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II Consenso Brasileiro sobre o uso de imunoglobulina humana em pacientes com imunodeficiências primárias

RESUMO

Nos últimos anos, novas imunodeficiências primárias e defeitos genéticos têm sido descritos. Recentemente, produtos de imunoglobulina, com aprimoramento em sua composição e para uso por via subcutânea, tornaram-se disponíveis em nosso meio. Com o objetivo de orientar o médico no uso da imunoglobulina humana para o tratamento das imunodeficiências primárias, os membros do Grupo de Assessoria em Imunodeficiências da Associação Brasileira de Alergia e Imunologia produziram um documento que teve por base uma revisão narrativa da literatura e sua experiência profissional, atualizando o I Consenso Brasileiro publicado em 2010. Apresentam-se novos conhecimentos sobre indicações e eficácia do tratamento com imunoglobulina nas imunodeficiências primárias, aspectos relevantes sobre a produção, forma de utilização (vias de administração, farmacocinética, doses e intervalos), efeitos adversos (principais efeitos, prevenção, tratamento e notificação), monitorização do paciente, apresentações disponíveis e forma de obtenção deste recurso terapêutico em nosso meio.

Doenças do sistema imune; Imunoglobulinas; Imunoglobulinas intravenosas; Síndromes de imunodeficiência; Imunização passiva

ABSTRACT

In the last few years, new primary immunodeficiencies and genetic defects have been described. Recently, immunoglobulin products with improved compositions and for subcutaneous use have become available in Brazil. In order to guide physicians on the use of human immunoglobulin to treat primary immunodeficiencies, based on a narrative literature review and their professional experience, the members of the Primary Immunodeficiency Group of the Brazilian Society of Allergy and Immunology prepared an updated document of the 1st Brazilian Consensus, published in 2010. The document presents new knowledge about the indications and efficacy of immunoglobulin therapy in primary immunodeficiencies, relevant production-related aspects, mode of use (routes of administration, pharmacokinetics, doses and intervals), adverse events (major, prevention, treatment and reporting), patient monitoring, presentations available and how to have access to this therapeutic resource in Brazil.

Immune system diseases; Immunoglobulins; Immunoglobulins, intravenous; Immunologic deficiency syndromes; Immunization, passive

APRESENTAÇÃO

Este documento é resultado de um trabalho colaborativo dos membros do Grupo de Assessoria em Imunodeficiências da Associação Brasileira de Alergia e Imunologia tendo por base uma revisão narrativa da literatura e sua experiência profissional, para orientar o médico brasileiro no uso da imunoglobulina (Ig) humana para o tratamento das imunodeficiências primárias.11. Costa-Carvalho BT, Solé D, Condino-Neto A, Rosário Filho N. I Consenso Brasileiro sobre o Uso de Imunoglobulina Humana em Pacientes com Imunodeficiências Primárias. Rev Bras Alerg Imunopatol. 2010;33(3):104-16.

INTRODUÇÃO

As imunodeficiências primárias (IDP) compõem um grupo bastante heterogêneo, atualmente composto por mais de 300 doenças causadas por mutações genéticas, que ocasionam alterações no desenvolvimento e na função do sistema imunológico, além de se caracterizarem por infecções recorrentes, graves e/ou por agentes incomuns ou de baixa patogenicidade, manifestações autoimunes ou inflamatórias, e maior predisposição à neoplasias.22. Ochs HD, Hagin D. Primary immunodeficiency disorders: general classification, new molecular insights, and practical approach to diagnosis and treatment. Ann Allergy Asthma Immunol. 2014;112(6):489-95. Review.

3. Rezaei N, Vries ED, Gambineri E, Haddad E. Common presentations and diagnostic approaches. In: Sullivan KE, Stiehm ER, editors. Stiehm’s Immune Deficiencies. United States: Elsevier; 2014. p. 3-58.

4. Bousfiha A, Jeddane L, Al-Herz W, Ailal F, Casanova JL, Chatila T, et al. The 2015 IUIS Phenotypic Classification for Primary Immunodeficiencies. J Clin Immunol. 2015;35(8):727-38. Review.

5. Abolhassani H, Asgardoon MH, Rezaei N, Hammarstrom L, Aghamohammadi A. Different brands of intravenous immunoglobulin for primary immunodeficiencies: how to choose the best option for the patient? Expert Rev Clin Immunol. 2015; 11(11):1229-43. Review.
-66. Picard C, Al-Herz W, Bousfiha A, Casanova JL, Chatila T, Conley ME, et al. Primary immunodeficiency diseases: an update on the classification from the nternational Union of Immunological Societies Expert Committee for Primary Immunodeficiency 2015. J Clin Immunol. 2015;35(8):696-726. Review. Nos últimos anos, novas doenças e novos defeitos genéticos têm sido descritos.

Diversos registros ao redor do mundo, inclusive o latino-americano, demonstram que pelo menos 50% das IDP acometem predominantemente a produção de anticorpos, a qual encontra-se prejudicada também em outros tipos de defeitos do sistema imune.33. Rezaei N, Vries ED, Gambineri E, Haddad E. Common presentations and diagnostic approaches. In: Sullivan KE, Stiehm ER, editors. Stiehm’s Immune Deficiencies. United States: Elsevier; 2014. p. 3-58.,77. Leiva LE, Zelazco M, Oleastro M, Carneiro-Sampaio M, Condino-Neto A, Costa-Carvalho BT, Grumach AS, Quezada A, Patiño P, Franco JL, Porras O, Rodríguez FJ, Espinosa-Rosales FJ, Espinosa-Padilla SE, Almillategui D, Martínez C, Tafur JR, Valentín M, Benarroch L, Barroso R, Sorensen RU; Latin American Group for Primary Immunodeficiency Diseases. Primary immunodeficiency diseases in Latin America: the second report of the LAGID registry. J Clin Immunol. 2007;27(1):101-8.

8. Ballow M, Notarangelo L, Grimbacher B, Cunningham-Rundles C, Stein M, Helbert M, et al. Immunodeficiencies. Clin Exp Immunol. 2009;158 Suppl 1:14-22. Review.

9. Errante PR, Franco JL, Espinosa-Rosales FJ, Sorensen R, Condino-Neto A. Advances in primary immunodeficiency diseases in Latin America: epidemiology, research, and perspectives. Ann N Y Acad Sci. 2012;1250:62-72. Review.

10. Grimbacher B; ESID Registry Working Party. The European Society for Immunodeficiencies (ESID) registry 2014. Clin Exp Immunol. 2014;178 Suppl 1:18-20.

11. Kobrynski L, Powell RW, Bowen S. Prevalence and morbidity of primary immunodeficiency diseases, United States 2001-2007. J Clin Immunol. 2014; 34(8):954-61.

12. Mahlaoui N, Gathmann B, Kindle G, Ehl S, Quinti I, Grimbacher B, on behalf of the ESID Registry Working Party Steering Committee (Isabella Quinti, Italy, Bodo Grimbacher, Germany, Matthew Buckland, United Kingdom, Markus Seidel, Austria, Joris van Montfrans, The Netherlands) and the ESID Society. The European Society for Immunodeficiencies (ESID) Registry: recent advances in the epidemiology of Primary Immunodeficiencies and how does that translate in clinical care. Rare Dis Orphan Drugs. 2014;1(4 Suppl 4):25-7.
-1313. Modell V, Quinn J, Orange J, Notarangelo LD, Modell F. Primary immunodeficiencies worldwide: an updated overview from the Jeffrey Modell Centers Global Network. Immunol Res. 2016;64(3):736-53.

O uso de soro animal ou de humanos convalescentes para o tratamento e a prevenção de doenças infecciosas iniciou-se ao fim do século 19. A purificação da Ig da G (IgG) foi possível na década de 1940 com o método de fracionamento de Cohn-Oncley,1414. Oncley J, Melin M, Richert D, Cameron J, Gross P. The separation of the antibodies, isoagglutinins, prothrombin, plasminogen and beta1 lipoprotein into subfractions of human plasma. J Am Chem Soc. 1949;71(2):541-50. utilizado para produzir albumina para feridos da Segunda Guerra Mundial.1515. Eibl MM. History of immunoglobulin replacement. Immunol Allergy Clin North Am. 2008;28(4):737-64, viii. Review.,1616. Berger M, Stiehm ER. From subcutaneous to intravenous immunoglobulin and back. In: Etzioni A, Ochs HD, editors. Primary immunodeficiency disorders: a historic and scientific perspective. United States: Academic Press; 2014. p. 307-77.

O tratamento de reposição de Ig humana foi realizado pela primeira vez em 1952, por Bruton, no primeiro paciente descrito com agamaglobulinemia, utilizando a via subcutânea.1717. Bruton O. Agammaglobulinemia. Pediatrics. 1952;9(6):722-8. Nos anos que se seguiram, a via intramuscular passou a ser a mais usada para a reposição de Ig. Entretanto, esta aplicação é dolorosa, atinge concentrações séricas em cerca de 24 horas e possui baixa biodisponibilidade, com menos de 50% de aproveitamento.1818. Wasserman RL. Progress in gammaglobulin therapy for immunodeficiency: from subcutaneous to intravenous infusions and back again. J Clin Immunol. 2012;32(6):1153-64. Review. Com o uso de doses mais elevadas, os efeitos colaterais, como calafrios, febre ou até mesmo anafilaxia, ocorrem com mais frequência.1515. Eibl MM. History of immunoglobulin replacement. Immunol Allergy Clin North Am. 2008;28(4):737-64, viii. Review.

Desde a década de 1960, diferentes preparados para uso intravenoso foram desenvolvidos e passaram a ser utilizados, mas apenas ao fim da década de 1970 e início da década de 1980, esta via passou a ser considerada a de eleição para a reposição de Ig em pacientes com IDP.1616. Berger M, Stiehm ER. From subcutaneous to intravenous immunoglobulin and back. In: Etzioni A, Ochs HD, editors. Primary immunodeficiency disorders: a historic and scientific perspective. United States: Academic Press; 2014. p. 307-77.,1818. Wasserman RL. Progress in gammaglobulin therapy for immunodeficiency: from subcutaneous to intravenous infusions and back again. J Clin Immunol. 2012;32(6):1153-64. Review.,1919. Wasserman RL, Stein M, Melamed I, Kobrynski LJ, Gupta S, Puck J, et al. Long-term efficacy and safety of recombinant human hyaluronidase (rHuPH20)- facilitated subcutaneous infusion of immunoglobulin G (IgG) (HyQvia; IGHy) in patients with primary immunodeficiencies (PI). J Allergy Clin Immunol. 2015;135(2 Suppl):AB96.

Na década de 1980, houve avanços no processo de produção e na composição deste imunobiológico para infusão intravenosa, permitindo o uso de doses mais elevadas de Ig com melhor controle das infecções, porém ainda com muitos efeitos adversos.1818. Wasserman RL. Progress in gammaglobulin therapy for immunodeficiency: from subcutaneous to intravenous infusions and back again. J Clin Immunol. 2012;32(6):1153-64. Review.,2020. Skoda-Smith S, Torgerson T, Ochs HD. Subcutaneous immunoglobulin replacement therapy in the treatment of patients with primary immunodeficiency disease. Ther Clin Risk Manag. 2010;6:1-10. Assim, a aplicação por via subcutânea passou a ser relatada por vários serviços,2121. Berger M, Cupps TR, Fauci AS. Immunoglobulin replacement therapy by slow subcutaneous infusion. Ann Intern Med. 1980;93(1):55-6.

22. Roord JJ, van der Meer JW, Kuis W, de Windt GE, Zegers BJ, van Furth R, et al. Home treatment in patients with antibody deficiency by slow subcutaneous infusion of gammaglobulin. Lancet. 1982;1(8273):689-90.

23. Ugazio AG, Duse M, Re R, Mangili G, Burgio GR. Subcutaneous infusion of gammaglobulins in management of agammaglobulinaemia. Lancet. 1982; 1(8265):226.

24. Roord JJ, van der Meer JW, Kuis W, van Furth R. Treatment of antibody deficiency syndromes with subcutaneous infusion of gamma globulin. Birth Defects Orig Artic Ser. 1983;19(3):217-21. Review.

25. Chapel H, Brennan V, Delson E. Immunoglobulin replacement therapy by self-infusion at home. Clin Exp Immunol. 1988;73(1):160-2.

26. Gardulf A, Hammarström L, Smith CI. Home treatment of hypogammaglobulinaemia with subcutaneous gammaglobulin by rapid infusion. Lancet. 1991;338(8760): 162-6.
-2727. Chapel H, Gardulf A. Subcutaneous immunoglobulin replacement therapy: the European experience. Curr Opin Allergy Clin Immunol. 2013;13(6):623-9. Review. e seu uso tem sido incrementado nos últimos 10 a 15 anos, com bons resultados clínicos, poucos efeitos adversos e outras vantagens em relação ao uso intravenoso, relatados mais adiante.2828. Gardulf A, Andersen V, Björkander J, Ericson D, Frøland SS, Gustafson R, et al. Subcutaneous immunoglobulin replacement in patients with primary antibody deficiencies: safety and costs. Lancet. 1995;345(8946):365-9.

29. Chapel HM, Spickett GP, Ericson D, Engl W, Eibl MM, Bjorkander J. The comparison of the efficacy and safety of intravenous versus subcutaneous immunoglobulin replacement therapy. J Clin Immunol. 2000;20(2):94-100.

30. Berger M. Subcutaneous immunoglobulin replacement in primary immunodeficiencies. Clin Immunol. 2004;112(1):1-7. Review.

31. Gardulf A, Nicolay U, Asensio O, Bernatowska E, Böck A, Carvalho BC, et al. Rapid subcutaneous IgG replacement therapy is effective and safe in children and adults with primary immunodeficiencies--a prospective, multi-national study. J Clin Immunol. 2006;26(2):177-85.

32. Gardulf A. Immunoglobulin treatment for primary antibody deficiencies: advantages of the subcutaneous route. BioDrugs. 2007;21(2):105-16. Review.

33. Misbah S, Sturzenegger MH, Borte M, Shapiro RS, Wasserman RL, Berger M, et al. Subcutaneous immunoglobulin: opportunities and outlook. Clin Exp Immunol. 2009;158 Suppl 1:51-9. Review.

34. Berger M, Murphy E, Riley P, Bergman GE; VIRTUE Trial Investigators. Improved quality of life, immunoglobulin G levels, and infection rates in patients with primary immunodeficiency diseases during self-treatment with subcutaneous immunoglobulin G. South Med J. 2010;103(9):856-63.

35. Kobrynski L. Subcutaneous immunoglobulin therapy: a new option for patients with primary immunodeficiency diseases. Biologics. 2012;6:277-87.

36. Shapiro R. Subcutaneous immunoglobulin. Immunol Allergy Clin North Am. 2012. In press.

37. Bezrodnik L, Gómez Raccio A, Belardinelli G, Regairaz L, Diaz Ballve D, Seminario G, et al. Comparative study of subcutaneous versus intravenous IgG replacement therapy in pediatric patients with primary immunodeficiency diseases: a multicenter study in Argentina. J Clin Immunol. 2013;33(7):1216-22.

38. Bonagura VR. Illustrative cases on individualizing immunoglobulin therapy in primary immunodeficiency disease. Ann Allergy Asthma Immunol. 2013; 111(6 Suppl):S10-3. Review.

39. Gouilleux-Gruart V, Chapel H, Chevret S, Lucas M, Malphettes M, Fieschi C, Patel S, Boutboul D, Marson MN, Gérard L, Lee M, Watier H, Oksenhendler E; DEFI study group. Efficiency of immunoglobulin G replacement therapy in common variable immunodeficiency: correlations with clinical phenotype and polymorphism of the neonatal Fc receptor. Clin Exp Immunol. 2013;171(2): 186-94.

40. Lingman-Framme J, Fasth A. Subcutaneous immunoglobulin for primary and secondary immunodeficiencies: an evidence-based review. Drugs. 2013; 73(12):1307-19. Review.

41. Torgerson TR, Bonagura VR, Shapiro RS. Clinical ambiguities--ongoing questions. J Clin Immunol. 2013;33(Suppl 2):S99-103.
-4242. Shabaninejad H, Asgharzadeh A, Rezaei N, Rezapoor A. A Comparative Study of Intravenous Immunoglobulin and Subcutaneous Immunoglobulin in Adult Patients with Primary Immunodeficiency Diseases: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Expert Rev Clin Immunol. 2016;12(5):595-602. Review. Produtos para uso subcutâneo estão disponíveis para uso no Brasil desde 2015.

Em um cenário de grandes avanços no conhecimento das IDP e na produção de Ig humana, com a disponibilização comercial de novos produtos, faz-se necessária uma atualização do primeiro consenso de seu uso em nosso país, publicado em 2010.

OBJETIVO

Atualizar o I Consenso Brasileiro para o Uso de Imunoglobulina Humana em Pacientes com Imunodeficiências Primárias, publicado em 2010. O texto apresenta avanços no conhecimento em relação a indicações e eficácia da reposição de Ig nas imunodeficiências primárias, além de aspectos relevantes sobre produção, forma de utilização (vias de administração, farmacocinética, doses e intervalos), eventos adversos (principais efeitos, prevenção, tratamento e notificação), monitorização do paciente, apresentações disponíveis e forma de obtenção deste recurso terapêutico em nosso meio. A utilização de Ig humana em imunodeficiências secundárias ou como agente imunomodulador em doenças autoimunes e inflamatórias não é abordada neste documento.

MÉTODOS

Um texto base foi elaborado pela coordenação do grupo de assessoria, a partir de publicações científicas sobre o uso de Ig em imunodeficiências primárias dos últimos 10 anos, pesquisadas no PubMed e no Google Acadêmico, além de livros-texto e diretrizes de interesse, em uma revisão narrativa da literatura.

O texto foi enviado por correio eletrônico aos demais 14 membros do grupo, para que fosse ampliado e modificado, de maneira a refletir o conhecimento técnico e baseado na literatura, além da experiência clínica de todos.

Uma revisão final do texto foi realizada por dois profissionais da especialidade, não pertencentes ao grupo.

INDICAÇÕES E EFICÁCIA DA IMUNOGLOBULINA HUMANA NAS IMUNODEFICIÊNCIAS PRIMÁRIAS

O tratamento com Ig é, atualmente, o principal recurso terapêutico em praticamente 75% das IDP, naquelas em que há comprometimento na produção de anticorpos,55. Abolhassani H, Asgardoon MH, Rezaei N, Hammarstrom L, Aghamohammadi A. Different brands of intravenous immunoglobulin for primary immunodeficiencies: how to choose the best option for the patient? Expert Rev Clin Immunol. 2015; 11(11):1229-43. Review.,4343. Sewell WA, Kerr J, Behr-Gross ME, Peter HH; Kreuth Ig Working Group. European consensus proposal for immunoglobulin therapies. Eur J Immunol. 2014;44(8):2207-14. promovendo a reposição de Ig da classe IgG. Os objetivos são manter concentrações estáveis e adequadas desta Ig no soro e um bom controle clínico dos pacientes.4444. Bonilla FA, Bernstein IL, Khan DA, Ballas ZK, Chinen J, Frank MM, Kobrynski LJ, Levinson AI, Mazer B, Nelson RP Jr, Orange JS, Routes JM, Shearer WT, Sorensen RU; American Academy of Allergy, Asthma and Immunology.; American College of Allergy, Asthma and Immunology.; Joint Council of Allergy, Asthma and Immunology. Practice parameter for the diagnosis and management of primary immunodeficiency. Ann Allergy Asthma Immunol. 2005;94(5 Suppl 1):S1-63. Erratum in: Ann Allergy Asthma Immunol. 2006;96(3):504.

45. Bonagura VR. Dose and outcomes in primary immunodeficiency disorders. Clin Exp Immunol. 2014;178 Suppl 1:7-9.

46. Chapel H, Prevot J, Gaspar HB, Español T, Bonilla FA, Solis L, Drabwell J; Editorial Board for Working Party on Principles of Care at IPOPI. Primary immune deficiencies - principles of care. Front Immunol. 2014;5:627. Review.

47. Condino-Neto A, Costa-Carvalho BT, Grumach AS, King A, Bezrodnik L, Oleastro M, et al. Guidelines for the use of human immunoglobulin therapy in patients with primary immunodeficiencies in Latin America. Allergol Immunopathol (Madr). 2014;42(3):245-60. Review.
-4848. Peter JG, Chapel H. Immunoglobulin replacement therapy for primary immunodeficiencies. Immunotherapy. 2014;6(7):853-69. Review.

A concentração alvo de IgG sérica fora estabelecida em 500mg/dL em amostras de sangue coletadas imediatamente antes da infusão,4444. Bonilla FA, Bernstein IL, Khan DA, Ballas ZK, Chinen J, Frank MM, Kobrynski LJ, Levinson AI, Mazer B, Nelson RP Jr, Orange JS, Routes JM, Shearer WT, Sorensen RU; American Academy of Allergy, Asthma and Immunology.; American College of Allergy, Asthma and Immunology.; Joint Council of Allergy, Asthma and Immunology. Practice parameter for the diagnosis and management of primary immunodeficiency. Ann Allergy Asthma Immunol. 2005;94(5 Suppl 1):S1-63. Erratum in: Ann Allergy Asthma Immunol. 2006;96(3):504.,4949. Roifman CM, Levison H, Gelfand EW. High-dose versus low-dose intravenous immunoglobulin in hypogammaglobulinaemia and chronic lung disease. Lancet. 1987;1(8541):1075-7.

50. Eijkhout HW, van Der Meer JW, Kallenberg CG, Weening RS, van Dissel JT, Sanders LA, Strengers PF, Nienhuis H, Schellekens PT; Inter-University Working Party for the Study of Immune Deficiencies. The effect of two different dosages of intravenous immunoglobulin on the incidence of recurrent infections in patients with primary hypogammaglobulinemia: a randomized, double-blind, multicenter crossover trial. Ann Intern Med. 2001;135(3):165-74.

51. Bonilla FA. Pharmacokinetics of immunoglobulin administered via intravenous or subcutaneous routes. Immunol Allergy Clin North Am. 2008;28(4):803-19, ix. Review.
-5252. Yong PL, Boyle J, Ballow M, Boyle M, Berger M, Bleesing J, et al. Use of intravenous immunoglobulin and adjunctive therapies in the treatment of primary immunodeficiencies: a working group report of and study by the Primary Immunodeficiency Committee of the American Academy of Allergy Asthma and Immunology. Clin Immunol. 2010;135(2):255-63. mas o seguimento clínico dos pacientes tem demonstrado que valores mais elevados, em torno de 700 a 1.000mg/dL, são mais eficientes no controle de infecções, particularmente pneumonias.88. Ballow M, Notarangelo L, Grimbacher B, Cunningham-Rundles C, Stein M, Helbert M, et al. Immunodeficiencies. Clin Exp Immunol. 2009;158 Suppl 1:14-22. Review.,4949. Roifman CM, Levison H, Gelfand EW. High-dose versus low-dose intravenous immunoglobulin in hypogammaglobulinaemia and chronic lung disease. Lancet. 1987;1(8541):1075-7.,5353. Rose ME, Lang DM. Evaluating and managing hypogammaglobulinemia. Cleve Clin J Med. 2006;73(2):133-7, 140, 143-4. Review.

54. Roifman CM, Berger M, Notarangelo LD. Management of primary antibody deficiency with replacement therapy: summary of guidelines. Immunol Allergy Clin North Am. 2008;28(4):875-6, x.

55. Lucas M, Lee M, Lortan J, Lopez-Granados E, Misbah S, Chapel H. Infection outcomes in patients with common variable immunodeficiency disorders: relationship to immunoglobulin therapy over 22 years. J Allergy Clin Immunol. 2010;125(6):1354-60. e4.

56. Orange JS, Grossman WJ, Navickis RJ, Wilkes MM. Impact of trough IgG on pneumonia incidence in primary immunodeficiency: a meta-analysis of clinical studies. Clin Immunol. 2010;137(1):21-30.

57. Shehata N, Palda V, Bowen T, Haddad E, Issekutz TB, Mazer B, et al. The use of immunoglobulin therapy for patients with primary immune deficiency: an evidence-based practice guideline. Transfus Med Rev. 2010;24 Suppl 1:S28-50. Review.

58. Ballow M. Intravenous IgG replacement in PIDD: dose and clinical expectations. Immunol Allergy Clin North Am. 2012. In press.

59. Orange JS, Belohradsky BH, Berger M, Borte M, Hagan J, Jolles S, et al. Evaluation of correlation between dose and clinical outcomes in subcutaneous immunoglobulin replacement therapy. Clin Exp Immunol. 2012;169(2):172-81.
-6060. Ballow MC. Immunoglobulin therapy: replacement and immunomodulation. In: Rich RR, editor. Clinical immunology: principles and practice. 4th. United States: Elsevier; 2013. p. 1041-63. Concentrações alvo de IgG mais elevadas são especialmente importantes em pacientes com doença pulmonar crônica e bronquiectasias, promovendo melhora da função pulmonar.5555. Lucas M, Lee M, Lortan J, Lopez-Granados E, Misbah S, Chapel H. Infection outcomes in patients with common variable immunodeficiency disorders: relationship to immunoglobulin therapy over 22 years. J Allergy Clin Immunol. 2010;125(6):1354-60. e4.,6161. Roifman CM, Gelfand EW. Replacement therapy with high dose intravenous gamma-globulin improves chronic sinopulmonary disease in patients with hipogammaglobulinemia. Pediatr Infect Dis J. 1988;7(5 Suppl):S92-6.

62. Kainulainen L, Varpula M, Liippo K, Svedström E, Nikoskelainen J, Ruuskanen O. Pulmonary abnormalities in patients with primary hypogammaglobulinemia. J Allergy Clin Immunol. 1999;104(5):1031-6.

63. Notarangelo LD, Plebani A, Mazzolari E, Soresina A, Bondioni MP. Genetic causes of bronchiectasis: primary immune deficiencies and the lung. Respiration. 2007;74(3):264-75. Review.
-6464. Rich AL, Le Jeune IR, McDermott L, Kinnear WJ. Serial lung function tests in primary immune deficiency. Clin Exp Immunol. 2008;151(1):110-3.

É importante salientar que as concentrações de IgG necessárias para a prevenção de quadros infecciosos varia de um indivíduo para outro, e o tratamento deve ser individualizado, procurando atingir doses e concentrações séricas de IgG que permitam atingir uma boa resposta clínica de cada paciente (trata-se do biological IgG level).88. Ballow M, Notarangelo L, Grimbacher B, Cunningham-Rundles C, Stein M, Helbert M, et al. Immunodeficiencies. Clin Exp Immunol. 2009;158 Suppl 1:14-22. Review.,3838. Bonagura VR. Illustrative cases on individualizing immunoglobulin therapy in primary immunodeficiency disease. Ann Allergy Asthma Immunol. 2013; 111(6 Suppl):S10-3. Review.,4545. Bonagura VR. Dose and outcomes in primary immunodeficiency disorders. Clin Exp Immunol. 2014;178 Suppl 1:7-9.,5555. Lucas M, Lee M, Lortan J, Lopez-Granados E, Misbah S, Chapel H. Infection outcomes in patients with common variable immunodeficiency disorders: relationship to immunoglobulin therapy over 22 years. J Allergy Clin Immunol. 2010;125(6):1354-60. e4.,5656. Orange JS, Grossman WJ, Navickis RJ, Wilkes MM. Impact of trough IgG on pneumonia incidence in primary immunodeficiency: a meta-analysis of clinical studies. Clin Immunol. 2010;137(1):21-30.,5858. Ballow M. Intravenous IgG replacement in PIDD: dose and clinical expectations. Immunol Allergy Clin North Am. 2012. In press.,6060. Ballow MC. Immunoglobulin therapy: replacement and immunomodulation. In: Rich RR, editor. Clinical immunology: principles and practice. 4th. United States: Elsevier; 2013. p. 1041-63.,6565. Bonagura VR, Marchlewski R, Cox A, Rosenthal DW. Biologic IgG level in primary immunodeficiency disease: the IgG level that protects against recurrent infection. J Allergy Clin Immunol. 2008;122(1):210-2.

66. Bonagura VR. Using intravenous immunoglobulin (IVIG) to treat patients with primary immune deficiency disease. J Clin Immunol. 2013;33 Suppl 2:S90-4. Review.
-6767. Jolles S, Orange JS, Gardulf A, Stein MR, Shapiro R, Borte M, et al. Current treatment options with immunoglobulin G for the individualization of care in patients with primary immunodeficiency disease. Clin Exp Immunol. 2015; 179(2):146-60. Review. Entende-se por “bom controle clínico” a redução do número e da gravidade dos quadros infecciosos e inflamatórios, a redução das hospitalizações e do uso de antibióticos, prevenindo algumas complicações, e melhorando o estado de saúde em geral e a qualidade de vida.5959. Orange JS, Belohradsky BH, Berger M, Borte M, Hagan J, Jolles S, et al. Evaluation of correlation between dose and clinical outcomes in subcutaneous immunoglobulin replacement therapy. Clin Exp Immunol. 2012;169(2):172-81.,6767. Jolles S, Orange JS, Gardulf A, Stein MR, Shapiro R, Borte M, et al. Current treatment options with immunoglobulin G for the individualization of care in patients with primary immunodeficiency disease. Clin Exp Immunol. 2015; 179(2):146-60. Review.

68. Gardulf A, Nicolay U, Math D, Asensio O, Bernatowska E, Böck A, et al. Children and adults with primary antibody deficiencies gain quality of life by subcutaneous IgG self-infusions at home. J Allergy Clin Immunol. 2004;114(4):936-42.

69. Berger M. Subcutaneous administration of IgG. Immunol Allergy Clin North Am. 2008;28(4):779-802, viii. Review.

70. American Academy of Allergy Asthma & Immunology. Eight Guiding Principles for Effective Use of IVIG for Patients with Primary Immunodeficiency [Internet]. 2011 [cited 2017 Feb 14]. Available from: https://www.aaaai.org/Aaaai/media/MediaLibrary/PDF%20Documents/Practice%20Resources/IVIG-guiding-principles.pdf
https://www.aaaai.org/Aaaai/media/MediaL...
-7171. Soler-Palacín P, Gasó-Gago I, Fernández-Polo A, Martín-Nalda A, Oliveras M, Martinez-Cutillas J, et al. Intravenous and subcutaneous immunoglobulin replacement: a two-way road. Optimizing healthcare quality in patients with primary immunodeficiencies. J Clin Immunol. 2014;34(8):1015-7. Em pacientes com concentrações normais de IgG antes do início do tratamento (deficiência de anticorpos específicos, por exemplo), apenas a resposta clínica é utilizada na adequação do tratamento com Ig.6767. Jolles S, Orange JS, Gardulf A, Stein MR, Shapiro R, Borte M, et al. Current treatment options with immunoglobulin G for the individualization of care in patients with primary immunodeficiency disease. Clin Exp Immunol. 2015; 179(2):146-60. Review.

As recomendações da Sociedade Europeia de Imunodeficiência Primária (ESID - European Society for Primary Immunodeficiencies) a respeito da reposição com Ig humana são as seguintes:7272. Berger M. Principles of and advances in immunoglobulin replacement therapy for primary immunodeficiency. Immunol Allergy Clin North Am. 2008; 28(2):413-37, x. Review.,7373. European Primary Immunodeficiencies Consensus Conference. Consensus Report and Recommendations [Internet]. 2006 [cited 2017 Feb 14]. Germany; 19-20 June 2006. Available from: http://ec.europa.eu/health/ph_projects/2005/action1/docs/action1_2005_frep_01_en.pdf
http://ec.europa.eu/health/ph_projects/2...
com concentrações séricas de IgG<200mg/dL, sempre indicar, exceto para pacientes com hipogamaglobulinemia transitória da infância sem infecções graves; com concentrações séricas de IgG entre 200 e 500mg/dL, indicar quando se detecta deficiência na produção de anticorpos ou infecções recorrentes e/ou graves; com concentrações séricas de IgG>500mg/dL, indicar reposição de Ig apenas quando houver defeito comprovado na produção de anticorpos específicos e infecções recorrentes e graves.

Seguindo estas recomendações, está indicada a aplicação de Ig humana em qualquer IDP em que haja evidente prejuízo da produção de anticorpos da classe IgG.4747. Condino-Neto A, Costa-Carvalho BT, Grumach AS, King A, Bezrodnik L, Oleastro M, et al. Guidelines for the use of human immunoglobulin therapy in patients with primary immunodeficiencies in Latin America. Allergol Immunopathol (Madr). 2014;42(3):245-60. Review.,7474. Clark P, Wimperis J, Lunn M, Jones A, Herriot R, Wood D, et al. Clinical Guidelines for Immunoglobulin Use. [Internet] 2nd ed. 2012 [cited 2017 Feb 14]. UK: Department of Health; 2012. Avaliable from: http://www.nsd.scot.nhs.uk/Documents/clinimmumoMarch12.pdf
http://www.nsd.scot.nhs.uk/Documents/cli...

Entretanto, há indicações baseadas em evidências em algumas IDP: os defeitos na produção de anticorpos relacionados a defeitos de células B (agamaglobulinemia ligada ao X, imunodeficiência comum variável, deficiência na produção de anticorpos específicos, defeitos de subclasses de IgG com alteração na produção de anticorpos), exceto a deficiência seletiva de IgA, assim como imunodeficiências combinadas, com ou sem quadros sindrômicos associados (imunodeficiências combinadas graves, síndrome de hiper-IgM ligada ao X, síndrome linfoproliferativa ligada ao X, síndrome de Wiskott-Aldrich, deficiência de NEMO, síndrome de Warts, hipogamaglobulinemia e imunodeficiência − WHIM) e após transplante de células tronco hematopoiéticas em pacientes com IDP.4747. Condino-Neto A, Costa-Carvalho BT, Grumach AS, King A, Bezrodnik L, Oleastro M, et al. Guidelines for the use of human immunoglobulin therapy in patients with primary immunodeficiencies in Latin America. Allergol Immunopathol (Madr). 2014;42(3):245-60. Review.,7474. Clark P, Wimperis J, Lunn M, Jones A, Herriot R, Wood D, et al. Clinical Guidelines for Immunoglobulin Use. [Internet] 2nd ed. 2012 [cited 2017 Feb 14]. UK: Department of Health; 2012. Avaliable from: http://www.nsd.scot.nhs.uk/Documents/clinimmumoMarch12.pdf
http://www.nsd.scot.nhs.uk/Documents/cli...

75. Orange JS, Hossny EM, Weiler CR, Ballow M, Berger M, Bonilla FA, Buckley R, Chinen J, El-Gamal Y, Mazer BD, Nelson RP Jr, Patel DD, Secord E, Sorensen RU, Wasserman RL, Cunningham-Rundles C; Primary Immunodeficiency Committee of the American Academy of Allergy, Asthma and Immunology. Use of intravenous immunoglobulin in human disease: a review of evidence by members of the Primary Immunodeficiency Committee of the American Academy of Allergy, Asthma and Immunology. J Allergy Clin Immunol. 2006;117(4 Suppl):S525-53. Review. Erratum in: J Allergy Clin Immunol. 2006; 117(6):1483. Dosage error in article text.

76. Stiehm ER, Orange JS, Ballow M, Lehman H. Therapeutic use of immunoglobulins. Adv Pediatr. 2010;57(1):185-218. Review.

77. Orange JS, Ochs HD, Cunningham-Rundles C. Prioritization of evidence-based indications for intravenous immunoglobulin. J Clin Immunol. 2013;33(6):1033-6.

78. Albin S, Cunningham-Rundles C. An update on the use of immunoglobulin for the treatment of immunode ciency disorders. Immunotherapy. 2014;6(10): 1113-26. Review.
-7979. Bonilla FA, Khan DA, Ballas ZK, Chinen J, Frank MM, Hsu JT, Keller M, Kobrynski LJ, Komarow HD, Mazer B, Nelson RP Jr, Orange JS, Routes JM, Shearer WT, Sorensen RU, Verbsky JW, Bernstein DI, Blessing-Moore J, Lang D, Nicklas RA, Oppenheimer J, Portnoy JM, Randolph CR, Schuller D, Spector SL, Tilles S, Wallace D; Joint Task Force on Practice Parameters, representing the American Academy of Allergy, Asthma & Immunology; the American College of Allergy, Asthma & Immunology; and the Joint Council of Allergy, Asthma & Immunology. Practice parameter for the diagnosis and management of primary immunodeficiency. J Allergy Clin Immunol. 2015;136(5):1186-205. e1-78. Review. Há alguma evidência de benefícios em síndrome de hiper-IgE, ataxia-telangiectasia, síndrome de DiGeorge e doenças mediadas por autoanticorpos anticitocinas (Quadro 1).7878. Albin S, Cunningham-Rundles C. An update on the use of immunoglobulin for the treatment of immunode ciency disorders. Immunotherapy. 2014;6(10): 1113-26. Review.,7979. Bonilla FA, Khan DA, Ballas ZK, Chinen J, Frank MM, Hsu JT, Keller M, Kobrynski LJ, Komarow HD, Mazer B, Nelson RP Jr, Orange JS, Routes JM, Shearer WT, Sorensen RU, Verbsky JW, Bernstein DI, Blessing-Moore J, Lang D, Nicklas RA, Oppenheimer J, Portnoy JM, Randolph CR, Schuller D, Spector SL, Tilles S, Wallace D; Joint Task Force on Practice Parameters, representing the American Academy of Allergy, Asthma & Immunology; the American College of Allergy, Asthma & Immunology; and the Joint Council of Allergy, Asthma & Immunology. Practice parameter for the diagnosis and management of primary immunodeficiency. J Allergy Clin Immunol. 2015;136(5):1186-205. e1-78. Review. A Ig pode ainda ser utilizada como imunomodulador, em doses mais elevadas, no tratamento de manifestações autoimunes associadas a algumas IDP, como trombocitopenia ou anemia hemolítica.7474. Clark P, Wimperis J, Lunn M, Jones A, Herriot R, Wood D, et al. Clinical Guidelines for Immunoglobulin Use. [Internet] 2nd ed. 2012 [cited 2017 Feb 14]. UK: Department of Health; 2012. Avaliable from: http://www.nsd.scot.nhs.uk/Documents/clinimmumoMarch12.pdf
http://www.nsd.scot.nhs.uk/Documents/cli...
,8080. Kerr J, Quinti I, Eibl M, Chapel H, Späth PJ, Sewell WA, et al. Is dosing of therapeutic immunoglobulins optimal? A review of a three-decade long debate in europe. Front Immunol. 2014;5:629. Review.,8181. Matucci A, Maggi E, Vultaggio A. Mechanisms of action of Ig preparations: immunomodulatory and anti-inflammatory effects. Front Immunol. 2015;5:690. Review.

Quadro 1
Imunodeficiências primárias em que há indicação de reposição de imunoglobulina

O uso da Ig em pacientes com hipogamaglobulinemia secundária (Quadro 2),5353. Rose ME, Lang DM. Evaluating and managing hypogammaglobulinemia. Cleve Clin J Med. 2006;73(2):133-7, 140, 143-4. Review.,8282. Grimbacher B, Schäffer AA, Peter HH. The genetics of hypogammaglobulinemia. Curr Allergy Asthma Rep. 2004;4(5):349-58. Review.

83. Garcia-Lloret M, McGhee S, Chatila TA. Immunoglobulin replacement therapy in children. Immunol Allergy Clin North Am. 2008;28(4):833-49, ix. Review.
-8484. Dhalla F, Misbah SA. Secondary antibody deficiencies. Curr Opin Allergy Clin Immunol. 2015;15(6):505-13. Review. apesar de ter aumentado nos últimos anos, deve ser mais bem estudado e está indicado em concentrações séricas mais baixas de IgG sérica e/ou comprovado comprometimento na produção de anticorpos para antígenos específicos e/ou presença de quadros infecciosos relevantes.4343. Sewell WA, Kerr J, Behr-Gross ME, Peter HH; Kreuth Ig Working Group. European consensus proposal for immunoglobulin therapies. Eur J Immunol. 2014;44(8):2207-14.,7474. Clark P, Wimperis J, Lunn M, Jones A, Herriot R, Wood D, et al. Clinical Guidelines for Immunoglobulin Use. [Internet] 2nd ed. 2012 [cited 2017 Feb 14]. UK: Department of Health; 2012. Avaliable from: http://www.nsd.scot.nhs.uk/Documents/clinimmumoMarch12.pdf
http://www.nsd.scot.nhs.uk/Documents/cli...
,8585. Compagno N, Malipiero G, Cinetto F, Agostini C. Immunoglobulin replacement therapy in secondary hypogammaglobulinemia. Front Immunol. 2014;5:626. Review. Uma condição que vem se apresentando mais frequentemente nos últimos anos é a hipogamaglobulinemia decorrente do uso de rituximabe, um anticorpo monoclonal anti-CD20, indicado em algumas doenças autoimunes, síndromes linfoproliferativas ou síndrome nefrótica refratária. Esta hipogamaglobulinemia acontece em até 50% dos pacientes, principalmente se houver uso regular do rituximabe; é sintomática em menos de 10% dos casos; e pode persistir por longo período,8686. Casulo C, Maragulia J, Zelenetz AD. Incidence of hypogammaglobulinemia in patients receiving rituximab and the use of intravenous immunoglobulin for recurrent infections. Clin Lymphoma Myeloma Leuk. 2013;13(2):106-11.

87. Compagno N, Cinetto F, Semenzato G, Agostini C. Subcutaneous immunoglobulin in lymphoproliferative disorders and rituximab-related secondary hypogammaglobulinemia: a single-center experience in 61 patients. Haematologica. 2014;99(6):1101-6.

88. Aguiar R, Araújo C, Martins-Coelho G, Isenberg D. Use of Rituximab in systemic lupus erythematosus: a single center experience over 14 Years. Arthritis Care Res (Hoboken). 2017;69(2):257-62.
-8989. Fujinaga S, Ozawa K, Sakuraya K, Yamada A, Shimizu T. Late-onset adverse events after a single dose of rituximab in children with complicated steroid-dependent nephrotic syndrome. Clin Nephrol. 2016;85(6):340-5. sendo necessária a reposição de Ig, que pode ser feita tanto por via intravenosa quanto subcutânea.9090. Spadaro G, Pecoraro A, De Renzo A, Della Pepa R, Genovese A. Intravenous versus subcutaneous immunoglobulin replacement in secondary hypogammaglobulinemia. Clin Immunol. 2016;166-167:103-4. Pode ocorrer hipogamaglobulinemia persistente em um pequeno grupo de indivíduos geneticamente predispostos que recebam rituximabe.9191. Nishio M, Endo T, Fujimoto K, Yamamoto S, Obara M, Yamaguchi K, et al. FCGR3A-158V/F polymorphism may correlate with the levels of immunoglobulin in patients with non-Hodgkin’s lymphoma after rituximab treatment as an adjuvant to autologous stem cell transplantation. Eur J Haematol. 2009; 82(2):143-7.,9292. Kaplan B, Kopyltsova Y, Khokhar A, Lam F, Bonagura V. Rituximab and immune deficiency: case series and review of the literature. J Allergy Clin Immunol Pract. 2014;2(5):594-600. Review.

Quadro 2
Causas de hipogamaglobulinemia secundária

São muitos os estudos que comprovam a redução dos quadros infecciosos e da mortalidade, e a melhora geral do estado de saúde e da qualidade de vida promovidos pela reposição de Ig intravenosa em pacientes com IDP.99. Errante PR, Franco JL, Espinosa-Rosales FJ, Sorensen R, Condino-Neto A. Advances in primary immunodeficiency diseases in Latin America: epidemiology, research, and perspectives. Ann N Y Acad Sci. 2012;1250:62-72. Review.,4444. Bonilla FA, Bernstein IL, Khan DA, Ballas ZK, Chinen J, Frank MM, Kobrynski LJ, Levinson AI, Mazer B, Nelson RP Jr, Orange JS, Routes JM, Shearer WT, Sorensen RU; American Academy of Allergy, Asthma and Immunology.; American College of Allergy, Asthma and Immunology.; Joint Council of Allergy, Asthma and Immunology. Practice parameter for the diagnosis and management of primary immunodeficiency. Ann Allergy Asthma Immunol. 2005;94(5 Suppl 1):S1-63. Erratum in: Ann Allergy Asthma Immunol. 2006;96(3):504.,4646. Chapel H, Prevot J, Gaspar HB, Español T, Bonilla FA, Solis L, Drabwell J; Editorial Board for Working Party on Principles of Care at IPOPI. Primary immune deficiencies - principles of care. Front Immunol. 2014;5:627. Review.

47. Condino-Neto A, Costa-Carvalho BT, Grumach AS, King A, Bezrodnik L, Oleastro M, et al. Guidelines for the use of human immunoglobulin therapy in patients with primary immunodeficiencies in Latin America. Allergol Immunopathol (Madr). 2014;42(3):245-60. Review.
-4848. Peter JG, Chapel H. Immunoglobulin replacement therapy for primary immunodeficiencies. Immunotherapy. 2014;6(7):853-69. Review.,9393. Ammann AJ, Ashman RF, Buckley RH, Hardie WR, Krantmann HJ, Nelson J, et al. Use of intravenous gama-globulin in antibody immunodeficiency: results of a multicenter trial. Clin Immunol Immunopathol. 1982;22(1):60-7.

94. Roifman CM, Lederman HM, Lavi S, Stein LD, Levison H, Gelfand EW. Benefit of intravenous IgG replacement in hypogammaglobulinemic patients with chronic sinopulmonary disease. Am J Med. 1985;79(2):171-4.

95. Buckley RH, Schiff RI. The use of intravenous immunoglobulin in immunodeficiency diseases. N Engl J Med. 1991;325(2):110-7. Review.

96. Busse PJ, Razvi S, Cunningham-Rundles C. Efficacy of intravenous immunoglobulin in the prevention of pneumonia in patients with common variable immunodeficiency. J Allergy Clin Immunol. 2002;109(6):1001-4.
-9797. Maarschalk-Ellerbroek LJ, Hoepelman IM, Ellerbroek PM. Immunoglobulin treatment in primary antibody deficiency. Int J Antimicrob Agents. 2011; 37(5):396-404. Review.

Também encontramos na literatura uma série de estudos que apontam resultados semelhantes ou ainda melhores com o uso da Ig subcutânea, especialmente com melhora na qualidade de vida.2020. Skoda-Smith S, Torgerson T, Ochs HD. Subcutaneous immunoglobulin replacement therapy in the treatment of patients with primary immunodeficiency disease. Ther Clin Risk Manag. 2010;6:1-10.,2929. Chapel HM, Spickett GP, Ericson D, Engl W, Eibl MM, Bjorkander J. The comparison of the efficacy and safety of intravenous versus subcutaneous immunoglobulin replacement therapy. J Clin Immunol. 2000;20(2):94-100.,3131. Gardulf A, Nicolay U, Asensio O, Bernatowska E, Böck A, Carvalho BC, et al. Rapid subcutaneous IgG replacement therapy is effective and safe in children and adults with primary immunodeficiencies--a prospective, multi-national study. J Clin Immunol. 2006;26(2):177-85.,3434. Berger M, Murphy E, Riley P, Bergman GE; VIRTUE Trial Investigators. Improved quality of life, immunoglobulin G levels, and infection rates in patients with primary immunodeficiency diseases during self-treatment with subcutaneous immunoglobulin G. South Med J. 2010;103(9):856-63.,3535. Kobrynski L. Subcutaneous immunoglobulin therapy: a new option for patients with primary immunodeficiency diseases. Biologics. 2012;6:277-87.,4141. Torgerson TR, Bonagura VR, Shapiro RS. Clinical ambiguities--ongoing questions. J Clin Immunol. 2013;33(Suppl 2):S99-103.,4242. Shabaninejad H, Asgharzadeh A, Rezaei N, Rezapoor A. A Comparative Study of Intravenous Immunoglobulin and Subcutaneous Immunoglobulin in Adult Patients with Primary Immunodeficiency Diseases: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Expert Rev Clin Immunol. 2016;12(5):595-602. Review.,5656. Orange JS, Grossman WJ, Navickis RJ, Wilkes MM. Impact of trough IgG on pneumonia incidence in primary immunodeficiency: a meta-analysis of clinical studies. Clin Immunol. 2010;137(1):21-30.,5959. Orange JS, Belohradsky BH, Berger M, Borte M, Hagan J, Jolles S, et al. Evaluation of correlation between dose and clinical outcomes in subcutaneous immunoglobulin replacement therapy. Clin Exp Immunol. 2012;169(2):172-81.,6868. Gardulf A, Nicolay U, Math D, Asensio O, Bernatowska E, Böck A, et al. Children and adults with primary antibody deficiencies gain quality of life by subcutaneous IgG self-infusions at home. J Allergy Clin Immunol. 2004;114(4):936-42.,7272. Berger M. Principles of and advances in immunoglobulin replacement therapy for primary immunodeficiency. Immunol Allergy Clin North Am. 2008; 28(2):413-37, x. Review.,9898. Gardulf A, Björvell H, Gustafson R, Hammarström L, Smith CI. The life situations of patients with primary antibody deficiency untreated or treated with subcutaneous gammaglobulin infusions. Clin Exp Immunol. 1993;92(2):200-4.

99. Ochs HD, Gupta S, Kiessling P, Nicolay U, Berger M; Subcutaneous IgG Study Group. Safety and efficacy of self-administered subcutaneous immunoglobulin in patients with primary immunodeficiency diseases. J Clin Immunol. 2006; 26(3):265-73.

100. Hoffmann F, Grimbacher B, Thiel J, Peter HH, Belohradsky BH; Vivaglobin Study Group. Home-based subcutaneous immunoglobulin G replacement therapy under real-life conditions in children and adults with antibody deficiency. Eur J Med Res. 2010;15(6):238-45.

101. Gregory R, Malcolmson C, Patel C, Woolley T, Jones A. Experience with a 20% subcutaneous immunoglobulin (Hizentra®) in children with primary immunodeficiency diseases - a single-center review. J Allergy Clin Immunol. 2013;131(2):AB154.

102. Bourdin A, Berger J, Früh A, Spertini F, Bugnon O. [Subcutaneous immunoglobulin and support program: what level of interest of patients?]. Rev Med Suisse. 2015;11(469):831-5. French.

103. Jolles S. Subcutaneous and intramuscular immune globulin therapy [Internet]. UpToDate 2016 [cited 2017 Feb 14]. Avaliable from: https://www.uptodate.com/contents/subcutaneous-and-intramuscular-immune-globulin-therapy
https://www.uptodate.com/contents/subcut...
-104104. Vultaggio A, Azzari C, Milito C, Finocchi A, Toppino C, Spadaro G, et al. Subcutaneous immunoglobulin replacement therapy in patients with primary immunodeficiency in routine clinical practice: the VISPO prospective multicenter study. Clin Drug Investig. 2015;35(3):179-85. Esta via tem se mostrado eficaz e segura também em crianças,3131. Gardulf A, Nicolay U, Asensio O, Bernatowska E, Böck A, Carvalho BC, et al. Rapid subcutaneous IgG replacement therapy is effective and safe in children and adults with primary immunodeficiencies--a prospective, multi-national study. J Clin Immunol. 2006;26(2):177-85.,3737. Bezrodnik L, Gómez Raccio A, Belardinelli G, Regairaz L, Diaz Ballve D, Seminario G, et al. Comparative study of subcutaneous versus intravenous IgG replacement therapy in pediatric patients with primary immunodeficiency diseases: a multicenter study in Argentina. J Clin Immunol. 2013;33(7):1216-22.,105105. Thomas MJ, Brennan VM, Chapel HH. Rapid subcutaneous immunoglobulin infusions in children. Lancet. 1993;342(8884):1432-3.

106. Gaspar J, Gerritsen B, Jones A. Immunoglobulin replacement treatment by rapid subcutaneous infusion. Arch Dis Child. 1998;79(1):48-51.

107. Fasth A, Nyström J. Safety and efficacy of subcutaneous human immunoglobulin in children with primary immunodeficiency. Acta Paediatr. 2007;96(10):1474-8.

108. Church JA, Howard V, Sleasman JW, Borte M, Berger M. Subcutaneous Immunoglobulin Replacement Therapy in Infants and Children with Primary Immunodeficiencies. J Allergy Clin Immunol. 2011;127(2):AB213.
-109109. Shapiro RS. Subcutaneous immunoglobulin: rapid push vs. infusion pump in pediatrics. Pediatric Allergy Immunol. 2013;24(1):49-53. idosos (mesmo em uso de anticoagulantes e antiagregantes plaquetários),3030. Berger M. Subcutaneous immunoglobulin replacement in primary immunodeficiencies. Clin Immunol. 2004;112(1):1-7. Review.,6969. Berger M. Subcutaneous administration of IgG. Immunol Allergy Clin North Am. 2008;28(4):779-802, viii. Review.,110110. Stein MR, Koterba A, Rodden L, Berger M. Safety and efficacy of home-based subcutaneous immunoglobulin G in elderly patients with primary immunodeficiency diseases. Postgrad Med. 2011;123(5):186-93. gestantes6969. Berger M. Subcutaneous administration of IgG. Immunol Allergy Clin North Am. 2008;28(4):779-802, viii. Review.,111111. Gardulf A, Andersson E, Lindqvist M, Hansen S, Gustafson R. Rapid subcutaneous IgG replacement therapy at home for pregnant immunodeficient women. J Clin Immunol. 2001;21(2):150-4. e obesos,112112. Shapiro R. Subcutaneous immunoglobulin (16 or 20%) therapy in obese patients with primary immunodeficiency: a retrospective analysis of administration by infusion pump or subcutaneous rapid push. Clin Exp Immunol. 2013;173(2):365-71.,113113. Hodkinson JP, Lucas M, Lee M, Harrison M, Lunn MP, Chapel H. Therapeutic immunoglobulin should be dosed by clinical outcome rather than by body weight in obese patients. Clin Exp Immunol. 2015;181(1):179-87. utilizando-se a mesma dose preconizada para o uso intravenoso.

Desta maneira, o uso de Ig humana como terapia de reposição, apesar de comprovadamente eficaz em um determinado grupo de IDP, também deve ser considerado em outras IDP, sempre que exista confirmação de comprometimento da produção de anticorpos e de infecções recorrentes e/ou graves. É uma terapêutica eficiente e segura, tanto para administração intravenosa quanto subcutânea.

PRODUÇÃO

Desde o método inicial de fracionamento de proteínas plasmáticas por meio do etanol realizado por Cohn-Oncley na década de 1940,1414. Oncley J, Melin M, Richert D, Cameron J, Gross P. The separation of the antibodies, isoagglutinins, prothrombin, plasminogen and beta1 lipoprotein into subfractions of human plasma. J Am Chem Soc. 1949;71(2):541-50. foram muitos os aperfeiçoamentos implementados na produção da Ig, melhorando sua segurança e sua tolerabilidade.114114. Hooper JA. Intravenous immunoglobulins: evolution of commercial IVIG preparations. Immunol Allergy Clin North Am. 2008;28(4):765-78, viii. Review. Este processo permitiu a aplicação de doses maiores por via intravenosa, com melhor controle clínico dos pacientes.

A Ig é purificada de plasma humano obtido de milhares de doadores, garantindo-se um amplo espectro de anticorpos protetores. Por outro lado, isto poderia aumentar o risco teórico de transmissão de agentes patogênicos pelo sangue, mas este risco é eliminado por meio de quarentena das coletas de sangue dos doadores e das múltiplas etapas de purificação. Diferentes fabricantes utilizam-se de várias combinações de precipitação, filtração e cromatografia para obter produtos mais puros, (atingindo mais de 95% de IgG em sua concentração).115115. Späth PJ, Granata G, La Marra F, Kuijpers TW, Quinti I. On the dark side of therapies with immunoglobulin concentrates: the adverse events. Front Immunol. 2015;6:11. Review.,116116. Sriaroon P, Ballow M. Immunoglobulin Replacement Therapy for Primary Immunodeficiency. Immunol Allergy Clin North Am. 2015;35(4):713-30. Review. Os diferentes preparados também contêm uma pequena quantidade de IgA e traços de IgM.

Os produtos disponíveis diferem em suas características físico-químicas (apresentação, concentração, osmolaridade e pH) e excipientes (preservativos e inibidores da agregação de IgG).55. Abolhassani H, Asgardoon MH, Rezaei N, Hammarstrom L, Aghamohammadi A. Different brands of intravenous immunoglobulin for primary immunodeficiencies: how to choose the best option for the patient? Expert Rev Clin Immunol. 2015; 11(11):1229-43. Review.,116116. Sriaroon P, Ballow M. Immunoglobulin Replacement Therapy for Primary Immunodeficiency. Immunol Allergy Clin North Am. 2015;35(4):713-30. Review.,117117. Saeedian M, Randhawa I. Immunoglobulin replacement therapy: a twenty-year review and current update. Int Arch Allergy Immunol. 2014;164(2): 151-66. Review. Os produtos mais modernos são seguros, do ponto de vista de transmissão de infecções; são estabilizados por meio de aminoácidos e não por meio de açúcares; apresentam menores concentrações de sódio e têm conteúdo de IgA menor que 50mg/mL.55. Abolhassani H, Asgardoon MH, Rezaei N, Hammarstrom L, Aghamohammadi A. Different brands of intravenous immunoglobulin for primary immunodeficiencies: how to choose the best option for the patient? Expert Rev Clin Immunol. 2015; 11(11):1229-43. Review.,1616. Berger M, Stiehm ER. From subcutaneous to intravenous immunoglobulin and back. In: Etzioni A, Ochs HD, editors. Primary immunodeficiency disorders: a historic and scientific perspective. United States: Academic Press; 2014. p. 307-77.,4848. Peter JG, Chapel H. Immunoglobulin replacement therapy for primary immunodeficiencies. Immunotherapy. 2014;6(7):853-69. Review.,114114. Hooper JA. Intravenous immunoglobulins: evolution of commercial IVIG preparations. Immunol Allergy Clin North Am. 2008;28(4):765-78, viii. Review.

As Ig não são produtos genéricos. As características de cada uma delas devem ser consideradas no momento de sua prescrição aos pacientes, como apresentado mais adiante, e sua substituição deve ser evitada, exceto quando indicada pelo médico.7070. American Academy of Allergy Asthma & Immunology. Eight Guiding Principles for Effective Use of IVIG for Patients with Primary Immunodeficiency [Internet]. 2011 [cited 2017 Feb 14]. Available from: https://www.aaaai.org/Aaaai/media/MediaLibrary/PDF%20Documents/Practice%20Resources/IVIG-guiding-principles.pdf
https://www.aaaai.org/Aaaai/media/MediaL...
,116116. Sriaroon P, Ballow M. Immunoglobulin Replacement Therapy for Primary Immunodeficiency. Immunol Allergy Clin North Am. 2015;35(4):713-30. Review.,118118. International Patient Organisation for Primary Immunodeficiencies (IPOPI). The global organisation working to improve the quality of life for people with primary immunodeficiencies. Access to Immunoglobulin Therapies for patients living with a Primary Immunodeficiency [Internet]. 2012 [cited 2017 Feb 14]. Available from: http://www.ipopi.org/uploads/IPOPI%20Position%20Statement%20Access%20to%20IG%20Therapies_FINAL.pdf
http://www.ipopi.org/uploads/IPOPI%20Pos...

FORMA DE UTILIZAÇÃO (VIAS DE ADMINISTRAÇÃO, DOSES E INTERVALOS)

A Ig humana pode ser aplicada pelas vias intramuscular, intravenosa e subcutânea. Considerando-se a ocorrência de efeitos adversos e a limitação do volume a ser aplicado, a via intramuscular não tem sido utilizada.

A dose inicial padrão da Ig intravenosa é de 400 a 600mg/kg/dose, inicialmente a cada 21 dias.55. Abolhassani H, Asgardoon MH, Rezaei N, Hammarstrom L, Aghamohammadi A. Different brands of intravenous immunoglobulin for primary immunodeficiencies: how to choose the best option for the patient? Expert Rev Clin Immunol. 2015; 11(11):1229-43. Review.,4747. Condino-Neto A, Costa-Carvalho BT, Grumach AS, King A, Bezrodnik L, Oleastro M, et al. Guidelines for the use of human immunoglobulin therapy in patients with primary immunodeficiencies in Latin America. Allergol Immunopathol (Madr). 2014;42(3):245-60. Review.,119119. Orange JS. Immune globulin therapy in primary immunodeficiency [Internet]. UpToDate 2015 [cited 2016 Feb 10]. Available from: https://www.uptodate.com/contents/immune-globulin-therapy-in-primary-immunodeficiency
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A relação entre doses de Ig intravenosa, concentrações de IgG sérica e controle clínico foi demonstrada em vários estudos,5959. Orange JS, Belohradsky BH, Berger M, Borte M, Hagan J, Jolles S, et al. Evaluation of correlation between dose and clinical outcomes in subcutaneous immunoglobulin replacement therapy. Clin Exp Immunol. 2012;169(2):172-81. mas devemos considerar que o metabolismo da IgG administrada varia de indivíduo para indivíduo.3939. Gouilleux-Gruart V, Chapel H, Chevret S, Lucas M, Malphettes M, Fieschi C, Patel S, Boutboul D, Marson MN, Gérard L, Lee M, Watier H, Oksenhendler E; DEFI study group. Efficiency of immunoglobulin G replacement therapy in common variable immunodeficiency: correlations with clinical phenotype and polymorphism of the neonatal Fc receptor. Clin Exp Immunol. 2013;171(2): 186-94.,4949. Roifman CM, Levison H, Gelfand EW. High-dose versus low-dose intravenous immunoglobulin in hypogammaglobulinaemia and chronic lung disease. Lancet. 1987;1(8541):1075-7.,5050. Eijkhout HW, van Der Meer JW, Kallenberg CG, Weening RS, van Dissel JT, Sanders LA, Strengers PF, Nienhuis H, Schellekens PT; Inter-University Working Party for the Study of Immune Deficiencies. The effect of two different dosages of intravenous immunoglobulin on the incidence of recurrent infections in patients with primary hypogammaglobulinemia: a randomized, double-blind, multicenter crossover trial. Ann Intern Med. 2001;135(3):165-74.,8080. Kerr J, Quinti I, Eibl M, Chapel H, Späth PJ, Sewell WA, et al. Is dosing of therapeutic immunoglobulins optimal? A review of a three-decade long debate in europe. Front Immunol. 2014;5:629. Review.,120120. Koleba T, Ensom MH. Pharmacokinetics of intravenous immunoglobulin: a systematic review. Pharmacotherapy. 2006;26(6):813-27. Review. Levando em conta a importância da individualização do tratamento, as doses e o intervalo de infusão devem ser ajustados de acordo com a resposta clínica e as concentrações de IgG obtidas em cada paciente.8080. Kerr J, Quinti I, Eibl M, Chapel H, Späth PJ, Sewell WA, et al. Is dosing of therapeutic immunoglobulins optimal? A review of a three-decade long debate in europe. Front Immunol. 2014;5:629. Review.,116116. Sriaroon P, Ballow M. Immunoglobulin Replacement Therapy for Primary Immunodeficiency. Immunol Allergy Clin North Am. 2015;35(4):713-30. Review.,121121. Stiehm ER. Human intravenous immunoglobulin in primary and secondary antibody deficiencies. Pediatr Infect Dis J. 1997;16(7):696-707. Review. Doses mais elevadas, entre 600 e 800mg/kg/dose (ou até 1.200mg/kg), podem ser necessárias e estão particularmente indicadas em caso de doença pulmonar e/ou sinusal crônica.1616. Berger M, Stiehm ER. From subcutaneous to intravenous immunoglobulin and back. In: Etzioni A, Ochs HD, editors. Primary immunodeficiency disorders: a historic and scientific perspective. United States: Academic Press; 2014. p. 307-77.,5555. Lucas M, Lee M, Lortan J, Lopez-Granados E, Misbah S, Chapel H. Infection outcomes in patients with common variable immunodeficiency disorders: relationship to immunoglobulin therapy over 22 years. J Allergy Clin Immunol. 2010;125(6):1354-60. e4.,5656. Orange JS, Grossman WJ, Navickis RJ, Wilkes MM. Impact of trough IgG on pneumonia incidence in primary immunodeficiency: a meta-analysis of clinical studies. Clin Immunol. 2010;137(1):21-30.,6161. Roifman CM, Gelfand EW. Replacement therapy with high dose intravenous gamma-globulin improves chronic sinopulmonary disease in patients with hipogammaglobulinemia. Pediatr Infect Dis J. 1988;7(5 Suppl):S92-6.,6565. Bonagura VR, Marchlewski R, Cox A, Rosenthal DW. Biologic IgG level in primary immunodeficiency disease: the IgG level that protects against recurrent infection. J Allergy Clin Immunol. 2008;122(1):210-2.,9494. Roifman CM, Lederman HM, Lavi S, Stein LD, Levison H, Gelfand EW. Benefit of intravenous IgG replacement in hypogammaglobulinemic patients with chronic sinopulmonary disease. Am J Med. 1985;79(2):171-4.,9696. Busse PJ, Razvi S, Cunningham-Rundles C. Efficacy of intravenous immunoglobulin in the prevention of pneumonia in patients with common variable immunodeficiency. J Allergy Clin Immunol. 2002;109(6):1001-4.,116116. Sriaroon P, Ballow M. Immunoglobulin Replacement Therapy for Primary Immunodeficiency. Immunol Allergy Clin North Am. 2015;35(4):713-30. Review. Ademais, há maior metabolização da Ig durante processos infecciosos e doenças autoimunes/inflamatórias, assim como aumento de perdas por comorbidades ou complicações da IDP, ou ainda em pacientes com polimorfismos do gene do receptor Fc neonatal.3838. Bonagura VR. Illustrative cases on individualizing immunoglobulin therapy in primary immunodeficiency disease. Ann Allergy Asthma Immunol. 2013; 111(6 Suppl):S10-3. Review.,3939. Gouilleux-Gruart V, Chapel H, Chevret S, Lucas M, Malphettes M, Fieschi C, Patel S, Boutboul D, Marson MN, Gérard L, Lee M, Watier H, Oksenhendler E; DEFI study group. Efficiency of immunoglobulin G replacement therapy in common variable immunodeficiency: correlations with clinical phenotype and polymorphism of the neonatal Fc receptor. Clin Exp Immunol. 2013;171(2): 186-94.,4141. Torgerson TR, Bonagura VR, Shapiro RS. Clinical ambiguities--ongoing questions. J Clin Immunol. 2013;33(Suppl 2):S99-103. Assim, doses maiores de Ig podem ser necessárias, ainda que temporariamente, em caso de quadros infecciosos agudos (aumento do catabolismo de IgG), de diarreia grave e/ou persistente (perda gastrintestinal) ou hiperesplenismo (sequestro).1616. Berger M, Stiehm ER. From subcutaneous to intravenous immunoglobulin and back. In: Etzioni A, Ochs HD, editors. Primary immunodeficiency disorders: a historic and scientific perspective. United States: Academic Press; 2014. p. 307-77.,8080. Kerr J, Quinti I, Eibl M, Chapel H, Späth PJ, Sewell WA, et al. Is dosing of therapeutic immunoglobulins optimal? A review of a three-decade long debate in europe. Front Immunol. 2014;5:629. Review.

A elevação de concentrações séricas com o uso da via intravenosa acontece em poucas horas e é da ordem de 100 a 200mg/dL para cada 100mg/kg de Ig aplicada, decrescendo rapidamente pela redistribuição tissular nos primeiros dias, com meia vida em torno de 21 a 28 dias (Figura 1).5151. Bonilla FA. Pharmacokinetics of immunoglobulin administered via intravenous or subcutaneous routes. Immunol Allergy Clin North Am. 2008;28(4):803-19, ix. Review.,5656. Orange JS, Grossman WJ, Navickis RJ, Wilkes MM. Impact of trough IgG on pneumonia incidence in primary immunodeficiency: a meta-analysis of clinical studies. Clin Immunol. 2010;137(1):21-30.,120120. Koleba T, Ensom MH. Pharmacokinetics of intravenous immunoglobulin: a systematic review. Pharmacotherapy. 2006;26(6):813-27. Review.,122122. Andresen I, Kovarik JM, Psycher M, Bolli R. Product equivalence study comparing the tolerability, pharmacokinetics, and pharmacodynamics of various human immunoglobulin-G Formulations. J Clin Pharmacol. 2000; 40(7):722-30. À medida que se atingem um bom controle clínico e concentrações estáveis de IgG sérica, as aplicações de Ig intravenosa podem ser feitas a cada 28 dias.4242. Shabaninejad H, Asgharzadeh A, Rezaei N, Rezapoor A. A Comparative Study of Intravenous Immunoglobulin and Subcutaneous Immunoglobulin in Adult Patients with Primary Immunodeficiency Diseases: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Expert Rev Clin Immunol. 2016;12(5):595-602. Review.,9797. Maarschalk-Ellerbroek LJ, Hoepelman IM, Ellerbroek PM. Immunoglobulin treatment in primary antibody deficiency. Int J Antimicrob Agents. 2011; 37(5):396-404. Review.,123123. Hernandez-Trujillo HS, Chapel H, Lo Re V 3rd, Notarangelo LD, Gathmann B, Grimbacher B, et al. Comparison of American and European practices in the management of patients with primary immunodeficiencies. Clin Exp Immunol. 2012;169(1):57-69. Valores estáveis de IgG, em geral, são obtidos após 3 (ou até 6) meses de infusão.4747. Condino-Neto A, Costa-Carvalho BT, Grumach AS, King A, Bezrodnik L, Oleastro M, et al. Guidelines for the use of human immunoglobulin therapy in patients with primary immunodeficiencies in Latin America. Allergol Immunopathol (Madr). 2014;42(3):245-60. Review.,5151. Bonilla FA. Pharmacokinetics of immunoglobulin administered via intravenous or subcutaneous routes. Immunol Allergy Clin North Am. 2008;28(4):803-19, ix. Review.

Figura 1
Concentração de imunoglobulina G sérica após infusão em pacientes em uso regular de imunoglobulina humana. Comparação entre imunoglobulina intravenosa e subcutânea

Os pacientes com concentrações muito baixas de IgG (<200mg/dL) são tratados inicialmente com Ig intravenosa, muitas vezes com doses iniciais de 800 a 1.000mg/kg, de maneira a elevar mais rapidamente suas concentrações séricas.116116. Sriaroon P, Ballow M. Immunoglobulin Replacement Therapy for Primary Immunodeficiency. Immunol Allergy Clin North Am. 2015;35(4):713-30. Review.

A Ig subcutânea é utilizada na mesma dose da Ig intravenosa − em torno de 400 a 600mg/kg/mês, ou seja, aproximadamente 100 a 150mg/kg por semana.4242. Shabaninejad H, Asgharzadeh A, Rezaei N, Rezapoor A. A Comparative Study of Intravenous Immunoglobulin and Subcutaneous Immunoglobulin in Adult Patients with Primary Immunodeficiency Diseases: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Expert Rev Clin Immunol. 2016;12(5):595-602. Review.,5656. Orange JS, Grossman WJ, Navickis RJ, Wilkes MM. Impact of trough IgG on pneumonia incidence in primary immunodeficiency: a meta-analysis of clinical studies. Clin Immunol. 2010;137(1):21-30.,5959. Orange JS, Belohradsky BH, Berger M, Borte M, Hagan J, Jolles S, et al. Evaluation of correlation between dose and clinical outcomes in subcutaneous immunoglobulin replacement therapy. Clin Exp Immunol. 2012;169(2):172-81. Estimou-se elevação nas concentrações séricas de IgG em 84,4mg/dL para cada aumento de 100mg/kg/mês na dose de Ig subcutânea.5959. Orange JS, Belohradsky BH, Berger M, Borte M, Hagan J, Jolles S, et al. Evaluation of correlation between dose and clinical outcomes in subcutaneous immunoglobulin replacement therapy. Clin Exp Immunol. 2012;169(2):172-81. As concentrações de IgG no sangue elevam-se mais lentamente do que na infusão intravenosa,123123. Hernandez-Trujillo HS, Chapel H, Lo Re V 3rd, Notarangelo LD, Gathmann B, Grimbacher B, et al. Comparison of American and European practices in the management of patients with primary immunodeficiencies. Clin Exp Immunol. 2012;169(1):57-69. com pico em 2 a 4 dias.5151. Bonilla FA. Pharmacokinetics of immunoglobulin administered via intravenous or subcutaneous routes. Immunol Allergy Clin North Am. 2008;28(4):803-19, ix. Review.,125125. Waniewski J, Gardulf A, Hammarstrom L. Bioavailability of gamma-globulin after subcutaneous infusions in patients with common variable immunodeficiency. J Clin Immunol. 1994;14(2):90-7. Ao iniciar o tratamento pela via subcutânea, recomenda-se que sejam aplicadas doses com intervalos menores, a saber: 100mg/kg em 5 dias seguidos na primeira semana126126. Borte M, Quinti I, Soresina A, Fernández-Cruz E, Ritchie B, Schmidt DS, et al. Efficacy and safety of subcutaneous vivaglobin(R) replacement therapy in previously untreated patients with primary immunodeficiency: a prospective, multicenter study. J Clin Immunol. 2011;31(6):952-61.,127127. Rojavin M, Sidhu J, Pfister M, Hubsch A. Subcutaneous immunoglobulin loading regimens for previously untreated patients with primary antibody deficiency. Clin Exp Immunol. 2014;178 Suppl 1:146-8. ou duas vezes por semana nas primeiras 2 semanas.128128. Koterba AP, Farnan K, Sierra C, Eufrasio D, Stein M. Experience with subcutaneous loading of vivaglobin or hizentra in primary immunodeficiency patients naive to immunoglobulin replacement therapy. Ann Allergy Asthma Immunol. 2012;109:A101.,129129. Koterba AP, Stein MR. Initiation of immunoglobulin therapy by subcutaneous administration in immunodeficiency patients naive to replacement therapy. Allergy Asthma Clin Immunol. 2014;11(1):63. As concentrações séricas de IgG são mais estáveis com a Ig subcutânea130130. Berger M. Choices in IgG replacement therapy for primary immune deficiency diseases: subcutaneous IgG vs. intravenous IgG and selecting an optimal dose. Curr Opin Allergy Clin Immunol. 2011;11(6):532-8. Review. e obtidos entre 6 e 10 semanas de uso (Figura 1).124124. Wasserman RL, Melamed I, Nelson RP Jr, Knutsen AP, Fasano MB, Stein MR, et al. Pharmacokinetics of subcutaneous IgPro20 in patients with primary immunodeficiency. Clin Pharmacokinet. 2011;50(6):405-14.,125125. Waniewski J, Gardulf A, Hammarstrom L. Bioavailability of gamma-globulin after subcutaneous infusions in patients with common variable immunodeficiency. J Clin Immunol. 1994;14(2):90-7. O intervalo entre as doses pode ser desde quinzenal até diário, aplicando-se por meio de bombas de infusão ou por push.6767. Jolles S, Orange JS, Gardulf A, Stein MR, Shapiro R, Borte M, et al. Current treatment options with immunoglobulin G for the individualization of care in patients with primary immunodeficiency disease. Clin Exp Immunol. 2015; 179(2):146-60. Review.,109109. Shapiro RS. Subcutaneous immunoglobulin: rapid push vs. infusion pump in pediatrics. Pediatric Allergy Immunol. 2013;24(1):49-53. Recentemente, evidenciou-se que doses mais elevadas por via subcutânea, assim como está estabelecido para a Ig intravenosa, estão relacionadas ao melhor controle clínico dos pacientes.4242. Shabaninejad H, Asgharzadeh A, Rezaei N, Rezapoor A. A Comparative Study of Intravenous Immunoglobulin and Subcutaneous Immunoglobulin in Adult Patients with Primary Immunodeficiency Diseases: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Expert Rev Clin Immunol. 2016;12(5):595-602. Review.,5959. Orange JS, Belohradsky BH, Berger M, Borte M, Hagan J, Jolles S, et al. Evaluation of correlation between dose and clinical outcomes in subcutaneous immunoglobulin replacement therapy. Clin Exp Immunol. 2012;169(2):172-81.

Em pacientes nos quais desejamos realizar a troca da infusão por via intravenosa para a subcutânea, devemos aplicar um quarto da dose mensal que estava sendo usada, iniciando a aplicação subcutânea entre uma a duas semanas após a última infusão intravenosa.2929. Chapel HM, Spickett GP, Ericson D, Engl W, Eibl MM, Bjorkander J. The comparison of the efficacy and safety of intravenous versus subcutaneous immunoglobulin replacement therapy. J Clin Immunol. 2000;20(2):94-100.,5959. Orange JS, Belohradsky BH, Berger M, Borte M, Hagan J, Jolles S, et al. Evaluation of correlation between dose and clinical outcomes in subcutaneous immunoglobulin replacement therapy. Clin Exp Immunol. 2012;169(2):172-81.,6767. Jolles S, Orange JS, Gardulf A, Stein MR, Shapiro R, Borte M, et al. Current treatment options with immunoglobulin G for the individualization of care in patients with primary immunodeficiency disease. Clin Exp Immunol. 2015; 179(2):146-60. Review.,100100. Hoffmann F, Grimbacher B, Thiel J, Peter HH, Belohradsky BH; Vivaglobin Study Group. Home-based subcutaneous immunoglobulin G replacement therapy under real-life conditions in children and adults with antibody deficiency. Eur J Med Res. 2010;15(6):238-45.,104104. Vultaggio A, Azzari C, Milito C, Finocchi A, Toppino C, Spadaro G, et al. Subcutaneous immunoglobulin replacement therapy in patients with primary immunodeficiency in routine clinical practice: the VISPO prospective multicenter study. Clin Drug Investig. 2015;35(3):179-85.,127127. Rojavin M, Sidhu J, Pfister M, Hubsch A. Subcutaneous immunoglobulin loading regimens for previously untreated patients with primary antibody deficiency. Clin Exp Immunol. 2014;178 Suppl 1:146-8.,131131. Berger M, Rojavin M, Kiessling P, Zenker O. Pharmacokinetics of subcutaneous immunoglobulin and their use in dosing of replacement therapy in patients with primary immunodeficiencies. Clin Immunol. 2011;139(2):133-41.

A aplicação por via subcutânea deve ser feita preferencialmente em abdômen, mas também pode ser feita nos braços ou coxas,132132. Younger ME, Blouin W, Duff C, Epland KB, Murphy E, Sedlak D. Subcutaneous immunoglobulin replacement therapy: ensuring success. J Infus Nurs. 2015; 38(1):70-9. Review. não sendo necessário o rodízio de sítios.3232. Gardulf A. Immunoglobulin treatment for primary antibody deficiencies: advantages of the subcutaneous route. BioDrugs. 2007;21(2):105-16. Review. A higiene local da pele deve ser feita com álcool ou clorexidina. Anestésicos locais ou gelo podem ser aplicados para reduzir a sensação de dor, caso necessário.132132. Younger ME, Blouin W, Duff C, Epland KB, Murphy E, Sedlak D. Subcutaneous immunoglobulin replacement therapy: ensuring success. J Infus Nurs. 2015; 38(1):70-9. Review. Não há necessidade de uso de luvas, mas a correta lavagem das mãos é fundamental.132132. Younger ME, Blouin W, Duff C, Epland KB, Murphy E, Sedlak D. Subcutaneous immunoglobulin replacement therapy: ensuring success. J Infus Nurs. 2015; 38(1):70-9. Review. A aplicação pode ser realizada em dois a quatro sítios, simultânea ou sequencialmente, semanalmente ou a cada 2 semanas.132132. Younger ME, Blouin W, Duff C, Epland KB, Murphy E, Sedlak D. Subcutaneous immunoglobulin replacement therapy: ensuring success. J Infus Nurs. 2015; 38(1):70-9. Review.,133133. Gustafson R, Gardulf A, Hansen S, Leibl H, Engl W, Lindén M, et al. Rapid subcutaneous immunoglobulin administration every second week results in high and stable serum immunoglobulin G levels in patients with primary antibody deficiencies. Clin Exp Immunol. 2008;152(2):274-9. Em caso de utilização de bombas de infusão, a velocidade de aplicação deve ser de 0,1 a 0,25mL/kg/hora/sítio, atingindo-se até 15mL/hora/sítio inicialmente, podendo-se alcançar um máximo de 25mL/hora/sítio a seguir.6767. Jolles S, Orange JS, Gardulf A, Stein MR, Shapiro R, Borte M, et al. Current treatment options with immunoglobulin G for the individualization of care in patients with primary immunodeficiency disease. Clin Exp Immunol. 2015; 179(2):146-60. Review. No caso da aplicação mais frequente, por push, as doses podem ser diárias, duas a três vezes por semana ou até semanais, com segurança e tempo de administração mais curto do que por meio de bombas.6767. Jolles S, Orange JS, Gardulf A, Stein MR, Shapiro R, Borte M, et al. Current treatment options with immunoglobulin G for the individualization of care in patients with primary immunodeficiency disease. Clin Exp Immunol. 2015; 179(2):146-60. Review.,134134. Shapiro R. Subcutaneous immunoglobulin therapy by rapid push is preferred to infusion by pump: a retrospective analysis. J Clin Immunol. 2010;30(2):301-7.,135135. Shapiro RS. Subcutaneous immunoglobulin therapy given by subcutaneous rapid push vs infusion pump: a retrospective analysis. Ann Allergy Asthma Immunol. 2013;111(1):51-5. Utilizam-se seringas de 1 a 10mL, com escalpe 25 a 23, com agulhas de 4 a 6mm em crianças e 9 a 15mm em adultos,108108. Church JA, Howard V, Sleasman JW, Borte M, Berger M. Subcutaneous Immunoglobulin Replacement Therapy in Infants and Children with Primary Immunodeficiencies. J Allergy Clin Immunol. 2011;127(2):AB213.,132132. Younger ME, Blouin W, Duff C, Epland KB, Murphy E, Sedlak D. Subcutaneous immunoglobulin replacement therapy: ensuring success. J Infus Nurs. 2015; 38(1):70-9. Review.,136136. Younger ME, Aro L, Blouin W, Duff C, Epland KB, Murphy E, Sedlak D; Nurse Advisory Committee Immune Deficiency Foundation. Nursing guidelines for administration of immunoglobulin replacement therapy. J Infus Nurs. 2013; 36(1):58-68. ou ainda agulhas especiais perpendiculares,2626. Gardulf A, Hammarström L, Smith CI. Home treatment of hypogammaglobulinaemia with subcutaneous gammaglobulin by rapid infusion. Lancet. 1991;338(8760): 162-6.,137137. Jolles S, Sleasman JW. Subcutaneous immunoglobulin replacement therapy with Hizentra, the first 20% SCIG preparation: a practical approach. Adv Ther. 2011;28(7):521-33. Review. a uma velocidade de 1mL/minuto.3535. Kobrynski L. Subcutaneous immunoglobulin therapy: a new option for patients with primary immunodeficiency diseases. Biologics. 2012;6:277-87. O volume total de aplicação por sítio depende em grande parte da tolerância individual do paciente e também varia de acordo com o produto, a dose e o tempo de aplicação.6767. Jolles S, Orange JS, Gardulf A, Stein MR, Shapiro R, Borte M, et al. Current treatment options with immunoglobulin G for the individualization of care in patients with primary immunodeficiency disease. Clin Exp Immunol. 2015; 179(2):146-60. Review.,135135. Shapiro RS. Subcutaneous immunoglobulin therapy given by subcutaneous rapid push vs infusion pump: a retrospective analysis. Ann Allergy Asthma Immunol. 2013;111(1):51-5.,136136. Younger ME, Aro L, Blouin W, Duff C, Epland KB, Murphy E, Sedlak D; Nurse Advisory Committee Immune Deficiency Foundation. Nursing guidelines for administration of immunoglobulin replacement therapy. J Infus Nurs. 2013; 36(1):58-68. Em crianças, dependendo do peso e da faixa etária geralmente é possível aplicar até 10 a 20mL por sítio, enquanto que, em adultos, 30 a 40mL/sítio ou até 80mL, em alguns casos.2727. Chapel H, Gardulf A. Subcutaneous immunoglobulin replacement therapy: the European experience. Curr Opin Allergy Clin Immunol. 2013;13(6):623-9. Review.,4848. Peter JG, Chapel H. Immunoglobulin replacement therapy for primary immunodeficiencies. Immunotherapy. 2014;6(7):853-69. Review.,6767. Jolles S, Orange JS, Gardulf A, Stein MR, Shapiro R, Borte M, et al. Current treatment options with immunoglobulin G for the individualization of care in patients with primary immunodeficiency disease. Clin Exp Immunol. 2015; 179(2):146-60. Review.,132132. Younger ME, Blouin W, Duff C, Epland KB, Murphy E, Sedlak D. Subcutaneous immunoglobulin replacement therapy: ensuring success. J Infus Nurs. 2015; 38(1):70-9. Review.,134134. Shapiro R. Subcutaneous immunoglobulin therapy by rapid push is preferred to infusion by pump: a retrospective analysis. J Clin Immunol. 2010;30(2):301-7.,135135. Shapiro RS. Subcutaneous immunoglobulin therapy given by subcutaneous rapid push vs infusion pump: a retrospective analysis. Ann Allergy Asthma Immunol. 2013;111(1):51-5. Levantamento realizado recentemente na Europa demonstrou que a maioria dos pacientes aplica com boa tolerância em torno de 20mL por sítio.134134. Shapiro R. Subcutaneous immunoglobulin therapy by rapid push is preferred to infusion by pump: a retrospective analysis. J Clin Immunol. 2010;30(2):301-7.,138138. International Patient Organisation for Primary Immunodeficiencies (IPOPI). Primary immunodeficiencies. Patient Needs & Outlooks Survey: a Report based on 300 patient questionnaires [Internet]. 2012 [cited 2016 June 6]. Available from: http://www.ipopi.org/uploads/IPOPI%20PID%20Patient%20Survey%20-% 20Shortened%20Report%20-%20030812_Final%20IPOPI%20format.pdf
http://www.ipopi.org/uploads/IPOPI%20PID...

Está disponível em outros países, mas não ainda em nosso meio, um produto para uso subcutâneo, em que se aplica sequencialmente, utilizando a mesma via, primeiro hialuronidase e, logo a seguir (10 minutos), a solução de Ig, de modo a permitir um maior volume de infusão por sítio.139139. Stein MR. Enzyme-facilitated subcutaneous IgG: changing the paradigm of IgG therapy. Immunol Allergy Clin North Am. 2012. In press.,140140. Ponsford M, Carne E, Kingdon C, Joyce C, Price C, Williams C, et al. Facilitated subcutaneous immunoglobulin (fSCIg) therapy--practical considerations. Clin Exp Immunol. 2015;182(3):302-13. Com isto, é possível realizar a aplicação de Ig subcutânea a cada 21 a 28 dias, como é feito com a via intramuscular, com segurança e bons resultados clínicos.1919. Wasserman RL, Stein M, Melamed I, Kobrynski LJ, Gupta S, Puck J, et al. Long-term efficacy and safety of recombinant human hyaluronidase (rHuPH20)- facilitated subcutaneous infusion of immunoglobulin G (IgG) (HyQvia; IGHy) in patients with primary immunodeficiencies (PI). J Allergy Clin Immunol. 2015;135(2 Suppl):AB96. Há necessidade de aumento gradual das doses ao longo de 7 semanas, o que limita seu uso em casos de valores iniciais muito baixos de IgG (<200mg/dL). Nos países em que este produto está disponível, ainda não foi liberado para uso em gestantes e em menores de 18 anos de idade.6767. Jolles S, Orange JS, Gardulf A, Stein MR, Shapiro R, Borte M, et al. Current treatment options with immunoglobulin G for the individualization of care in patients with primary immunodeficiency disease. Clin Exp Immunol. 2015; 179(2):146-60. Review.

Estudos indicam que a terapia com Ig é segura na gestação, tanto por via intravenosa quanto por subcutânea.111111. Gardulf A, Andersson E, Lindqvist M, Hansen S, Gustafson R. Rapid subcutaneous IgG replacement therapy at home for pregnant immunodeficient women. J Clin Immunol. 2001;21(2):150-4.,141141. Smith CI, Hammarström L. Intravenous immunoglobulin in pregnancy. Obstet Gynecol. 1985;66(3 Suppl):39S-40S. As doses devem ser aumentadas de acordo com o controle clínico e as concentrações séricas de IgG obtidas. Considerando que a IgG recebida pela gestante cruza a placenta, protegendo passivamente o feto, sugere-se aumentar a dose (em 20 a 30%) no último trimestre da gravidez, de modo a garantir níveis adequados de anticorpos para o recém-nascido.111111. Gardulf A, Andersson E, Lindqvist M, Hansen S, Gustafson R. Rapid subcutaneous IgG replacement therapy at home for pregnant immunodeficient women. J Clin Immunol. 2001;21(2):150-4.,119119. Orange JS. Immune globulin therapy in primary immunodeficiency [Internet]. UpToDate 2015 [cited 2016 Feb 10]. Available from: https://www.uptodate.com/contents/immune-globulin-therapy-in-primary-immunodeficiency
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,142142. Williams PE, Leen CL, Heppleston AD, Yap PL. IgG replacement therapy for primary hypogammaglobulinaemia during pregnancy: report of 9 pregnancies in 4 patients. Blut. 1990;60(3):198-201.

O tratamento deve ser mantido por toda a vida do paciente, exceto naqueles submetidos ao transplante de células tronco hematopoéticas e nos pacientes com hipogamaglobulinemia não especificada, que podem recuperar a capacidade de produzir Ig.7474. Clark P, Wimperis J, Lunn M, Jones A, Herriot R, Wood D, et al. Clinical Guidelines for Immunoglobulin Use. [Internet] 2nd ed. 2012 [cited 2017 Feb 14]. UK: Department of Health; 2012. Avaliable from: http://www.nsd.scot.nhs.uk/Documents/clinimmumoMarch12.pdf
http://www.nsd.scot.nhs.uk/Documents/cli...
,7979. Bonilla FA, Khan DA, Ballas ZK, Chinen J, Frank MM, Hsu JT, Keller M, Kobrynski LJ, Komarow HD, Mazer B, Nelson RP Jr, Orange JS, Routes JM, Shearer WT, Sorensen RU, Verbsky JW, Bernstein DI, Blessing-Moore J, Lang D, Nicklas RA, Oppenheimer J, Portnoy JM, Randolph CR, Schuller D, Spector SL, Tilles S, Wallace D; Joint Task Force on Practice Parameters, representing the American Academy of Allergy, Asthma & Immunology; the American College of Allergy, Asthma & Immunology; and the Joint Council of Allergy, Asthma & Immunology. Practice parameter for the diagnosis and management of primary immunodeficiency. J Allergy Clin Immunol. 2015;136(5):1186-205. e1-78. Review.,119119. Orange JS. Immune globulin therapy in primary immunodeficiency [Internet]. UpToDate 2015 [cited 2016 Feb 10]. Available from: https://www.uptodate.com/contents/immune-globulin-therapy-in-primary-immunodeficiency
https://www.uptodate.com/contents/immune...
Nestes casos, a infusão pode ser feita a intervalos cada vez maiores, monitorando de perto o paciente e os valores séricos de IgG, até que ela possa ser suspensa.143143. Memmedova L, Azarsiz E, Edeer Karaca N, Aksu G, Kutukculer N. Does intravenous immunoglobulin therapy prolong immunodeficiency in transient hypogammaglobulinemia of infancy? Pediatr Rep. 2013;5(3):e14. Entretanto, não há consenso na literatura sobre como proceder nesta situação.

EFEITOS ADVERSOS, PREVENÇÃO, TRATAMENTO E NOTIFICAÇÃO

O tratamento com Ig é bastante seguro, mas efeitos adversos são descritos em 1 a 81% dos pacientes ou infusões; em 30 a 40% dos pacientes; e em 5 a 15% das infusões.144144. Stiehm ER. Adverse effects of human immunoglobulin therapy. Transfus Med Rev. 2013;27(3):171-8. Review. Eles podem ser leves, moderados ou graves,145145. Brennan VM, Salomé-Bentley NJ, Chapel HM; Immunology Nurses Study. Prospective audit of adverse reactions occurring in 459 primary antibody-deficient patients receiving intravenous immunoglobulin. Clin Exp Immunol. 2003;133(2):247-51.,146146. Bonilla FA. Intravenous immunoglobulin: adverse reactions and management. J Allergy Clin Immunol. 2008;122(6):1238-9. Review. imediatos (durante ou logo após a infusão) ou tardios (horas a dias após a infusão).147147. Cherin P, Marie I, Michallet M, Pelus E, Dantal J, Crave JC, et al. Management of adverse events in the treatment of patients with immunoglobulin therapy: a review of evidence. Autoimmun Rev. 2016;15(1):71-81. Review. São considerados leves aqueles que não alteram sinais vitais e cedem com sintomáticos, sem necessidade de interrupção da infusão. Caso haja progressão e/ou persistência dos sinais e sintomas, com necessidade de interromper a administração da medicação, os efeitos são considerados moderados. Os efeitos graves requerem interrupção imediata da administração, com estabelecimento de medidas terapêuticas de urgência.145145. Brennan VM, Salomé-Bentley NJ, Chapel HM; Immunology Nurses Study. Prospective audit of adverse reactions occurring in 459 primary antibody-deficient patients receiving intravenous immunoglobulin. Clin Exp Immunol. 2003;133(2):247-51.,146146. Bonilla FA. Intravenous immunoglobulin: adverse reactions and management. J Allergy Clin Immunol. 2008;122(6):1238-9. Review.

A maioria dos eventos adversos é leve e imediata, ocorrendo nas primeiras infusões, relacionada à velocidade de infusão, sendo rapidamente reversível.115115. Späth PJ, Granata G, La Marra F, Kuijpers TW, Quinti I. On the dark side of therapies with immunoglobulin concentrates: the adverse events. Front Immunol. 2015;6:11. Review.,145145. Brennan VM, Salomé-Bentley NJ, Chapel HM; Immunology Nurses Study. Prospective audit of adverse reactions occurring in 459 primary antibody-deficient patients receiving intravenous immunoglobulin. Clin Exp Immunol. 2003;133(2):247-51.

146. Bonilla FA. Intravenous immunoglobulin: adverse reactions and management. J Allergy Clin Immunol. 2008;122(6):1238-9. Review.

147. Cherin P, Marie I, Michallet M, Pelus E, Dantal J, Crave JC, et al. Management of adverse events in the treatment of patients with immunoglobulin therapy: a review of evidence. Autoimmun Rev. 2016;15(1):71-81. Review.

148. Katz U, Achiron A, Sherer Y, Shoenfeld Y. Safety of intravenous immunoglobulin (IVIG) therapy. Autoimmun Rev. 2007;6(4):257-9. Review.

149. Ballow M. Safety of IGIV therapy and infusion-related adverse events. Immunol Res. 2007;38(1-3):122-32. Review.

150. Dashti-Khavidaki S, Aghamohammadi A, Farshadi F, Movahedi M, Parvaneh N, Pouladi N, et al. Adverse reactions of prophylactic intravenous immunoglobulin; a 13-year experience with 3004 infusions in iranian patients with primary immunodeficiency diseases. J Investig Allergol Clin Immunol. 2009;19(2):139-45.

151. Berger M. Adverse effects of IgG therapy. J Allergy Clin Immunol Pract. 2013; 1(6):558-66.
-152152. Bichuetti-Silva DC, Furlan FP, Nobre FA, Pereira CT, Goncalves TR, Gouveia-Pereira M, et al. Immediate infusion-related adverse reactions to intravenous immunoglobulin in a prospective cohort of 1765 infusions. Int Immunopharmacol. 2014;23(2):442-6.

Cefaleia, febre, mal-estar geral, sintomas gripais, náuseas, calafrios, fadiga, mialgia, lombalgia, taquicardia, alterações da pressão arterial e eritrodermia são os eventos mais comuns.115115. Späth PJ, Granata G, La Marra F, Kuijpers TW, Quinti I. On the dark side of therapies with immunoglobulin concentrates: the adverse events. Front Immunol. 2015;6:11. Review.,144144. Stiehm ER. Adverse effects of human immunoglobulin therapy. Transfus Med Rev. 2013;27(3):171-8. Review.,146146. Bonilla FA. Intravenous immunoglobulin: adverse reactions and management. J Allergy Clin Immunol. 2008;122(6):1238-9. Review.,147147. Cherin P, Marie I, Michallet M, Pelus E, Dantal J, Crave JC, et al. Management of adverse events in the treatment of patients with immunoglobulin therapy: a review of evidence. Autoimmun Rev. 2016;15(1):71-81. Review.,149149. Ballow M. Safety of IGIV therapy and infusion-related adverse events. Immunol Res. 2007;38(1-3):122-32. Review.,152152. Bichuetti-Silva DC, Furlan FP, Nobre FA, Pereira CT, Goncalves TR, Gouveia-Pereira M, et al. Immediate infusion-related adverse reactions to intravenous immunoglobulin in a prospective cohort of 1765 infusions. Int Immunopharmacol. 2014;23(2):442-6.

Reações graves acontecem em menos de 1% das aplicações e costumeiramente com o uso de doses mais elevadas, indicadas em doenças autoimunes e inflamatórias.7575. Orange JS, Hossny EM, Weiler CR, Ballow M, Berger M, Bonilla FA, Buckley R, Chinen J, El-Gamal Y, Mazer BD, Nelson RP Jr, Patel DD, Secord E, Sorensen RU, Wasserman RL, Cunningham-Rundles C; Primary Immunodeficiency Committee of the American Academy of Allergy, Asthma and Immunology. Use of intravenous immunoglobulin in human disease: a review of evidence by members of the Primary Immunodeficiency Committee of the American Academy of Allergy, Asthma and Immunology. J Allergy Clin Immunol. 2006;117(4 Suppl):S525-53. Review. Erratum in: J Allergy Clin Immunol. 2006; 117(6):1483. Dosage error in article text.,144144. Stiehm ER. Adverse effects of human immunoglobulin therapy. Transfus Med Rev. 2013;27(3):171-8. Review.,152152. Bichuetti-Silva DC, Furlan FP, Nobre FA, Pereira CT, Goncalves TR, Gouveia-Pereira M, et al. Immediate infusion-related adverse reactions to intravenous immunoglobulin in a prospective cohort of 1765 infusions. Int Immunopharmacol. 2014;23(2):442-6.,153153. Ramírez E, Romero-Garrido JA, López-Granados E, Borobia AM, Pérez T, Medrano N, et al. Symptomatic thromboembolic events in patients treated with intravenous-immunoglobulins: results from a retrospective cohort study. Thromb Res. 2014;133(6):1045-51.

A exata fisiopatologia dos efeitos adversos não é conhecida. Algumas possibilidades foram aventadas ao longo do tempo, como formação de agregados de IgG, interação da IgG infundida com antígenos microbianos circulantes no paciente com formação de imunocomplexos, reação a componentes vasoativos do plasma, contaminantes, ou a outros ingredientes do processamento.115115. Späth PJ, Granata G, La Marra F, Kuijpers TW, Quinti I. On the dark side of therapies with immunoglobulin concentrates: the adverse events. Front Immunol. 2015;6:11. Review.,116116. Sriaroon P, Ballow M. Immunoglobulin Replacement Therapy for Primary Immunodeficiency. Immunol Allergy Clin North Am. 2015;35(4):713-30. Review.,144144. Stiehm ER. Adverse effects of human immunoglobulin therapy. Transfus Med Rev. 2013;27(3):171-8. Review.,147147. Cherin P, Marie I, Michallet M, Pelus E, Dantal J, Crave JC, et al. Management of adverse events in the treatment of patients with immunoglobulin therapy: a review of evidence. Autoimmun Rev. 2016;15(1):71-81. Review.,149149. Ballow M. Safety of IGIV therapy and infusion-related adverse events. Immunol Res. 2007;38(1-3):122-32. Review.

Reações do tipo anafilaxia em geral não envolvem IgE. Costumam evoluir com hipertensão arterial, ao invés de hipotensão, e ser de gravidade menor em infusões subsequentes.116116. Sriaroon P, Ballow M. Immunoglobulin Replacement Therapy for Primary Immunodeficiency. Immunol Allergy Clin North Am. 2015;35(4):713-30. Review.,144144. Stiehm ER. Adverse effects of human immunoglobulin therapy. Transfus Med Rev. 2013;27(3):171-8. Review.,151151. Berger M. Adverse effects of IgG therapy. J Allergy Clin Immunol Pract. 2013; 1(6):558-66. Anafilaxia mediada por IgE acontece muito raramente em pacientes com ausência de IgA e capacidade preservada de produzir IgE.144144. Stiehm ER. Adverse effects of human immunoglobulin therapy. Transfus Med Rev. 2013;27(3):171-8. Review. Nestes casos, está indicado o uso de preparados intravenosos com baixos teores de IgA ou a infusão de Ig subcutânea.1616. Berger M, Stiehm ER. From subcutaneous to intravenous immunoglobulin and back. In: Etzioni A, Ochs HD, editors. Primary immunodeficiency disorders: a historic and scientific perspective. United States: Academic Press; 2014. p. 307-77.,116116. Sriaroon P, Ballow M. Immunoglobulin Replacement Therapy for Primary Immunodeficiency. Immunol Allergy Clin North Am. 2015;35(4):713-30. Review.,154154. Rachid R, Bonilla FA. The role of anti-IgA antibodies in causing adverse reactions to gamma globulin infusion in immunodeficient patients: a comprehensive review of the literature. J Allergy Clin Immunol. 2012;129(3):628-34. Review. Entretanto, não há necessidade de avaliar a presença de anticorpos anti-IgA antes de iniciar o tratamento com Ig.144144. Stiehm ER. Adverse effects of human immunoglobulin therapy. Transfus Med Rev. 2013;27(3):171-8. Review.,154154. Rachid R, Bonilla FA. The role of anti-IgA antibodies in causing adverse reactions to gamma globulin infusion in immunodeficient patients: a comprehensive review of the literature. J Allergy Clin Immunol. 2012;129(3):628-34. Review.

Ainda que sejam eventos raros, há descrição de alterações neurológicas, respiratórias, cardiovasculares, gastrintestinais, renais, cutâneas e hematológicas, que incluem enxaqueca, meningite asséptica, dispneia, broncoespasmo, doença pulmonar aguda relacionada à transfusão (TRALI - transfusion-related acute lung injury), hipotensão ou hipertensão arterial, arritmias, náuseas, vômitos, diarreia, insuficiência renal, urticária, exantema, pruridermia, anemia hemolítica e fenômenos tromboembólicos (Quadro 3).1616. Berger M, Stiehm ER. From subcutaneous to intravenous immunoglobulin and back. In: Etzioni A, Ochs HD, editors. Primary immunodeficiency disorders: a historic and scientific perspective. United States: Academic Press; 2014. p. 307-77.,7575. Orange JS, Hossny EM, Weiler CR, Ballow M, Berger M, Bonilla FA, Buckley R, Chinen J, El-Gamal Y, Mazer BD, Nelson RP Jr, Patel DD, Secord E, Sorensen RU, Wasserman RL, Cunningham-Rundles C; Primary Immunodeficiency Committee of the American Academy of Allergy, Asthma and Immunology. Use of intravenous immunoglobulin in human disease: a review of evidence by members of the Primary Immunodeficiency Committee of the American Academy of Allergy, Asthma and Immunology. J Allergy Clin Immunol. 2006;117(4 Suppl):S525-53. Review. Erratum in: J Allergy Clin Immunol. 2006; 117(6):1483. Dosage error in article text.,115115. Späth PJ, Granata G, La Marra F, Kuijpers TW, Quinti I. On the dark side of therapies with immunoglobulin concentrates: the adverse events. Front Immunol. 2015;6:11. Review.,144144. Stiehm ER. Adverse effects of human immunoglobulin therapy. Transfus Med Rev. 2013;27(3):171-8. Review.,147147. Cherin P, Marie I, Michallet M, Pelus E, Dantal J, Crave JC, et al. Management of adverse events in the treatment of patients with immunoglobulin therapy: a review of evidence. Autoimmun Rev. 2016;15(1):71-81. Review.,149149. Ballow M. Safety of IGIV therapy and infusion-related adverse events. Immunol Res. 2007;38(1-3):122-32. Review.,151151. Berger M. Adverse effects of IgG therapy. J Allergy Clin Immunol Pract. 2013; 1(6):558-66.,153153. Ramírez E, Romero-Garrido JA, López-Granados E, Borobia AM, Pérez T, Medrano N, et al. Symptomatic thromboembolic events in patients treated with intravenous-immunoglobulins: results from a retrospective cohort study. Thromb Res. 2014;133(6):1045-51.,155155. Gelfand EW. Intravenous immune globulin in autoimmune and inflammatory diseases. N Engl J Med. 2012;367(21):2015-25. Review.

Quadro 3
Tipos e frequência dos efeitos adversos relacionados com a administração de imunoglobulina intravenosa

Alguns fatores estão relacionados à maior chance de efeitos adversos e estão listados no quadro 4.11. Costa-Carvalho BT, Solé D, Condino-Neto A, Rosário Filho N. I Consenso Brasileiro sobre o Uso de Imunoglobulina Humana em Pacientes com Imunodeficiências Primárias. Rev Bras Alerg Imunopatol. 2010;33(3):104-16.,4141. Torgerson TR, Bonagura VR, Shapiro RS. Clinical ambiguities--ongoing questions. J Clin Immunol. 2013;33(Suppl 2):S99-103.,4747. Condino-Neto A, Costa-Carvalho BT, Grumach AS, King A, Bezrodnik L, Oleastro M, et al. Guidelines for the use of human immunoglobulin therapy in patients with primary immunodeficiencies in Latin America. Allergol Immunopathol (Madr). 2014;42(3):245-60. Review.,5959. Orange JS, Belohradsky BH, Berger M, Borte M, Hagan J, Jolles S, et al. Evaluation of correlation between dose and clinical outcomes in subcutaneous immunoglobulin replacement therapy. Clin Exp Immunol. 2012;169(2):172-81.,116116. Sriaroon P, Ballow M. Immunoglobulin Replacement Therapy for Primary Immunodeficiency. Immunol Allergy Clin North Am. 2015;35(4):713-30. Review.,144144. Stiehm ER. Adverse effects of human immunoglobulin therapy. Transfus Med Rev. 2013;27(3):171-8. Review.,146146. Bonilla FA. Intravenous immunoglobulin: adverse reactions and management. J Allergy Clin Immunol. 2008;122(6):1238-9. Review.,148148. Katz U, Achiron A, Sherer Y, Shoenfeld Y. Safety of intravenous immunoglobulin (IVIG) therapy. Autoimmun Rev. 2007;6(4):257-9. Review.,151151. Berger M. Adverse effects of IgG therapy. J Allergy Clin Immunol Pract. 2013; 1(6):558-66.

152. Bichuetti-Silva DC, Furlan FP, Nobre FA, Pereira CT, Goncalves TR, Gouveia-Pereira M, et al. Immediate infusion-related adverse reactions to intravenous immunoglobulin in a prospective cohort of 1765 infusions. Int Immunopharmacol. 2014;23(2):442-6.
-153153. Ramírez E, Romero-Garrido JA, López-Granados E, Borobia AM, Pérez T, Medrano N, et al. Symptomatic thromboembolic events in patients treated with intravenous-immunoglobulins: results from a retrospective cohort study. Thromb Res. 2014;133(6):1045-51.,155155. Gelfand EW. Intravenous immune globulin in autoimmune and inflammatory diseases. N Engl J Med. 2012;367(21):2015-25. Review.,156156. Bonilla FA. Adverse effects of immunoglobulin G therapy: thromboembolism and haemolysis. Clin Exp Immunol. 2014;178 Suppl 1:72-4. É relevante citar que a presença de eventos adversos varia de um produto para outro, ou mesmo dentre diferentes lotes de um mesmo produto. Há pacientes que apresentam efeitos adversos com um ou mais produtos de Ig, mas não com todos.144144. Stiehm ER. Adverse effects of human immunoglobulin therapy. Transfus Med Rev. 2013;27(3):171-8. Review.

Quadro 4
Fatores associados a maior ocorrência de efeitos adversos com a administração de imunoglobulina intravenosa

Considerando os fatores predisponentes apresentados, alguns cuidados são importantes como medidas preventivas de efeitos adversos decorrentes da infusão de Ig por via intravenosa (Quadro 5).11. Costa-Carvalho BT, Solé D, Condino-Neto A, Rosário Filho N. I Consenso Brasileiro sobre o Uso de Imunoglobulina Humana em Pacientes com Imunodeficiências Primárias. Rev Bras Alerg Imunopatol. 2010;33(3):104-16.,4747. Condino-Neto A, Costa-Carvalho BT, Grumach AS, King A, Bezrodnik L, Oleastro M, et al. Guidelines for the use of human immunoglobulin therapy in patients with primary immunodeficiencies in Latin America. Allergol Immunopathol (Madr). 2014;42(3):245-60. Review.,116116. Sriaroon P, Ballow M. Immunoglobulin Replacement Therapy for Primary Immunodeficiency. Immunol Allergy Clin North Am. 2015;35(4):713-30. Review.,146146. Bonilla FA. Intravenous immunoglobulin: adverse reactions and management. J Allergy Clin Immunol. 2008;122(6):1238-9. Review.,148148. Katz U, Achiron A, Sherer Y, Shoenfeld Y. Safety of intravenous immunoglobulin (IVIG) therapy. Autoimmun Rev. 2007;6(4):257-9. Review.,151151. Berger M. Adverse effects of IgG therapy. J Allergy Clin Immunol Pract. 2013; 1(6):558-66.,157157. Silvergleid AJ, Ballow M, Schrier SL, Stiehm ER, Tirnauer JS, editors. Overview of intravenous immune globulin (IVIG) therapy [Internet]. UpToDate 2016 [cited 2017 Feb 14]. Available from: https://www.uptodate.com/contents/overview-of-intravenous-immune-globulin-ivig-therapy
https://www.uptodate.com/contents/overvi...

Quadro 5
Medidas preventivas de efeitos adversos com a administração de imunoglobulina intravenosa

A maioria dos efeitos adversos é resolvida com redução da velocidade de infusão ou breve interrupção desta, e com o uso de analgésicos e/ou anti-histamínicos.55. Abolhassani H, Asgardoon MH, Rezaei N, Hammarstrom L, Aghamohammadi A. Different brands of intravenous immunoglobulin for primary immunodeficiencies: how to choose the best option for the patient? Expert Rev Clin Immunol. 2015; 11(11):1229-43. Review.,146146. Bonilla FA. Intravenous immunoglobulin: adverse reactions and management. J Allergy Clin Immunol. 2008;122(6):1238-9. Review.,147147. Cherin P, Marie I, Michallet M, Pelus E, Dantal J, Crave JC, et al. Management of adverse events in the treatment of patients with immunoglobulin therapy: a review of evidence. Autoimmun Rev. 2016;15(1):71-81. Review.,151151. Berger M. Adverse effects of IgG therapy. J Allergy Clin Immunol Pract. 2013; 1(6):558-66. Alguns pacientes podem necessitar da prescrição de corticoides.146146. Bonilla FA. Intravenous immunoglobulin: adverse reactions and management. J Allergy Clin Immunol. 2008;122(6):1238-9. Review.,149149. Ballow M. Safety of IGIV therapy and infusion-related adverse events. Immunol Res. 2007;38(1-3):122-32. Review.,158158. Singh-Grewal D, Kemp A, Wong M. A prospective study of the immediate and delayed adverse events following intravenous immunoglobulin infusions. Arch Dis Child. 2006;91(8):651-4.

Em pacientes que apresentem efeitos adversos durante a administração intravenosa, algumas medidas devem ser tomadas nas infusões seguintes (Quadro 6).146146. Bonilla FA. Intravenous immunoglobulin: adverse reactions and management. J Allergy Clin Immunol. 2008;122(6):1238-9. Review.,147147. Cherin P, Marie I, Michallet M, Pelus E, Dantal J, Crave JC, et al. Management of adverse events in the treatment of patients with immunoglobulin therapy: a review of evidence. Autoimmun Rev. 2016;15(1):71-81. Review.,151151. Berger M. Adverse effects of IgG therapy. J Allergy Clin Immunol Pract. 2013; 1(6):558-66.,157157. Silvergleid AJ, Ballow M, Schrier SL, Stiehm ER, Tirnauer JS, editors. Overview of intravenous immune globulin (IVIG) therapy [Internet]. UpToDate 2016 [cited 2017 Feb 14]. Available from: https://www.uptodate.com/contents/overview-of-intravenous-immune-globulin-ivig-therapy
https://www.uptodate.com/contents/overvi...

Quadro 6
Medidas de prevenção secundária de reações adversas com imunoglobulina intravenosa

Atenção especial é necessária em pacientes com comorbidades, como cardiopatias, nefropatias, hepatopatias, distúrbios da coagulação (trombofilia) e diabetes mellitus. Nestas situações, características de produtos como presença de açúcares, osmolalidade, sódio, entre outras, devem ser avaliadas. No quadro 7 há a descrição dos fatores mais relevantes, de acordo com a morbidade associada, e, no quadro 8 foram incluídos os produtos para facilitar esta escolha.55. Abolhassani H, Asgardoon MH, Rezaei N, Hammarstrom L, Aghamohammadi A. Different brands of intravenous immunoglobulin for primary immunodeficiencies: how to choose the best option for the patient? Expert Rev Clin Immunol. 2015; 11(11):1229-43. Review.,117117. Saeedian M, Randhawa I. Immunoglobulin replacement therapy: a twenty-year review and current update. Int Arch Allergy Immunol. 2014;164(2): 151-66. Review.,147147. Cherin P, Marie I, Michallet M, Pelus E, Dantal J, Crave JC, et al. Management of adverse events in the treatment of patients with immunoglobulin therapy: a review of evidence. Autoimmun Rev. 2016;15(1):71-81. Review.

Quadro 7
Características das imunoglobulinas que devem ser avaliadas antes da prescrição de produtos comerciais de imunoglobulina intravenosa, considerando-se comorbidades e as faixas etárias
Quadro 8
Imunoglobulina humana, produtos comerciais disponíveis no Brasil

A administração por via subcutânea está raramente relacionada a efeitos adversos sistêmicos, que ocorrem em menos de 1% das infusões.4242. Shabaninejad H, Asgharzadeh A, Rezaei N, Rezapoor A. A Comparative Study of Intravenous Immunoglobulin and Subcutaneous Immunoglobulin in Adult Patients with Primary Immunodeficiency Diseases: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Expert Rev Clin Immunol. 2016;12(5):595-602. Review.,7272. Berger M. Principles of and advances in immunoglobulin replacement therapy for primary immunodeficiency. Immunol Allergy Clin North Am. 2008; 28(2):413-37, x. Review.,144144. Stiehm ER. Adverse effects of human immunoglobulin therapy. Transfus Med Rev. 2013;27(3):171-8. Review. Aproximadamente 75% dos pacientes apresentam algum grau de edema e hiperemia no local da aplicação que, no entanto, costumam ceder em 24 a 48 horas, tendem a desaparecer em infusões posteriores e não impedem a continuação do tratamento por esta via.2929. Chapel HM, Spickett GP, Ericson D, Engl W, Eibl MM, Bjorkander J. The comparison of the efficacy and safety of intravenous versus subcutaneous immunoglobulin replacement therapy. J Clin Immunol. 2000;20(2):94-100.,3232. Gardulf A. Immunoglobulin treatment for primary antibody deficiencies: advantages of the subcutaneous route. BioDrugs. 2007;21(2):105-16. Review.,6969. Berger M. Subcutaneous administration of IgG. Immunol Allergy Clin North Am. 2008;28(4):779-802, viii. Review.,9999. Ochs HD, Gupta S, Kiessling P, Nicolay U, Berger M; Subcutaneous IgG Study Group. Safety and efficacy of self-administered subcutaneous immunoglobulin in patients with primary immunodeficiency diseases. J Clin Immunol. 2006; 26(3):265-73.,144144. Stiehm ER. Adverse effects of human immunoglobulin therapy. Transfus Med Rev. 2013;27(3):171-8. Review.,146146. Bonilla FA. Intravenous immunoglobulin: adverse reactions and management. J Allergy Clin Immunol. 2008;122(6):1238-9. Review.,151151. Berger M. Adverse effects of IgG therapy. J Allergy Clin Immunol Pract. 2013; 1(6):558-66.,159159. Melamed I, Testori A, Spirer Z. Subcutaneous immunoglobulins: product characteristics and their role in primary immunodeficiency disease. Int Rev Immunol. 2012;31(6):451-61. Review.,160160. Karakoç Aydıner E, Kıykım A, Barış S, Özen A, Barlan I. Use of subcutaneous immunoglobulin in primary immune deficiencies. Turk Pediatri Ars. 2016; 51(1):8-14. Desta maneira, não há necessidade de pré-medicações ou supervisão médica durante as infusões após um período de treinamento de pacientes/cuidadores.1616. Berger M, Stiehm ER. From subcutaneous to intravenous immunoglobulin and back. In: Etzioni A, Ochs HD, editors. Primary immunodeficiency disorders: a historic and scientific perspective. United States: Academic Press; 2014. p. 307-77.,144144. Stiehm ER. Adverse effects of human immunoglobulin therapy. Transfus Med Rev. 2013;27(3):171-8. Review.

É importante que seja realizada a notificação de efeitos adversos observados com a aplicação da Ig, tanto por médicos como por pacientes ou seus responsáveis, no site Sistema de Notificações em Vigilância Sanitária (NOTIVISA; http://www.anvisa.gov.br/hotsite/ notivisa/index.htm). As empresas fabricantes, segundo decreto 6.523, de 31 de julho de 2008, da Casa Civil, devem manter serviço de atendimento ao consumidor (SAC), cujos telefones devem estar facilmente disponíveis. Portanto, também por meio destes SAC, médicos e pacientes podem notificar o aparecimento de sinais e sintomas decorrentes do uso das diferentes apresentações de Ig humana disponíveis comercialmente.

ESCOLHA ENTRE AS VIAS INTRAVENOSA E SUBCUTÂNEA

O tratamento do paciente com IDP, bem como o de outros pacientes, particularmente aqueles com doenças crônicas, deve ser sempre individualizado, procurando um bom controle da doença e suas manifestações, além de boa qualidade de vida, adequando-se, dentro do possível, a suas características e preferências.2727. Chapel H, Gardulf A. Subcutaneous immunoglobulin replacement therapy: the European experience. Curr Opin Allergy Clin Immunol. 2013;13(6):623-9. Review.,4141. Torgerson TR, Bonagura VR, Shapiro RS. Clinical ambiguities--ongoing questions. J Clin Immunol. 2013;33(Suppl 2):S99-103.,7070. American Academy of Allergy Asthma & Immunology. Eight Guiding Principles for Effective Use of IVIG for Patients with Primary Immunodeficiency [Internet]. 2011 [cited 2017 Feb 14]. Available from: https://www.aaaai.org/Aaaai/media/MediaLibrary/PDF%20Documents/Practice%20Resources/IVIG-guiding-principles.pdf
https://www.aaaai.org/Aaaai/media/MediaL...
,116116. Sriaroon P, Ballow M. Immunoglobulin Replacement Therapy for Primary Immunodeficiency. Immunol Allergy Clin North Am. 2015;35(4):713-30. Review.,123123. Hernandez-Trujillo HS, Chapel H, Lo Re V 3rd, Notarangelo LD, Gathmann B, Grimbacher B, et al. Comparison of American and European practices in the management of patients with primary immunodeficiencies. Clin Exp Immunol. 2012;169(1):57-69.

Cada uma das vias, intravenosa e subcutânea, possui características interessantes (Quadro 9), na dependência de fatores ligados à doença, ao indivíduo e à sua família, assim como ao nível socioeconômico. O que pode ser descrito como desvantajoso em um indivíduo pode ser muito benéfico em outras situações. Por exemplo, a aplicação mensal intravenosa, em regime intra-hospitalar, é interessante em pacientes com doenças mais graves, cuja família não adere ao tratamento, nos quais o monitoramento clínico estreito é fundamental.

Quadro 9
Comparação entre a imunoglobulina para uso intravenoso e subcutânea

A via intravenosa permite que se alcancem concentrações mais elevadas de IgG mais rapidamente, é reconhecidamente eficaz e permite intervalos maiores de aplicação. Além disto, com esta infusão em ambiente hospitalar, é possível manter o paciente sob maior supervisão da equipe de saúde. Entretanto, é necessário que se obtenha acesso venoso, o que pode ser problemático em muitos pacientes, e preferencialmente deve ser realizada em ambiente hospitalar, requerendo visitas mensais. Há também efeitos adversos sistêmicos, ainda que não frequentes. As concentrações de IgG sérica obtidas são pouco estáveis, com sensível redução após 15 a 20 dias da aplicação, por vezes associados a sintomas como fadiga e mal-estar geral (efeitos wear-off).4848. Peter JG, Chapel H. Immunoglobulin replacement therapy for primary immunodeficiencies. Immunotherapy. 2014;6(7):853-69. Review.,130130. Berger M. Choices in IgG replacement therapy for primary immune deficiency diseases: subcutaneous IgG vs. intravenous IgG and selecting an optimal dose. Curr Opin Allergy Clin Immunol. 2011;11(6):532-8. Review.

Com o uso da via subcutânea, as concentrações de IgG séricas são mais estáveis, permitindo uma aplicação mais fácil, dispensando o acesso venoso e, em alguns países, dispensando a ida a unidades de saúde, e permitindo maior autonomia dos pacientes e/ou cuidadores.4848. Peter JG, Chapel H. Immunoglobulin replacement therapy for primary immunodeficiencies. Immunotherapy. 2014;6(7):853-69. Review.,161161. Abolhassani H, Sadaghiani MS, Aghamohammadi A, Ochs HD, Rezaei N. Home-based subcutaneous immunoglobulin versus hospital-based intravenous immunoglobulin in treatment of primary antibody deficiencies: systematic review and meta analysis. J Clin Immunol. 2012;32(6):1180-92. Review. A experiência com a via subcutânea é grande em outros países, com eficácia e segurança comprovadas,3131. Gardulf A, Nicolay U, Asensio O, Bernatowska E, Böck A, Carvalho BC, et al. Rapid subcutaneous IgG replacement therapy is effective and safe in children and adults with primary immunodeficiencies--a prospective, multi-national study. J Clin Immunol. 2006;26(2):177-85.,3535. Kobrynski L. Subcutaneous immunoglobulin therapy: a new option for patients with primary immunodeficiency diseases. Biologics. 2012;6:277-87.,104104. Vultaggio A, Azzari C, Milito C, Finocchi A, Toppino C, Spadaro G, et al. Subcutaneous immunoglobulin replacement therapy in patients with primary immunodeficiency in routine clinical practice: the VISPO prospective multicenter study. Clin Drug Investig. 2015;35(3):179-85.,160160. Karakoç Aydıner E, Kıykım A, Barış S, Özen A, Barlan I. Use of subcutaneous immunoglobulin in primary immune deficiencies. Turk Pediatri Ars. 2016; 51(1):8-14.,162162. Bhole MV, Burton J, Chapel HM. Self-infusion programmes for immunoglobulin replacement at home: feasibility, safety and efficacy. Immunol Allergy Clin North Am. 2008;28(4):821-32, ix. Review. inclusive com menos efeitos adversos sistêmicos.3131. Gardulf A, Nicolay U, Asensio O, Bernatowska E, Böck A, Carvalho BC, et al. Rapid subcutaneous IgG replacement therapy is effective and safe in children and adults with primary immunodeficiencies--a prospective, multi-national study. J Clin Immunol. 2006;26(2):177-85.,3232. Gardulf A. Immunoglobulin treatment for primary antibody deficiencies: advantages of the subcutaneous route. BioDrugs. 2007;21(2):105-16. Review.,130130. Berger M. Choices in IgG replacement therapy for primary immune deficiency diseases: subcutaneous IgG vs. intravenous IgG and selecting an optimal dose. Curr Opin Allergy Clin Immunol. 2011;11(6):532-8. Review.,163163. Markvardsen LH, Christiansen. I, Andersen H, Jakodsen J. Headache and nausea after treatment with high-dose subcutaneous versus intravenous immunoglobulin. Basic Clin Pharmacol Toxicol. 2015;117(6):409-12. Ademais, são muitos os estudos que demonstram melhora da qualidade de vida com a reposição de Ig pela via subcutânea.3535. Kobrynski L. Subcutaneous immunoglobulin therapy: a new option for patients with primary immunodeficiency diseases. Biologics. 2012;6:277-87.,5959. Orange JS, Belohradsky BH, Berger M, Borte M, Hagan J, Jolles S, et al. Evaluation of correlation between dose and clinical outcomes in subcutaneous immunoglobulin replacement therapy. Clin Exp Immunol. 2012;169(2):172-81.,6868. Gardulf A, Nicolay U, Math D, Asensio O, Bernatowska E, Böck A, et al. Children and adults with primary antibody deficiencies gain quality of life by subcutaneous IgG self-infusions at home. J Allergy Clin Immunol. 2004;114(4):936-42.,102102. Bourdin A, Berger J, Früh A, Spertini F, Bugnon O. [Subcutaneous immunoglobulin and support program: what level of interest of patients?]. Rev Med Suisse. 2015;11(469):831-5. French.,164164. Nicolay U, Kiessling P, Berger M, Gupta S, Yel L, Roifman CM, et al. Health-related quality of life and treatment satisfaction in North American patients with primary immunedeficiency diseases receiving subcutaneous IgG self-infusions at home. J Clin Immunol. 2006;26(1):65-72. As concentrações de IgG sérica elevam-se mais lentamente, o que pode ser considerado uma desvantagem nos casos de valores iniciais muito baixos de IgG, mas representa uma vantagem nos pacientes com hiperesplenismo ou elevada perda renal/gastrintestinal.165165. Shah SN, Todoric K, Tarrant TK. Improved outcomes on subcutaneous IgG in patients with humoral immunodeficiency and co-morbid bowel disease. Clin Case Rep Rev. 2015;1(7):151-2. Há necessidade de treinamento e envolvimento dos pacientes e/ou seus cuidadores, o que, em geral, é possível em 4 a 6 semanas, sendo fundamental que se mantenha posteriormente um estreito acompanhamento da técnica de infusão.2727. Chapel H, Gardulf A. Subcutaneous immunoglobulin replacement therapy: the European experience. Curr Opin Allergy Clin Immunol. 2013;13(6):623-9. Review.,104104. Vultaggio A, Azzari C, Milito C, Finocchi A, Toppino C, Spadaro G, et al. Subcutaneous immunoglobulin replacement therapy in patients with primary immunodeficiency in routine clinical practice: the VISPO prospective multicenter study. Clin Drug Investig. 2015;35(3):179-85.,137137. Jolles S, Sleasman JW. Subcutaneous immunoglobulin replacement therapy with Hizentra, the first 20% SCIG preparation: a practical approach. Adv Ther. 2011;28(7):521-33. Review.,162162. Bhole MV, Burton J, Chapel HM. Self-infusion programmes for immunoglobulin replacement at home: feasibility, safety and efficacy. Immunol Allergy Clin North Am. 2008;28(4):821-32, ix. Review. Há vários estudos,3131. Gardulf A, Nicolay U, Asensio O, Bernatowska E, Böck A, Carvalho BC, et al. Rapid subcutaneous IgG replacement therapy is effective and safe in children and adults with primary immunodeficiencies--a prospective, multi-national study. J Clin Immunol. 2006;26(2):177-85.,166166. Högy B, Keinecke HO, Borte M. Pharmacoeconomic evaluation of immunoglobulin treatment in patients with antibody deficiencies from the perspective of the German statutory health insurance. Eur J Health Econ. 2005;6(1):24-9. Erratum in: Eur J Health Econ. 2005;6(3):243. Eur J Health Econ. 2008;9(2):203.

167. Haddad L, Perrinet M, Parent D, Leroy-Cotteau A, Toguyeni E, Condette-Wojtasik G, et al. [Economic evaluation of at home subcutaneous and intravenous immunoglobulin substitution]. Rev Med Interne. 2006;27(12): 924-6. French.

168. Beauté J, Levy P, Millet V, Debré M, Dudoit Y, Le Mignot L, Tajahmady A, Thomas C, Suarez F, Pellier I, Hermine O, Aladjidi N, Mahlaoui N, Fischer A; French PID study group CEREDIH. Economic evaluation of immunoglobulin replacement in patients with primary antibody deficiencies. Clin Exp Immunol. 2010;160(2):240-5.

169. Ducruet T, Levasseur MC, Des Roches A, Kafal A, Dicaire R, Haddad E. Pharmacoeconomic advantages of subcutaneous versus intravenous immunoglobulin treatment in a Canadian pediatric center. J Allergy Clin Immunol. 2013;131(2):585-7. e1-3.

170. Martin A, Lavoie L, Goetghebeur M, Schellenberg R. Economic benefits of subcutaneous rapid push versus intravenous immunoglobulin infusion therapy in adult patients with primary immune deficiency. Transfus Med. 2013;23(1):55-60.
-171171. Gerth WC, Betschel SD, Zbrozek AS. Implications to payers of switch from hospital-based intravenous immunoglobulin to home-based subcutaneous immunoglobulin therapy in patients with primary and secondary immunodeficiencies in Canada. Allergy Asthma Clin Immunol. 2014;10(1):23. inclusive nacional,172172. Carmo EV, Correa M, Mazzucchelli JL, Tavares L, Damasceno E, Costa-Carvalho BT. Socioeconomic impact of immunoglobulin replacement therapy for primary immunodeficiency patients on the health public system in Brazil: a single center study. Value Health. 2015;18(7):A878. que apontam para uma considerável redução de custos associada à aplicação pela via subcutânea, particularmente se realizada no domicílio.

A Ig intravenosa é eficaz, segura, produz elevação rápida das concentrações de IgG e pode ser obtida via Sistema Único de Saúde (SUS) e Sistema de Saúde Suplementar. A Ig subcutânea tem sido obtida apenas pelo Sistema de Saúde Suplementar. As indicações clássicas para o uso da Ig subcutânea são problemas com a infusão por via intravenosa: concentrações inadequadas de IgG, mau controle clínico, wear-off, efeitos adversos sistêmicos, dificuldade para obter acesso venoso ou para comparecer à unidade de saúde.4242. Shabaninejad H, Asgharzadeh A, Rezaei N, Rezapoor A. A Comparative Study of Intravenous Immunoglobulin and Subcutaneous Immunoglobulin in Adult Patients with Primary Immunodeficiency Diseases: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Expert Rev Clin Immunol. 2016;12(5):595-602. Review.,116116. Sriaroon P, Ballow M. Immunoglobulin Replacement Therapy for Primary Immunodeficiency. Immunol Allergy Clin North Am. 2015;35(4):713-30. Review.,173173. Shapiro R. Why I use subcutaneous immunoglobulin (SCIG). J Clin Immunol. 2013;33 Suppl 2:S95-8. Review. Aspectos individuais, que possam melhorar a qualidade de vida do paciente, devem também ser considerados no momento desta escolha, assim como a redução de custos do tratamento.1818. Wasserman RL. Progress in gammaglobulin therapy for immunodeficiency: from subcutaneous to intravenous infusions and back again. J Clin Immunol. 2012;32(6):1153-64. Review.,2727. Chapel H, Gardulf A. Subcutaneous immunoglobulin replacement therapy: the European experience. Curr Opin Allergy Clin Immunol. 2013;13(6):623-9. Review.,4141. Torgerson TR, Bonagura VR, Shapiro RS. Clinical ambiguities--ongoing questions. J Clin Immunol. 2013;33(Suppl 2):S99-103.,5757. Shehata N, Palda V, Bowen T, Haddad E, Issekutz TB, Mazer B, et al. The use of immunoglobulin therapy for patients with primary immune deficiency: an evidence-based practice guideline. Transfus Med Rev. 2010;24 Suppl 1:S28-50. Review.,7171. Soler-Palacín P, Gasó-Gago I, Fernández-Polo A, Martín-Nalda A, Oliveras M, Martinez-Cutillas J, et al. Intravenous and subcutaneous immunoglobulin replacement: a two-way road. Optimizing healthcare quality in patients with primary immunodeficiencies. J Clin Immunol. 2014;34(8):1015-7.,116116. Sriaroon P, Ballow M. Immunoglobulin Replacement Therapy for Primary Immunodeficiency. Immunol Allergy Clin North Am. 2015;35(4):713-30. Review.,173173. Shapiro R. Why I use subcutaneous immunoglobulin (SCIG). J Clin Immunol. 2013;33 Suppl 2:S95-8. Review.

MONITORIZAÇÃO

A monitorização dos pacientes deve ser sempre clínica e laboratorial, com a finalidade de garantir o bom controle da doença, além de observar o aparecimento de complicações e possíveis efeitos colaterais decorrentes do tratamento. É fundamental que sejam anotados a cada infusão a marca do produto, o número do lote e a data de validade.5252. Yong PL, Boyle J, Ballow M, Boyle M, Berger M, Bleesing J, et al. Use of intravenous immunoglobulin and adjunctive therapies in the treatment of primary immunodeficiencies: a working group report of and study by the Primary Immunodeficiency Committee of the American Academy of Allergy Asthma and Immunology. Clin Immunol. 2010;135(2):255-63.,6060. Ballow MC. Immunoglobulin therapy: replacement and immunomodulation. In: Rich RR, editor. Clinical immunology: principles and practice. 4th. United States: Elsevier; 2013. p. 1041-63.

Avaliação clínica periódica deve ser realizada com intervalos de duração variáveis, na dependência da gravidade da IDP, assim como de características pessoais, familiares e sociais. É importante observar número, tipo e gravidade de processos infecciosos, uso de antibióticos, necessidade de internações, frequência às atividades cotidianas (escola ou trabalho), novas queixas e sintomas, presença de comorbidades, além de realizar exame físico completo.55. Abolhassani H, Asgardoon MH, Rezaei N, Hammarstrom L, Aghamohammadi A. Different brands of intravenous immunoglobulin for primary immunodeficiencies: how to choose the best option for the patient? Expert Rev Clin Immunol. 2015; 11(11):1229-43. Review.,2727. Chapel H, Gardulf A. Subcutaneous immunoglobulin replacement therapy: the European experience. Curr Opin Allergy Clin Immunol. 2013;13(6):623-9. Review.,5959. Orange JS, Belohradsky BH, Berger M, Borte M, Hagan J, Jolles S, et al. Evaluation of correlation between dose and clinical outcomes in subcutaneous immunoglobulin replacement therapy. Clin Exp Immunol. 2012;169(2):172-81.

São exames preconizados antes do início das infusões: dosagem das Ig (A, M, G e E), avaliação da resposta vacinal e contagem de linfócitos (T, B e NK), hemograma completo, teste de Coombs direto, provas de função renal e hepática e PCR para agentes infecciosos (como estes pacientes não produzem anticorpos adequadamente, a pesquisa de agentes infecciosos por sorologias não é adequada).4747. Condino-Neto A, Costa-Carvalho BT, Grumach AS, King A, Bezrodnik L, Oleastro M, et al. Guidelines for the use of human immunoglobulin therapy in patients with primary immunodeficiencies in Latin America. Allergol Immunopathol (Madr). 2014;42(3):245-60. Review.,5757. Shehata N, Palda V, Bowen T, Haddad E, Issekutz TB, Mazer B, et al. The use of immunoglobulin therapy for patients with primary immune deficiency: an evidence-based practice guideline. Transfus Med Rev. 2010;24 Suppl 1:S28-50. Review.,116116. Sriaroon P, Ballow M. Immunoglobulin Replacement Therapy for Primary Immunodeficiency. Immunol Allergy Clin North Am. 2015;35(4):713-30. Review.,144144. Stiehm ER. Adverse effects of human immunoglobulin therapy. Transfus Med Rev. 2013;27(3):171-8. Review.,157157. Silvergleid AJ, Ballow M, Schrier SL, Stiehm ER, Tirnauer JS, editors. Overview of intravenous immune globulin (IVIG) therapy [Internet]. UpToDate 2016 [cited 2017 Feb 14]. Available from: https://www.uptodate.com/contents/overview-of-intravenous-immune-globulin-ivig-therapy
https://www.uptodate.com/contents/overvi...

Controle laboratorial deve ser realizado a cada 3 a 6 meses no primeiro ano e depois a cada 6 a 12 meses, na dependência do quadro clínico. É composto de:55. Abolhassani H, Asgardoon MH, Rezaei N, Hammarstrom L, Aghamohammadi A. Different brands of intravenous immunoglobulin for primary immunodeficiencies: how to choose the best option for the patient? Expert Rev Clin Immunol. 2015; 11(11):1229-43. Review.,7272. Berger M. Principles of and advances in immunoglobulin replacement therapy for primary immunodeficiency. Immunol Allergy Clin North Am. 2008; 28(2):413-37, x. Review.,116116. Sriaroon P, Ballow M. Immunoglobulin Replacement Therapy for Primary Immunodeficiency. Immunol Allergy Clin North Am. 2015;35(4):713-30. Review.,119119. Orange JS. Immune globulin therapy in primary immunodeficiency [Internet]. UpToDate 2015 [cited 2016 Feb 10]. Available from: https://www.uptodate.com/contents/immune-globulin-therapy-in-primary-immunodeficiency
https://www.uptodate.com/contents/immune...
dosagem de IgG sérica, e também de IgA e IgM, particularmente em pacientes de baixa faixa etária, de modo a detectar possível recuperação em pacientes com hipogamaglobulinemia não especificada; hemograma completo; velocidade de hemossedimentação; proteína C-reativa; teste de Coombs direto; e provas de função renal e hepática.

APRESENTAÇÕES COMERCIAIS

As apresentações comerciais disponíveis no Brasil estão apresentadas no quadro 8.

O uso de Ig humana por via intravenosa para imunodeficiências de anticorpos foi regulamentado por meio de Protocolo Clínico e Diretrizes Terapêuticas (PCDT) publicado como portaria SAS/MS 495, de 11 de setembro de 2007, http://bvsms.saude.gov.br/bvs/ saudelegis/sas/2007/prt0495_11_09_2007.html. Foi realizada uma consulta pública n.º 22, de 10 de maio de 2010, (http://bvsms.saude.gov.br/bvs/saudelegis/sas/ 2010/cop0022_10_05_2010.html) pelo Secretário de Atenção à Saúde (MS), com proposta de atualização deste PCDT, porém esta ainda não foi publicada. As IDP para as quais há indicação de utilização de Ig, de acordo com esta proposta de atualização do PCDT, estão listadas no quadro 10.

Quadro 10
Imunodeficiências primárias e Classificação Internacional de Doenças (CID-10) com indicação para reposição de imunoglobulina, segundo proposta de 2010 para atualização do Protocolo Clínico e Diretrizes Terapêuticas de imunodeficiências primárias com defeitos de anticorpos

OBTENÇÃO DA IMUNOGLOBULINA HUMANA PARA USO TERAPÊUTICO NO BRASIL

O tratamento com Ig humana pode ser obtido via Sistema de Saúde Suplementar (regulamentado pela Agência Nacional de Saúde Suplementar − ANVISA) ou via SUS.

Para a obtenção via Sistema de Saúde Suplementar, o médico assistente deve elaborar um laudo contendo justificativa para uso, quadro clínico, resultados de exames complementares e diagnóstico, com o código da Classificação Internacional de Doenças (CID-10) e prescrição do produto com esquema posológico proposto, além de indicar o local para realizar as infusões. As aplicações dos produtos para uso intravenoso ou subcutâneo podem ser feitas em centros de terapia infusional, em ambiente hospitalar, em regime de hospital-dia ou domiciliar, nos pacientes que recebem cuidados em esquema de home care.

A solicitação da Ig humana via SUS deve ser feita junto às Secretarias de Saúde Estaduais. O paciente ou seus cuidadores devem ser encaminhados ao endereço informado no site de cada uma destas secretarias, com documentos originais e cópias do Cartão Nacional de Saúde, documento de identidade, CPF e comprovante de residência; Laudo de Solicitação, Avaliação e Autorização de Medicamento do Componente Especializado da Assistência Farmacêutica (LME); laudo médico contendo justificativa para o uso, quadro clínico e diagnóstico; resultados de exames complementares e prescrição médica em duas vias; Termo de Consentimento Livre e Esclarecido. Todas as informações encontram-se disponibilizadas nos sites das secretarias de saúde dos diferentes Estados brasileiros.

O uso de Ig por via subcutânea ou intravenosa em regime domiciliar ainda não está regulamentado em nosso meio, apesar de ser prática comum em outros países,2727. Chapel H, Gardulf A. Subcutaneous immunoglobulin replacement therapy: the European experience. Curr Opin Allergy Clin Immunol. 2013;13(6):623-9. Review.,2929. Chapel HM, Spickett GP, Ericson D, Engl W, Eibl MM, Bjorkander J. The comparison of the efficacy and safety of intravenous versus subcutaneous immunoglobulin replacement therapy. J Clin Immunol. 2000;20(2):94-100.,3737. Bezrodnik L, Gómez Raccio A, Belardinelli G, Regairaz L, Diaz Ballve D, Seminario G, et al. Comparative study of subcutaneous versus intravenous IgG replacement therapy in pediatric patients with primary immunodeficiency diseases: a multicenter study in Argentina. J Clin Immunol. 2013;33(7):1216-22.

38. Bonagura VR. Illustrative cases on individualizing immunoglobulin therapy in primary immunodeficiency disease. Ann Allergy Asthma Immunol. 2013; 111(6 Suppl):S10-3. Review.
-3939. Gouilleux-Gruart V, Chapel H, Chevret S, Lucas M, Malphettes M, Fieschi C, Patel S, Boutboul D, Marson MN, Gérard L, Lee M, Watier H, Oksenhendler E; DEFI study group. Efficiency of immunoglobulin G replacement therapy in common variable immunodeficiency: correlations with clinical phenotype and polymorphism of the neonatal Fc receptor. Clin Exp Immunol. 2013;171(2): 186-94.,4141. Torgerson TR, Bonagura VR, Shapiro RS. Clinical ambiguities--ongoing questions. J Clin Immunol. 2013;33(Suppl 2):S99-103.,161161. Abolhassani H, Sadaghiani MS, Aghamohammadi A, Ochs HD, Rezaei N. Home-based subcutaneous immunoglobulin versus hospital-based intravenous immunoglobulin in treatment of primary antibody deficiencies: systematic review and meta analysis. J Clin Immunol. 2012;32(6):1180-92. Review. e comprovadamente eficaz e segura.2525. Chapel H, Brennan V, Delson E. Immunoglobulin replacement therapy by self-infusion at home. Clin Exp Immunol. 1988;73(1):160-2.,9999. Ochs HD, Gupta S, Kiessling P, Nicolay U, Berger M; Subcutaneous IgG Study Group. Safety and efficacy of self-administered subcutaneous immunoglobulin in patients with primary immunodeficiency diseases. J Clin Immunol. 2006; 26(3):265-73.,107107. Fasth A, Nyström J. Safety and efficacy of subcutaneous human immunoglobulin in children with primary immunodeficiency. Acta Paediatr. 2007;96(10):1474-8.,145145. Brennan VM, Salomé-Bentley NJ, Chapel HM; Immunology Nurses Study. Prospective audit of adverse reactions occurring in 459 primary antibody-deficient patients receiving intravenous immunoglobulin. Clin Exp Immunol. 2003;133(2):247-51.,162162. Bhole MV, Burton J, Chapel HM. Self-infusion programmes for immunoglobulin replacement at home: feasibility, safety and efficacy. Immunol Allergy Clin North Am. 2008;28(4):821-32, ix. Review.,174174. Ochs HD, Lee ML, Fischer SH, Delson ES, Chang BS, Wedgwood RJ. Self-infusion of intravenous immunoglobulin by immunodeficient patients at home. J Infect Dis. 1987;156(4):652-4. Recentemente, um levantamento realizado pelo International Patient Organisation for Primary Immunodeficiencies (IPOPI) em 20 países mostrou que, dentre 300 pacientes, 53% recebiam Ig intravenosa e 45%, Ig subcutânea, e que 14% dos pacientes em Ig intravenosa e 94% dos pacientes em Ig subcutânea faziam as infusões em suas residências.138138. International Patient Organisation for Primary Immunodeficiencies (IPOPI). Primary immunodeficiencies. Patient Needs & Outlooks Survey: a Report based on 300 patient questionnaires [Internet]. 2012 [cited 2016 June 6]. Available from: http://www.ipopi.org/uploads/IPOPI%20PID%20Patient%20Survey%20-% 20Shortened%20Report%20-%20030812_Final%20IPOPI%20format.pdf
http://www.ipopi.org/uploads/IPOPI%20PID...

CONCLUSÃO

Desde o I Consenso Brasileiro para o Uso de Imunoglobulina Humana em Pacientes com Imunodeficiências Primárias publicado em 2010, diversas novas imunodeficiências primárias foram descritas. Desde então, novos produtos de imunoglobulina humana estão disponíveis em nosso meio, e apresentam composição e vias de administração diferentes. Uma atualização das recomendações para uso de imunoglobulina em nosso meio tornou-se necessária.

Foram apresentados novos conhecimentos dos produtos disponíveis, suas indicações, sua forma de utilização e informações sobre seu monitoramento.

A indicação de cada produto depende de características clínicas e laboratoriais dos pacientes, sendo imprescindíveis a individualização do tratamento e a monitorização do paciente, independentemente de marca ou via de administração do produto.

AGRADECIMENTOS

Pela revisão final do texto, agradecemos a Fernanda Pinto Mariz e Flávia Amêndola Anísio de Carvalho especialistas em Alergia e Imunologia pela Associação Brasileira de Alergia e Imunologia.

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  • Errata

    No artigo “II Consenso Brasileiro sobre o uso de imunoglobulina humana em pacientes com imunodeficiências primárias”, número DOI: 10.1590/S1679-45082017AE3844, publicado no periódico einstein (São Paulo). 2017; 15(1):1-16.
    Página 6, onde se lia: Com isto, é possível realizar a aplicação de Ig subcutânea a cada 21 a 28 dias, como é feito com a via intramuscular, com segurança e bons resultados clínicos.(19) Leia-se: Com isto, é possível realizar a aplicação de Ig subcutânea a cada 21 a 28 dias, como é feito com a via intravenosa, com segurança e bons resultados clínicos.(19)
    No mesmo artigo, página 8, onde se lia: No quadro 8, coluna Osmolaridade, 32±4,5mOsmoI/kg. Leia-se: No quadro 8, coluna Osmolaridade, 327±4,5mOsmI/kg.

Datas de Publicação

  • Publicação nesta coleção
    2017

Histórico

  • Recebido
    19 Ago 2016
  • Aceito
    4 Jan 2017
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