounds from plant origin against Candida species. Ind Crops Prod. 2015;74:648-670.
  • 17
    Homeyer DC, Sanchez CJ, Mende K, et al. In vitro activity of Melaleuca alternifolia (tea tree) oil on filamentous fungi and toxicity to human cells. Med Mycol. 2015;53:285-294.
  • 18
    Blunt JW, Copp BR, Keyzers RA, Munro MHG, Prinsep MR. Marine natural products. Nat Prod Rep 2013;30:237-323.
  • 19
    Ngo D-H, Vo T-S, Ngo D-N, et al. Biological effects of chitosan and its derivatives. Food Hydrocoll. 2015;51:200-216.
  • 20
    Harvey AL, Edrada-Ebel R, Quinn RJ. The re-emergence of natural products for drug discovery in the genomics era. Nat Rev Drug Discov 2015;14:111-129.
  • 21
    Ling LL, Schneider T, Peoples AJ, et al. A new antibiotic kills pathogens without detectable resistance. Nature 2015;517:455-459.
  • 22
    Blaschke-Hellmessen R. Habitats for Candida in medical and hygienic respects. Mycoses 1999;42(suppl 1):22-29.
  • 23
    Huffnagle GB, Noverr MC. The emerging world of the fungal microbiome. Trends Microbiol. 2013;21:334-341.
  • 24
    Underhill DM, Iliev ID. The mycobiota: interactions between commensal fungi and the host immune system. Nat Rev Immunol. 2014;14:405-416.
  • 25
    Kiyoura Y, Tamai R. Innate immunity to Candida albicans Jpn Dent Sci Rev 2015;51:59-64.
  • 26
    Tagliaferri E, Menichetti F. Treatment of invasive candidiasis: between guidelines and daily clinical practice. Expert Rev Anti Infect Ther. 2015.
  • 27
    Netea MG, Joosten LAB, van der Meer JWM, Kullberg B-J, van de Veerdonk FL. Immune defence against Candida fungal infections. Nat Rev Immunol. 2015;15:630-642.
  • 28
    Manzoni P, Mostert M, Castagnola E. Update on the management of Candida infections in preterm neonates. Arch Dis Child Fetal Neonatal Ed. 2015;100:F454-F459.
  • 29
    Tang H-J, Liu W-L, Lin H-L, Lai C-C. Epidemiology and prognostic factors of candidemia in cancer patients. PLOS ONE 2014;9:e99103.
  • 30
    Seelig MS. The role of antibiotics in the pathogenesis of Candida infections. Am J Med. 1966;40:887-917.
  • 31
    Navarathna DH, Roberts DD, Munasinghe J, Lizak MJ. Imaging Candida infections in the host. Methods Mol Biol. 2016;1356:69-78.
  • 32
    Singh A, Verma R, Murari A, Agrawal A. Oral candidiasis: an overview. J Oral Maxillofac Pathol 2014;18:S81-S85.
  • 33
    Sobel JD. Genital candidiasis. Medicine (Baltimore) 2014;42:364-368.
  • 34
    Sobel JD. Recurrent vulvovaginal candidiasis. Am J Obstet Gynecol. 2015.
  • 35
    Ramos LS, Barbedo LS, Braga-Silva LA, dos Santos ALS, Pinto MR, Sgarbi DBG. Protease and phospholipase activities of Candida spp. isolated from cutaneous candidiasis. Rev Iberoam Micol. 2015;32:122-125.
  • 36
    Nobile CJ, Johnson AD. Candida albicans biofilms and human disease. Annu Rev Microbiol 2015;69:71-92.
  • 37
    Bennett RJ. The parasexual lifestyle of Candida albicans. Curr Opin Microbiol 2015;28:10-17.
  • 38
    Whibley N, Gaffen SL. Beyond Candida albicans: mechanisms of immunity to non-albicans Candida species. Cytokine 2015;76:42-52.
  • 39
    Rossoni RD, Barbosa JO, Vilela SFG, et al. Competitive interactions between C. albicans, C. glabrata and C. krusei during biofilm formation and development of experimental candidiasis. PLOS ONE. 2015;10:e0131700.
  • 40
    Asner SA, Giulieri S, Diezi M, Marchetti O, Sanglard D. Acquired multidrug antifungal resistance in Candida lusitaniae during therapy. Antimicrob Agents Chemother 2015;59:7715-7722.
  • 41
    Szweda P, Gucwa K, Kurzyk E, et al. Essential oils, silver nanoparticles and propolis as alternative agents against fluconazole resistant Candida albicans, Candida glabrata and Candida krusei clinical isolates. Indian J Microbiol. 2015;55:175-183.
  • 42
    Duncan VMS, O'Neil DA. Commercialization of antifungal peptides. Fungal Biol Rev 2013;26:156-165.
  • 43
    Nakatsuji T, Gallo RL. Antimicrobial peptides: old molecules with new ideas. J Invest Dermatol. 2012;132:887-895.
  • 44
    Zasloff M. Antimicrobial peptides of multicellular organisms. Nature 2002;415:389-395.
  • 45
    Sorensen M, Sorensen SPL. The proteins in whey. Compte rendu des Trav du Lab Carlsberg, Ser Chim 1940;23:55-99.
  • 46
    Johanson B. Isolation of an iron-containing red protein from human milk. Acta Chem Scand 1960;14:510-512.
  • 47
    Masson PL, Heremans JF. Lactoferrin in milk from different species. Comp Biochem Physiol Part B Comp Biochem 1971;39:119-213.
  • 48
    Pawlik A, Sender G, Korwin-Kossakowska A, Oprzadek J. Immunomodulatory and antimicrobial activity of lactoferrin. Med Weter 2014;70:209-213.
  • 49
    Kanwar JR, Roy K, Patel Y, et al. Multifunctional iron bound lactoferrin and nanomedicinal approaches to enhance its bioactive functions. Molecules 2015;20:9703-9731.
  • 50
    Tauber PF, Zaneveld LJ, Propping D, Schumacher GF. Components of human split ejaculates. I. Spermatozoa, fructose, immunoglobulins, albumin, lactoferrin, transferrin and other plasma proteins. J Reprod Fertil 1975;43:249-267.
  • 51
    Levay PF, Viljoen M. Lactoferrin: a general review. Haematologica 1995;80:252-267.
  • 52
    Kijlstra A, Jeurissen SH, Koning KM. Lactoferrin levels in normal human tears. Br J Ophthalmol. 1983;67:199-202.
  • 53
    Farnaud S, Evans RW. Lactoferrin-a multifunctional protein with antimicrobial properties. Mol Immunol. 2003;40:395-405.
  • 54
    Cohen MS, Britigan BE, French M, Bean K. Preliminary observations on lactoferrin secretion in human vaginal mucus: variation during the menstrual cycle, evidence of hormonal regulation, and implications for infection with Neisseria gonorrhoeae. Am J Obstet Gynecol 1987;157:1122-1125.
  • 55
    González-Chávez SA, Arévalo-Gallegos S, Rascón-Cruz Q. Lactoferrin: structure, function and applications. Int J Antimicrob Agents 2009;33:.
  • 56
    Emery T. Iron deprivation as a biological defence mechanism. Nature 1980;287:776-777.
  • 57
    Kanyshkova TG, Babina SE, Semenov DV, et al. Multiple enzymic activities of human milk lactoferrin. Eur J Biochem. 2003;270:3353-3361.
  • 58
    García-Montoya IA, Cendón TS, Arévalo-Gallegos S, Rascón-Cruz Q. Lactoferrin a multiple bioactive protein: an overview. Biochim Biophys Acta. 2012;1820:226-236.
  • 59
    Ulvatne H, Haukland HH, Olsvik O, Vorland LH, Lactoferricin B. Lactoferricin B causes depolarization of the cytoplasmic membrane of Escherichia coli ATCC 25922 and fusion of negatively charged liposomes. FEBS Lett. 2001;492:62-65.
  • 60
    Yemets AI, Tanasienko IV, Krasylenko YA, Blume YB. Plant-based biopharming of recombinant human lactoferrin. Cell Biol Int. 2014;38:989-1002.
  • 61
    Brouwer CPJM, Rahman M, Welling MM. Discovery and development of a synthetic peptide derived from lactoferrin for clinical use. Peptides 2011;32:1953-1963.
  • 62
    Venkatesh MP, Rong L. Human recombinant lactoferrin acts synergistically with antimicrobials commonly used in neonatal practice against coagulase-negative staphylococci and Candida albicans causing neonatal sepsis. J Med Microbiol 2008;57:1113-1121.
  • 63
    Venkatesh M, Rong L, Raad I, Versalovic J. Novel synergistic antibiofilm combinations for salvage of infected catheters. J Med Microbiol. 2009;58:936-944.
  • 64
    Tanida T, Rao F, Hamada T, Ueta E, Osaki T. Lactoferrin peptide increases the survival of Candida albicans-inoculated mice by upregulating neutrophil and macrophage functions, especially in combination with amphotericin B and granulocyte-macrophage colony-stimulating factor. Infect Immun. 2001;69:3883-3890.
  • 65
    Okamoto T, Tanida T, Wei B, Ueta E, Yamamoto T, Osaki T. Regulation of fungal infection by a combination of amphotericin B and peptide 2, a lactoferrin peptide that activates neutrophils. Clin Diagn Lab Immunol. 2004;11:1111-1119.
  • 66
    Siddique S, Perveen Z, Nawaz S, Shahzad K, Ali Z. Chemical composition and antimicrobial activities of essential oils of six species from family Myrtaceae. J Essent Oil Bear Plants 2015;18:950-956.
  • 67
    Ge Y, Ge M. Distribution of Melaleuca alternifolia essential oil in liposomes with Tween 80 addition and enhancement of in vitro antimicrobial effect. J Exp Nanosci 2015;1:14.
  • 68
    Bustos-Segura C, Külheim C, Foley W. Effects of terpene chemotypes of Melaleuca alternifolia on two specialist leaf beetles and susceptibility to myrtle rust. J Chem Ecol 2015;41:937-947.
  • 69
    Miller C. Pouring a healing oil over troubled waters. Aust Dr. 1984;7:14-15.
  • 70
    Calo JR, Crandall PG, O'Bryan CA, Ricke SC. Essential oils as antimicrobials in food systems-a review. Food Control 2015;54:111-119.
  • 71
    Martínez A, Rojas N, García L, González F, Domínguez M, Catalán A. In vitro activity of terpenes against Candida albicans and ultrastructural alterations. Oral Surg Oral Med Oral Pathol Oral Radiol. 2014;118:553-559.
  • 72
    Zore GB, Thakre AD, Jadhav S, Karuppayil SM. Terpenoids inhibit Candida albicans growth by affecting membrane integrity and arrest of cell cycle. Phytomedicine 2011;18:1181-1190.
  • 73
    Khan MSA, Malik A, Ahmad I. Anti-candidal activity of essential oils alone and in combination with amphotericin B or fluconazole against multi-drug resistant isolates of Candida albicans. Med Mycol 2012;50:33-42.
  • 74
    de Campos Rasteiro VM, da Costa ACBP, Araújo CF, et al. Essential oil of Melaleuca alternifolia for the treatment of oral candidiasis induced in an immunosuppressed mouse model. BMC Complement Altern Med 2014;14:489.
  • 75
    Pachava KR, Nadendla LK, Alluri LSC, Tahseen H, Sajja NP. Invitro antifungal evaluation of denture soft liner incorporated with tea tree oil: a new therapeutic approach towards denture stomatitis. J Clin Diagn Res. 2015;9:ZC62-ZC64.
  • 76
    Sharma S, Hegde V. Comparative evaluation of antifungal activity of melaleuca oil and fluconazole when incorporated in tissue conditioner: an in vitro study. J Prosthodont 2014;23:367-373.
  • 77
    Dalwai S, Rodrigues SJ, Baliga S, et al. Comparative evaluation of antifungal action of tea tree oil, chlorhexidine gluconate and fluconazole on heat polymerized acrylic denture base resin-an in vitro study. Gerodontology 2014.
  • 78
    Berenbaum MC. A method for testing for synergy with any number of agents. J Infect Dis 1978;137:122-130.
  • 79
    van Vuuren SF, Suliman S, Viljoen AM. The antimicrobial activity of four commercial essential oils in combination with conventional antimicrobials. Lett Appl Microbiol 2009;48:440-446.
  • 80
    Rosato A, Vitali C, Piarulli M, Mazzotta M, Argentieri MP, Mallamaci R. In vitro synergic efficacy of the combination of Nystatin with the essential oils of Origanum vulgare and Pelargonium graveolens against some Candida species. Phytomedicine 2009;16:972-975.
  • 81
    Di Vito M, Mattarelli P, Modesto M, et al. In vitro activity of tea tree oil vaginal suppositories against Candida spp. and probiotic vaginal microbiota. Phytother Res. 2015;29:1628-1633.
  • 82
    Kon K, Rai M. Combining plant essential oils and antimycotics in coping with antimycotic-resistant Candida species. In: Razzaghi-Abyaneh M, Rai M, eds. Antifungal Metabolites from Plants Springer Berlin Heidelberg; 2013:263–281.
  • 83
    Hamed I, Özogul F, Regenstein JM. Industrial applications of crustacean by-products (chitin, chitosan, and chitooligosaccharides): a review. Trends Food Sci Technol 2016;48:40-50.
  • 84
    Pedro HSS, Francinalva DM, Martina GOP, et al. Antimicrobial potential of chitosan. African J Microbiol Res 2015;9:147-154.
  • 85
    Soliman AM, Fahmy SR, Mohamed WA. Therapeutic efficacy of chitosan against invasive candidiasis in mice. J Basic Appl Zool 2015;72:163-172.
  • 86
    Senyiğit ZA, Karavana SY, Eraç B, Gürsel O, Limoncu MH, Baloğlu E. Evaluation of chitosan based vaginal bioadhesive gel formulations for antifungal drugs. Acta Pharm. 2014;64:139-156.
  • 87
    Chhonker YS, Prasad YD, Chandasana H, et al. Amphotericin-B entrapped lecithin/chitosan nanoparticles for prolonged ocular application. Int J Biol Macromol. 2015;72:1451-1458.
  • 88
    Parker AC, Rhodes C, Jennings JA, et al. Preliminary evaluation of local drug delivery of amphotericin B and in vivo degradation of chitosan and polyethylene glycol blended sponges. J Biomed Mater Res B Appl Biomater. 2016;104:78-87.

Publication Dates

  • Publication in this collection
    Apr-Jun 2018

History

  • Received
    18 Aug 2016
  • Accepted
    26 May 2017
Sociedade Brasileira de Microbiologia USP - ICB III - Dep. de Microbiologia, Sociedade Brasileira de Microbiologia, Av. Prof. Lineu Prestes, 2415, Cidade Universitária, 05508-900 São Paulo, SP - Brasil, Ramal USP 7979, Tel. / Fax: (55 11) 3813-9647 ou 3037-7095 - São Paulo - SP - Brazil
E-mail: bjm@sbmicrobiologia.org.br