Arthropods as possible loss or solution sources on Acacia mangium (Fabales: Fabaceae) saplings

Artrópodes como possíveis fontes de perda ou solução em mudas de Acacia mangium (Fabales: Fabaceae)

Abstract

Acacia mangium (Willd.) (Fabales: Fabaceae) tree shows applicability in programs to recover degraded areas due to its fast-growing, rustic, pioneer species, with the potential to fix nitrogen. However, this plant is attacked by pests. It is important to know, among them, the most important. This study aims to evaluate the herbivorous insects (loss sources) and their natural enemies (solution sources) on 48 A. mangium saplings. They were classified according to their ability to damage or reduce the source of damage on these saplings using the percentage of the Importance Index-Production Unknown (% I.I.-P.U.). The loss sources Trigona spinipes Fabr. (Hymenoptera: Apidae), Aleyrodidae (Hemiptera), Phenacoccus sp. (Hemiptera: Pseudococcidae), Aethalion reticulatum L. (Hemiptera: Aethalionidae), and Tropidacris collaris Stoll. (Orthoptera: Romaleidae), showed the highest % I.I.-P.U. on leaves of A. mangium saplings. The solution sources Oxyopidae (Araneae), Pseudomyrmex termitarius (Smith) (Hymenoptera: Formicidae), and Brachymyrmex sp. (Hymenoptera: Formicidae), showed the highest % I.I.-P.U. on leaves of A. mangium saplings. The number of Lordops sp. (Coleoptera: Curculionidae) was reduced per number of Brachymyrmex sp.; that of T. collaris those of Oxyopidae and Brachymyrmex sp.; and that of Tettigoniidae that of P. termitarius, totaling 8.93% of reduction of these herbivorous insects (numbers) on A. mangium saplings. These herbivorous insects turn into problems in commercial plantations of this plant since to are related to pests in some crops. These tending ants and Oxyopidae can be important on A. mangium commercial crops because they can reduce the number of these herbivorous insects.

Keywords:
abundance; aggregation; chi-squared test; constancy; frequency

Resumo

A Acacia mangium (Willd.) (Fabales: Fabaceae) apresenta aplicabilidade em programas de recuperação de áreas degradadas devido ao seu rápido crescimento, espécie rústica, pioneira, com potencial de fixação de nitrogênio. No entanto, esta planta é atacada por pragas. É importante saber, entre eles, o mais importante. Este estudo tem como objetivo avaliar os insetos herbívoros (fontes de perda) e seus inimigos naturais (fontes de solução) em 48 mudas A. mangium. Eles foram classificados de acordo com sua capacidade de danificar ou reduzir a fonte de dano nessas mudas usando o percentual do Índice de Importância-Produção Desconhecido (% I.I.-P.U.). As fontes de perda Trigona spinipes Fabr. (Hymenoptera: Apidae), Aleyrodidae (Hemiptera), Phenacoccus sp. (Hemiptera: Pseudococcidae), Aethalion reticulatum L. (Hemiptera: Aethalionidae) e Tropidacris Collaris Stoll. (Orthoptera: Romaleidae), apresentaram os maiores % I.I.-P.U. em folhas de mudas de A. mangium. As fontes de solução Oxyopidae (Araneae), Pseudomyrmex termitarius (Smith) (Hymenoptera: Formicidae) e Brachymyrmex sp. (Hymenoptera: Formicidae) apresentaram os maiores % I.I.-P.U. nas folhas de mudas de A. mangium. O número de Lordops sp. (Coleoptera: Curculionidae) foi reduzido pelo número de Brachymyrmex sp.; a de T. collaris pelos de Oxyopidae e Brachymyrmex sp.; e a de Tettigoniidae pelo de P. termitarius, totalizando 8,93% de redução destes insetos herbívoros (números) em mudas de A. mangium. Esses insetos herbívoros podem se tornar problemas em plantações comerciais desta planta, pois estes estão relacionados como pragas em algumas culturas. Essas formigas e Oxyopidae podem ser importantes em cultivos comerciais de A. mangium, pois podem reduzir o número desses insetos herbívoros.

Palavras-chave:
abundância; agregação; teste do qui-quadrado; constância; frequência

1. Introduction

Acacia mangium (Willd.) (Fabales: Fabaceae) tree is a fast-growing, rustic pioneer species with potential for nitrification due to symbiosis with diazotrophic bacteria, resulting in high litter production (Caldeira et al., 2018; Eloy et al., 2018; Paula et al., 2018). Acacia mangium is adapted to acidic and infertile soils makes this plant important for recovering degraded areas (Balieiro et al., 2004; Wang et al., 2013). Besides, its wood is used, for example, in the construction of furniture (Hegde et al., 2013). However, this plant is attacked by different insect groups: sap-sucking, defoliators, stem apex chewing, and the wood-borer (Lemes et al., 2013; Parreira et al., 2014; Silva et al., 2015, 2020). On the other hand, A. mangium is visited and/or colonized by several predators such as ants, neuropteran, spiders, wasps, and others (Silva et al., 2020; Gomes et al., 2023; Lima et al., 2024). These arthropods can be loss and solution sources on A. mangium saplings. It is important to know, among them, the most important in each group.

The Importance Indice (I.I.) can determine the loss and solution sources on a system in some knowledge areas (e.g., agronomy), when production is known (Demolin-Leite, 2021). Events (e.g., agricultural pest) can present different magnitudes (numerical measurements), frequencies, and distributions (aggregate, random, or regular) of event occurrence, and I.I. bases in this triplet (Demolin-Leite, 2021). In general, the higher the magnitude and frequency, with aggregated distribution, the greater the problem or solution (e.g., natural enemies versus pests) for the system (Demolin-Leite, 2021). However, the final production of the system is not always known or is difficult to determine (e.g., degraded area recovery). A derivation of the I.I. is the percentage of Importance Index-Production Unknown (% I.I.-P.U.) that can detect the loss or solution sources, when production is unknown, for the system (Demolin-Leite, 2024a).

The objective of this study was to determine the loss (e.g., herbivores insects) and solution (e.g., natural enemies) sources, classifying them according to their importance regarding their ability to damage or mitigate the source of damage on 48 A. mangium saplings - system with production unknown.

2. Material and Methods

2.1. Experimental site

This study was carried out in a degraded area (≈ 1 ha) of the “Instituto de Ciências Agrárias da Universidade Federal de Minas Gerais (ICA/UFMG)” in the city of Montes Claros, Minas Gerais state, Brazil (latitude 16º 51' 38” S, longitude 44º 55' 00” W, altitude 943 m) for 24 months (April 2015 to March 2017). According to the Köppen climate classification, the climate of this area is tropical dry, with annual precipitation and temperature between 1,000 and 1,300 mm and ≥ 24ºC, respectively (Alvares et al., 2013). The soil is Neosol Litolic with an Alic horizon (Silva et al., 2020).

2.2. Experimental design

The A. mangium seedlings were prepared, in March 2014, in a nursery in plastic bags (16 x 24 cm) with reactive natural phosphate mixed with the substrate at a dosage of 160g and planted at the same time, in the final site in September of this year. Each A. mangium seedling was planted in a hole (40 x 40 x 40 cm) when they reached 30 cm high with a 2-meter spacing between them. The soil was corrected with dolomitic limestone with the base saturation increased to 50%, natural phosphate, gypsum, FTE (Fried Trace Elements), potassium chloride, and micronutrients based on the soil analysis. A single, 20 L dose of dehydrated sewage sludge with defined biochemical characteristics (Silva et al., 2020) was placed per hole. The young 48 A. mangium saplings (young trees in the vegetative period) were irrigated twice a week until the beginning of the rainy season (October).

2.3. Counting the arthropods

The percentage of defoliation (leaf area loss) on a 0-100% scale with 5% increments for removed leaf area (Kogan and Turnipseed, 1980), and damage score from sap-sucking insects: I = non-damage; II = appearance of yellow chlorotic spots (leaf with 1% to 25% of attack symptoms); III = some yellow chlorotic spots and/or start of black sooty mold (leaf with 26% to 50% of attack symptoms); IV = several yellow chlorotic spots and/or severe blackening of leaves (leaf with 51% to 75% of attack symptoms); and V = yellowing or complete leaf drying (leaf with 76% to 100% of attack symptoms) (Demolin-Leite, 2024a), were assessed visually, and all insects and spiders were counted, between 7:00 A.M. and 11:00 A.M., by visual observation, every two weeks on the adaxial and abaxial surfaces of the first 12 leaves expanded, per sapling [sampling unit (n) - one leaf]. Leaves were randomly assessed on the branch (one leaf per position) in the basal, middle, and apical parts of the canopy - vertical axis - (0 to 33%, 34 to 66%, and 67 to 100% of total sapling height, respectively) and in the north, south, east, and west directions - horizontal axis. A total of 12 leaves/sapling/evaluation were observed on 48 A. mangium saplings (age = 12 months) starting six months after transplantation for 24 months (27,648 total leaves), covering the entire sapling (vertical and horizontal axis), capturing the highest possible number of arthropods (insects and spiders), especially the rarest ones. In these saplings, the number of arthropods on the trunks was also assessed for each evaluation. The evaluator carefully approached, firstly assessing the adaxial leaf surface and, if it was not possible to visualize the abaxial one, with a delicate and slow movement, the leaf was lifted and visualized. The position of leaves of A. mangium saplings is generally tilted upwards, facilitating the visual assessment of arthropods on their leaf surfaces. Insects with greater mobility (e.g., Orthoptera), that flew on approach, were counted as they were recognized (e.g., Order). The arthropods (insects and spiders) were not removed from the saplings during the evaluation.

A few arthropod specimens (up to 3 individuals) per species were collected with an aspirator (two hours per week), at the beginning of the study (between transplantation and first evaluation), stored in flasks with 70% alcohol, separated into morph species, and sent to specialists for identification (see acknowledgments). Any visible arthropod, not yet computed in previous evaluations, was collected, coded, and sent to a taxonomist of each group (e.g., family).

The definition of what is a loss source or solution source was made by field observation (e.g., leaf damage), feed habits, and literature. The same was applied, as example, for prey-predator and sap-sucking insects- tending ant relationships.

2.4. Statistical analysis

Each replication is a sapling with the total individuals collected on 12 leaves (three heights and four sides of the sapling) for 24 months. The distribution type (aggregated, random, or regular) for the lost source (L.S.) or solution source (S.S.) was defined by the Chi-square test using the R-package ‘IIProductionUnknown’ (Demolin-Leite and Azevedo, 2022) (Supplementary materials I and II). The data were subjected to simple regression analysis and their parameters were all significant (P< 0.05) using the R-package ‘IIProductionUnknown’ (Demolin-Leite and Azevedo, 2022) (Supplementary material III). Simple equations were selected by observing the criteria: i) data distribution in the figures (linear or quadratic response), ii) the parameters used in these regressions were the most significant ones (P< 0.05), iii) P< 0.05 and F of the Analysis of Variance of these regressions, and iv) the coefficient of determination of these equations (R²). Only L.S. and S.S. with P< 0.05 were shown in Supplementary Materials (I-III). All the data above were used in the Percentage of Importance Index-Production Unknown (% I.I.-P.U.).

Percentage of Importance Indice-Production Unknown (% I.I.-P.U.) is: % I.I.-P.U.= [(ks₁ x c₁ x ds₁)/Σ(ks₁ x c₁ x ds₁)+(ks₂ x c₂ x ds₂)+(ks_n x c_n x ds_n)]x100 (Demolin-Leite, 2024a).

Where:

1. i

   the key source (ks) is: ks = damage (non-percentage) (Da.)/total n of the L.S. on the samples or ks = reduction of the total n. of L.S. (R.L.S)/total n. of the S.S on the samples (Demolin-Leite, 2024a). Where Da. or R.L.S. = R² x (1 - P), when it is of the first degree, or ((R² x (1 - P))x(β₂/β₁), when it is of the second degree, where R² = determination coefficient and P = significance of ANOVA, β₁ = regression coefficient, and β₂ = regression coefficient (variable²), of the simple regression equation of the loss source (L.S.) or solution source (S.S.) (Demolin-Leite, 2024a). When it is not possible to separate the Da. between two or more L.S., divide the Da. among the L.S. as a proportion of their respective “total n”. Da. = 0 when Da. was non-significant for damage or non-detected by L.S. on the system (Demolin-Leite, 2024a). When an S.S. operates in more than one L.S., that caused damage, its ks are summed. R.L.S. = 0 when Da. by L.S. or R.L.S. was non-significant for damage by L.S. or reduced L.S. by S.S. on the system (Demolin-Leite, 2024a).

2. ii

   c (constancy) = Σ of occurrence of L.S. or S.S. on samples, where absence = 0 or presence = 1 (Demolin-Leite, 2021).

3. iii

   ds (distribution source) = 1 - P of the chi-square test of L.S. or S.S. on the samples (Demolin-Leite, 2021). Counts (non-frequency) of L.S. or S.S. are used to perform the chi-square test.

These data, above, are obtained, by R-package ‘IIProductionUnknown’ (Demolin-Leite and Azevedo, 2022).

Percentage of R.L.S. per S.S. (%R.L.S.S.S.) = (R.L.S.S.S./total n of the L.S. - abundance or damage) x 100, where R.L.S.S.S. = R.L.S. x total n of the S.S., with the R.L.S. not being summed in this case (Demolin-Leite, 2024a). These data, above, are obtained, by R-package ‘IIProductionUnknown’ (Demolin-Leite and Azevedo, 2022).

3. Results

The loss sources Trigona spinipes Fabr. (Hymenoptera: Apidae) (35.33%), Aleyrodidae (Hemiptera) (31.84%) (maximum score damage = II), Phenacoccus sp. (Hemiptera: Pseudococcidae) (18.66%) (maximum score damage = II), Aethalion reticulatum L. (Hemiptera: Aethalionidae) (9.17%) (maximum score damage = III), and Tropidacris collaris Stoll. (Orthoptera: Romaleidae) (1.36%), showed, among 43 herbivorous insects (≈ 0.10%), the highest % I.I.-P.U. on leaves of A. mangium saplings (Table 1).

Table 1
Total number (n), damage (Da.), key-source (ks), constancy (c), distribution source (ds), number of Importance Indice (n. I.I.), sum of n. I.I.-P.U. (Σ n. I.I.), and percentage of I.I. by loss source (L.S.) on 48 Acacia mangium (Fabaceae) saplings.

Loss source
L.S.	n	Da.	ks	c	ds	n.I.I.	Σn.I.I.	%I.I.
Trigona spinipes	143	0.8100	0.0057	26	1.00	0.1473	0.42	35.33
Aleyrodidae	96	0.9800	0.0102	13	1.00	0.1327	0.42	31.84
Phenacoccus sp.	63	0.9800	0.0156	5	1.00	0.0778	0.42	18.66
Aethalium reticulatum	157	1.0000	0.0064	6	1.00	0.0382	0.42	9.17
Tropidacris collaris	56	0.0148	0.0003	32	0.67	0.0057	0.42	1.36
Tettigoniidae	42	0.0111	0.0003	28	0.40	0.0030	0.42	0.71
Parasyphraea sp.	17	0.0045	0.0003	11	1.00	0.0029	0.42	0.69
Lepidoptera	13	0.0034	0.0003	10	0.85	0.0022	0.42	0.53
Stereoma anchoralis	16	0.0042	0.0003	8	1.00	0.0021	0.42	0.51
Lordops sp.	11	0.0029	0.0003	2	1.00	0.0005	0.42	0.13
Diabrotica speciosa	8	0.0021	0.0003	8	0.24	0.0005	0.42	0.12
Cerotoma sp.	9	0.0024	0.0003	9	0.21	0.0005	0.42	0.12
Eumolpus sp.	4	0.0011	0.0003	4	0.40	0.0004	0.42	0.10
Curculionidae	3	0.0008	0.0003	3	0.44	0.0004	0.42	0.08
Cephalocoema sp.	3	0.0008	0.0003	3	0.44	0.0004	0.42	0.08
Cerambycidae	2	0.0005	0.0003	2	0.49	0.0003	0.42	0.06
Gryllidae	2	0.0005	0.0003	2	0.49	0.0003	0.42	0.06
Epitragus sp.	2	0.0005	0.0003	2	0.49	0.0003	0.42	0.06
Disonycha brasiliensis	2	0.0005	0.0003	2	0.49	0.0003	0.42	0.06
Wanderbiltiana sp.	2	0.0005	0.0003	2	0.49	0.0003	0.42	0.06
Alagoasa sp.	2	0.0005	0.0003	2	0.49	0.0003	0.42	0.06
Walterianela sp.	2	0.0005	0.0003	2	0.49	0.0003	0.42	0.06
Psiloptera sp.	1	0.0003	0.0003	1	0.53	0.0001	0.42	0.03
Alleculinae	1	0.0003	0.0003	1	0.53	0.0001	0.42	0.03
Lamprosoma sp.	1	0.0003	0.0003	1	0.53	0.0001	0.42	0.03
Phiblossoma phyllinum	1	0.0003	0.0003	1	0.53	0.0001	0.42	0.03
Acrogonia sp.	9	0.0000	0.0000	8	0.63	0.0000	0.42	0.00
Anastrepha sp.	1	0.0000	0.0000	1	0.53	0.0000	0.42	0.00
Balclutha hebe	26	0.0000	0.0000	16	1.00	0.0000	0.42	0.00
Bladina sp.	4	0.0000	0.0000	4	0.40	0.0000	0.42	0.00
Cicadellinae	1	0.0000	0.0000	1	0.53	0.0000	0.42	0.00
Dysdercus sp.	1	0.0000	0.0000	1	0.53	0.0000	0.42	0.00
Erythrogonia sexguttata	8	0.0000	0.0000	4	1.00	0.0000	0.42	0.00
Euxesta sp.	20	0.0000	0.0000	16	0.48	0.0000	0.42	0.00
Ferrariana trivittata	2	0.0000	0.0000	2	0.49	0.0000	0.42	0.00
Mahanarva fimbriolata	1	0.0000	0.0000	1	0.53	0.0000	0.42	0.00
Membracidae	29	0.0000	0.0000	14	1.00	0.0000	0.42	0.00
Membracis sp.	6	0.0000	0.0000	6	0.32	0.0000	0.42	0.00
Nasutitermes sp.	873	0.0000	0.0000	9	1.00	0.0000	0.42	0.00
Nogodinidae	4	0.0000	0.0000	3	0.97	0.0000	0.42	0.00
Pachycoris torridus	6	0.0000	0.0000	4	0.99	0.0000	0.42	0.00
Pentatomidae	27	0.0000	0.0000	21	0.31	0.0000	0.42	0.00
Quesada gigas	11	0.0000	0.0000	6	1.00	0.0000	0.42	0.00

• I.I.-P.U. = ks x c x ds. ks = Da./total n of the L.S.. Da. = R² x (1 - P) when it is of the first degree, or ((R² x (1 - P))x(β₂/β₁) when it is of the second degree, where ² = determination coefficient and P = significance of ANOVA, β₁ = regression coefficient, and β₂ = regression coefficient (variable²), of the simple regression equation, or non-percentage of damage per L.S.. c = Σ of occurrence of L.S. on each sample, 0 = absence or 1 = presence. ds = 1 - P of chi-square test of the L.S.. Da. = 0 when Da. non-significant for damage or non-detected by L.S..

The solution sources Oxyopidae (Araneae) (97.32%), Pseudomyrmex termitarius (Smith) (Hymenoptera: Formicidae) (2.62%), and Brachymyrmex sp. (Hymenoptera: Formicidae) (0.06%), among 25 natural enemies (= 0.00%), revealed the highest % I.I.-P.U. on leaves of A. mangium saplings. The number of Lordops sp. (Coleoptera: Curculionidae) was reduced per number of Brachymyrmex sp. (3.99%); that of T. collaris those of Oxyopidae (2.14%) and Brachymyrmex sp. (0.91%); and that of Tettigoniidae that of P. termitarius (1.89%), totaling 8.93% of reduction of these herbivorous insects (numbers) on A. mangium sapling (Tables 2-3).

Table 2
Total number (n), reduction of L.S. (R.L.S.), key-source (ks), constancy (c), distribution source (ds), number of Importance Indice (n. I.I.), sum of n. I.I.-P.U. (Σ n. I.I.), and percentage of I.I. by solution source (S.S.) on 48 Acacia mangium (Fabaceae) saplings.

Solution source
S.S.	n	R.L.S.	ks	c	ds	n.I.I.	Σn.I.I.	%I.I.
Oxyopidae	30	0.0363	0.0012	21	0.90	0.02	0.02	97.32
Pseudomyrmex termitarius	220	0.0036	0.0000	37	1.00	0.00	0.02	2.62
Brachymyrmex sp.	1627	0.0006	0.0000	38	1.00	0.00	0.02	0.06
Aphantochilus rogersi	2	0.0000	0.0000	2	0.49	0.00	0.02	0.00
Araneidae	49	0.0000	0.0000	30	0.64	0.00	0.02	0.00
Camponotus sp.	450	0.0000	0.0000	44	1.00	0.00	0.02	0.00
Cantharis sp.	16	0.0000	0.0000	6	1.00	0.00	0.02	0.00
Cephalotes sp.	169	0.0000	0.0000	9	1.00	0.00	0.02	0.00
Chrysoperla sp.	5	0.0000	0.0000	5	0.36	0.00	0.02	0.00
Cycloneda sanguinea	3	0.0000	0.0000	3	0.44	0.00	0.02	0.00
Dolichopodidae	128	0.0000	0.0000	41	1.00	0.00	0.02	0.00
Ectatoma sp.	50	0.0000	0.0000	26	0.99	0.00	0.02	0.00
Leucauge sp.	2	0.0000	0.0000	1	1.00	0.00	0.02	0.00
Mantis religiosa	7	0.0000	0.0000	7	0.28	0.00	0.02	0.00
Oxyopes salticus	6	0.0000	0.0000	6	0.32	0.00	0.02	0.00
Pheidole sp.	285	0.0000	0.0000	44	1.00	0.00	0.02	0.00
Photinus sp.	4	0.0000	0.0000	3	0.98	0.00	0.02	0.00
Podisus sp.	4	0.0000	0.0000	4	0.40	0.00	0.02	0.00
Polybia sp.	106	0.0000	0.0000	25	1.00	0.00	0.02	0.00
Quemedice sp.	2	0.0000	0.0000	2	0.49	0.00	0.02	0.00
Salticidae	39	0.0000	0.0000	24	1.00	0.00	0.02	0.00
Syrphus sp.	8	0.0000	0.0000	6	0.95	0.00	0.02	0.00
Teudis sp.	1	0.0000	0.0000	1	0.53	0.00	0.02	0.00
Tmarus sp.	2	0.0000	0.0000	2	0.49	0.00	0.02	0.00
Uspachus sp.	3	0.0000	0.0000	2	1.00	0.00	0.02	0.00

• I.I.-P.U. = ks x c x ds. ks = R.L.S./total n. of the S.S.. R.L.S.= R² x (1 - P) when it is of the first degree, or ((R² x (1 - P))x(β₂/β₁) when it is of the second degree, where ² = determination coefficient and P = significance of ANOVA, β₁ = regression coefficient, and β₂ = regression coefficient (variable²), of the simple regression equation. c = Σ of occurrence of S.S. on each sample, 0 = absence or 1 = presence. ds = 1 - P of chi-square test of the S.S.. When a S.S. operates in more than one L.S., that caused damage, its ks are summed. E.S.. = 0 when Da. by L.S. or E.S. non-significant for damage by L.S. or reduced L.S. by S.S..

Table 3
Percentage of reduction in abundance (%R.) of loss source (L.S.) per solution source (S.S.), sum (Σ), and total of Σ of R.L.S. (T.Σ) on 48 Acacia mangium (Fabaceae) saplings.

	%R.L.S.S.S.
	L.S.
S.S.	Lordops sp.	Tropidacris collaris	Tettigoniidae
Oxyopidae	---	2.14	---
Brachymyrmex sp.	3.99	0.91	---
Pseudomyrmex termitarius	---	---	1.89
Σ	3.99	3.05	1.89
* T.Σ	8.93	---	---

• --- = L.S. was not reduced per S.S. %R.L.S.S.S. = (R.L.S.S.S./total n of the L.S.) x 100, where R.L.S.S.S. = R.L.S. x total n of the S.S.. R.L.S. = R² x (1 - P) when it is of the first degree, or ((R² x (1 - P))x(β₂/β₁) when it is of the second degree, where ² = determination coefficient and P = significance of ANOVA, β₁ = regression coefficient, and β₂ = regression coefficient (variable²), of the simple regression equation. ^*T.Σ = total sum.

4. Discussion

The loss sources T. spinipes, Aleyrodidae, Phenacoccus sp., A. reticulatum, and T. collaris, presented the highest % I.I.-P.U. on leaves of A. mangium saplings. The shoots and growth regions by Leucaena leucocephala (Lam.) de Wit. (Fabales: Fabaceae) are damaged for T. spinipes bees, which remove fibers to construct their nests (Damascena et al., 2017). Besides, this bee species damages flowers such as on Caryocar brasiliense Camb. (Malpighiales: Caryocaraceae) trees and Zantedeschia aethiopica (L.) Spreng. (Commelinales: Araceae) plants (Carvalho et al., 2018; Demolin-Leite, 2024b). In addition, T. spinipes can reduce pollination on Cucurbita moschata Dusch (Cucurbitales: Cucurbitaceae) plants owing to insufficient pollen transportation (small body size) and/or chasing other pollinators by flying in flocks and with aggressive behavior (Serra and Campos, 2010). Its control, traditionally, is the location and destruction of its nest (Demolin-Leite, 2024b). Bemisia tabaci (Genn., 1889), Aleyrodidae family, is a pest of several plants, including sweet pepper Capsicum annuum L. (Solanales: Solanaceae), Cucumis melo L. (Cucurbitales: Cucurbitaceae), soybean Glycine max (L.) Merrill and common bean Phaseolus vulgaris L. (Fabales: Fabaceae), and tomato Solanum lycopersicon Mill. (Solanales: Solanaceae). This sap-sucking insect can inject toxins, transmit viruses, and favor the development of fumagine (Zhang et al., 2004; Mansaray and Sundufu, 2009; Kim et al., 2017; Felicio et al., 2019). Phenacoccus sp. was the most abundant phytophagous insect on Platycyamus regnellii (Benth) (Fabales: Fabaceae) trees fertilized with dehydrated sewage sludge (Souza et al., 2021). Besides, Phenacoccus sp. is related as a pest of Abelmoschus esculentus (L.) Moench. (Malvales: Malvaceae), Amaranthus flavus L. (Caryophyllales: Amaranthaceae), Bidens pilosa L. (Asterales: Asteraceae), Carica papaya L. (Violales: Caricaceae), Gossypium hirsutum L. (Malvales: Malvaceae), Manihot esculenta Crantz. (Malpighiales: Euphorbiaceae), S. lycopersicum, and Vitis vinifera L. (Vitales: Vitaceae). This insect causes necrosis in the apical tissues, reduces the photosynthetic rate, leaf growth (with yellowing and fall of these), negatively affecting the plant production (e.g., M. esculenta) (Schulthess et al., 1991; Culik and Gullan, 2005; Culik et al., 2007; Rebolledo-Martínez et al., 2013; Santos and Peronti, 2017). The A. reticulatum is a pest that reduces the development of fruits and sprouts, leading to hypertrophy and cracks in the apex of seedlings and, possibly, killing plants of “mulungu” Erythrina speciosa Andrews (Fabales: Fabaceae) (Araújo et al., 2010; Zanuncio et al., 2015). In addition, this sap-sucking insect damages A. mangium, Triplaris americana L. (Caryophyllales: Polygonaceae), and Vernonia condensata Baker (Asterales: Asteraceae) plants (Menezes et al., 2013; Pires et al., 2014; Silva et al., 2020). Finally, the chewing insect T. collaris damages on A. mangium saplings confirms its polyphagy, which also attacks plants of Casuarina glauca Sieber (Casuarinales: Casuarinaceae), L. leucocephala, and Terminalia argentea Mart. (Myrtales: Combretaceae) (Poderoso et al., 2013; Damascena et al., 2017; Carvalho et al., 2020).

The solution sources Oxyopidae, P. termitarius, and Brachymyrmex sp., showed the highest % I.I.-P.U. on leaves of A. mangium saplings. The numbers of Lordops sp., T. collaris, and Tettigoniidae were reduced per numbers of Brachymyrmex sp., Oxyopidae, and P. termitarius, with a total reduction of these herbivorous insects around 9% on A. mangium saplings. Spiders are important predators, as an example, on C. brasiliense trees and T. argentea (Leite et al., 2012; Carvalho et al., 2020); on pastures and forests (Zografou et al., 2017); in many agroecosystems in the USA (Landis et al., 2000) and Italy (Venturino et al., 2008); and in 12 agricultural landscapes in the low mountain ranges of Central Hesse (Germany) (Öberg et al., 2008). And, finally, ants can reduce defoliation and fruit-boring insect populations (e.g., Coleoptera and Lepidoptera) (Leite et al., 2012; Gonthier et al., 2013; Fagundes et al., 2017; Dassou et al., 2019). Besides, ants are bioindicators of the recovery of degraded areas (Sanchez, 2015). Domatia, which are internal plant structures (e.g., stems and leaves), are adapted for habitation by ants (Janzen, 1966). Many different genera of plants offer these structures like the Acacia genus and their stems that are excavated by ants for use as housing structures (Janzen, 1966). Many myrmecophytes are defended from both herbivores and other competing plants by their ant counterparts like Acacia cornigera (L.) Willd. (Fabales: Fabaceae) (Rico-Gray and Oliveira, 2007). This plant is thoroughly guarded by its obligate ant partner, Pseudomyrmex ferruginea (Smith, 1877), which has more than 30,000 ants on a single colony, tending multiple Acacia trees (Rico-Gray and Oliveira, 2007). The soldier ants patrol the trees twenty-four hours a day with incredible aggression, and recruit more works, inside the horn domatia, with any disturbance to the tree (Rico-Gray and Oliveira, 2007). These ants keep the Acacia free from other insects and vertebrate herbivores with the bit, sting violently, and prune any trespassers, but also from invading fungi and other plants (Rico-Gray and Oliveira, 2007).

5. Conclusions

The loss sources T. spinipes, Aleyrodidae, Phenacoccus sp., A. reticulatum, and T. collaris, showed the highest % I.I.-P.U. on leaves of A. mangium saplings. These insects turn into problems in commercial plantations of this plant since to are related to pests in some crops. The solution sources Oxyopidae, P. termitarius, and Brachymyrmex sp., showed the highest % I.I.-P.U. on leaves of A. mangium saplings. These natural enemies can be important on A. mangium due to their capacity to reduce herbivorous damages (e.g., Oxyopidae versus T. collaris) reducing 9% of herbivorous insects on A. mangium sapling.

Supplementary Material

Supplementary material accompanies this paper.

Supplementary material I. Aggregated (Agg.), regular (Reg.), or random (Ran.) distribution (Dist.) of the loss sources on 48 Acacia mangium (Fabaceae) saplings. Supplementary material II Aggregated (Agg.), regular (Reg.), or random (Ran.) distribution (Dist.) of the solution sources on 48 Acacia mangium (Fabaceae) saplings. Supplementary material III Simple regression equations of damage per loss source (L.S.) and reduction or increase of L.S. (abundance or damage) per solution source (S.S.) on 48 Acacia mangium (Fabaceae) saplings.

This material is available as part of the online article from https://doi.org/10.1590/1519-6984.267130

Acknowledgements

I wish to thank the taxonomists Dr. Antônio Domingos Brescovit (Butantan Institute, São Paulo state, Brazil - Arachnida), Dr. Ayr de Moura Bello (Oswaldo Cruz Foundation, Rio de Janeiro state, Brazil - Coleoptera), Dr. Carlos Matrangolo (University of Montes Claros, Minas Gerais state, Brazil - Formicidae), Dr. Ivan Cardoso Nascimento (EMBRAPA-ILHÉUS Cocoa Research Center, CEPLAC, Itabuna, Bahia state, Brazil - Formicidae), Dr. Luci Boa Nova Coelho (Federal University of Rio de Janeiro, Rio de Janeiro state, Brazil - Cicadellidae) and Dr. Paulo Sérgio Fiuza Ferreira (Federal University of Viçosa, Minas Gerais state, Brazil - Hemiptera) for the identification of specimens. The voucher numbers are 1595/02 and 1597/02 (CDZOO, Federal University of Paraná, Paraná state, Brazil).

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Publication Dates

• Publication in this collection
  17 Apr 2023
• Date of issue
  2023

History

• Received
  22 Aug 2022
• Accepted
  14 Mar 2023